DESIGN EXERCISE NO 2

Annual precipitation at rain gauge “X” and the average annual precipitation at 25
surrounding rain gauges are listed in the following table:
1. Examine the consistency of the station “X” data.
2. When the change in the regime occurred?
3. Adjust the data and determine what difference this makes to the 36 years
annual precipitation at station “X”.

Annual Precipitation (cm)

Year
Station X Average of 25 Surrounding Stations
1976 74 104
1975 73 90
1974 122 152
1973 116 117
1972 82 112
1971 113 138
1970 72 93
1969 120 146
1968 90 92
1967 85 114
1966 88 111
1965 80 97
1964 112 104
1963 116 131
1962 81 91
1961 106 92
1960 95 142
1959 112 123
1958 88 142
1957 68 92
1956 111 131
1955 86 93
1954 97 99
1953 112 112
1952 190 142
1951 126 111
1950 108 107
1949 127 108
1948 172 119
1947 153 138
1946 120 90
1945 126 123
1944 129 111
1943 121 124
1942 119 111
 1941 163 135

2.1 Related Theory

2.1.1 Precipitation

Precipitation is defined as all types of moisture reaching to the surface of earth from the
atmosphere. The precipitation on the land surface is about one third of the total global
precipitation. The precipitation on land surface is due to 10% evaporation from land and
90% evaporation from oceans.

Precipitation is the basic input for a hydrological system.

2.1.2 Forms of Precipitation

Precipitation may be in the form of one or more than one of the following forms:

2.1.2.1 Drizzle / Mist

It is precipitation in the form of tiny liquid droplets having diameter from 0.1mm to
0.5mm.

2.1.2.2 Rain
It is precipitation in the form of liquid droplets of diameter ranging from 0.5mm to 6mm.
Its intensity is greater than 1mm/hr. According to U.S meteorological department,
rainfall is classified as:

light rain ____________ Intensity ≤ 2.5 mm/hr

moderate rain __________ 2.5 mm/hr < Intensity ≤ 7.6 mm/hr
heavy rain ____________Intensity > 7.6 mm/hr

2.1.2.3 Snow
It is the precipitation in the form of ice crystals.

2.1.2.4 Sleet
It is the precipitation in the form of mixture of liquid drops and ice crystals.

2.1.2.5 Glaze
It is the ice coating generally clear and smooth on exposed surfaces by the freezing of
super cooled water deposited by the rain.
2.1.2.6 Hails
It is the precipitation in the form of ice balls or lumps. Diameter of hail ranges from 5mm
to 125mm.

2.1.2.7 Fogs
It is the precipitation in the form of weak cloud clone reaching to the surface of earth.
Due to very small size droplets, it remains suspended in air for some time. Fog provides
a lot of visibility problems.

2.1.2.8 Frost
It is the precipitation in the form of frozen dew drops on the land surface.

2.1.2.9 Trace
It is very small amount of precipitation at rain gauging station. Usually less than or equal
to 0.125mm.

2.1.3 Mechanism To Form Precipitation

Following mechanisms are necessarily required for precipitation to occur over an area:

i. Lifting mechanism
Water vapors are present in air even in cloudless days. There are 3
mechanisms available in nature for lifting the moisture-laden air to higher
levels where condensation is possible due to very low air temperatures.
(a) Convective systems
(b) Orographic barriers
(c) Cyclones

ii. Formation of cloud droplets / Ice crystals

Condensation of water vapors into cloud droplets takes place on
hydrographic nuclei or condensation nuclei. These are tiny particles
having affinity for water. The source of these condensation nuclei are the
particles of sea salt and products of sulphurus and nitrous acids.
Condensation will occur if air in atmosphere is cooled to saturation.
Condensation nuclei range in size from 0.1µm to 10µm.
For the formation of ice crystals freezing nuclei are required which usually
consist of clay materials.

iii. Growth of cloud droplets / Ice crystals

Cloud elements are generally smaller than 50µm in diameter. The droplet
size must be large enough for the occurrence of precipitation to overcome
the buoyant force and drag force produced due to vertical relative motion
 between cloud droplet and air. Moreover, cloud elements must also be
large enough to penetrate the unsaturated air below the cloud base
without evaporating completely.

iv. Sufficient accumulation of moisture over an area:

For the occurrence of heavy precipitation over an area requires heavy
water vapors presence in the atmosphere. It needs a large met horizontal
inflow of water vapors into the atmosphere above the basin area. This
process is called convergence.

2.1.4 Rain Gauge

Rain gauge is an instrument used to measure the amount of rainfall or the intensity of
rainfall at any place.

2.1.5 Amount of Precipitation

It is the total amount of rainfall over an area usually in one day. It is measured in the
units of mm or inches.

2.1.6 Intensity of Precipitation

It is the amount of precipitation at a place per unit time. It is usually expressed in mm/hr
or inches/hr.

2.1.7 Mean / Average Rainfall For “N” Years

It is the arithmetic average of annual precipitations for “N” years over a rain gauging
station.

Mathematically,

Pavg = Σ (Pi) / N

Where

Pavg = Average precipitation

Pi = Annual precipitation for the ith year

N = Total number of years

Σ (Pi) = Summation of annual precipitation for N years

2.1.8 Annual Rainfall

It is the total amount of rainfall in one year at a place. It can be calculated by taking the
summation of the daily precipitation at any place for the whole year.

2.1.9 Average Rainfall Over An Area

It is the total amount of precipitation which can be assumed as uniform for the area. It is
calculated by using different approaches. By Arithmetic mean method, it is calculated
as:

Pavg = Σ (Pi) / N

Where

Pavg : Areal average precipitation

Pi : Average annual precipitation for the ith station

N : Total number of stations

Σ (Pi) : Summation of annual precipitation for N stations

2.1.10 Consistency of Precipitation Data Record

It is the behavior of data record of a station as compared to the average behavior of all
the surrounding stations.

2.1.11 Double Mass Analysis / Curve

At any station “X”, consistency of the data record is checked by plotting the Double
mass curve. The variable on the y-axis is cumulative annual precipitation of station “X”
and on x-axis is the average of cumulative annual precipitation of the “N” neighboring
stations. Consistency is checked by the slope of the curve being single or more slopes.

If the slope of the curve remains constant, the precipitation data record is consistent and
if the slope doesn’t remains constant, data record is inconsistent.

2.1.12 Reasons of Inconsistency in Precipitation Data Record

Precipitation data record may be inconsistent due to the following reasons:

i. Change in location of a rain gauge

ii. Change of instrument
iii. Change in the observational procedure
 iv. Change in the vicinity of station, e.g. construction, landslide, forest fire, flood,
earthquake, etc.
v. Faulty rain gauge for a certain period.

2.2 Procedure

i. Calculate cumulative annual precipitation for station “X”.

ii. Calculate cumulative average annual precipitation of “N” surrounding stations.
iii. Plot scatter diagram between cumulative annual precipitation of station “X”
and cumulative annual average precipitation of “N” surrounding stations.
iv. Draw two best fit straight lines (i.e. trend lines) and note down the intersection
points.
v. Determine the slopes of the curves.
vi. Compute ratio of the slopes.
vii. Adjust annual precipitation of the station “X” after the change has occurred.

Computations for Double Mass Analysis

Annual Precipitation (cm) Cumulative Annual Precipitation (cm) Adjusted

Annual PPT at
Year Average of 25 Station X (cm)
Station Average of 25 Surrounding
Station X Surrounding =(S1/S2) X Col
X Stations
Stations 1
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5
1976 74 104
1975 73 90
1974 122 152
1973 116 117
1972 82 112
1971 113 138
1970 72 93
1969 120 146
1968 90 92
1967 85 114
1966 88 111
1965 80 97
1964 112 104
1963 116 131
1962 81 91
1961 106 92
1960 95 142
1959 112 123
1958 88 142
1957 68 92
1956 111 131
1955 86 93
1954 97 99
1953 112 112
1952 190 142
1951 126 111
1950 108 107
1949 127 108
1948 172 119
1947 153 138
1946 120 90
1945 126 123
1944 129 111
1943 121 124
1942 119 111
1941 163 135