Literature Review

Gender and school achievement in the Caribbean” (1997) Dr. Vena Jules
Educator Dr. Vena Jules, in collaboration with Dr. Peter Kutnick, discussed the factors pertaining
to gender inequality in the education sector with respects to male underachievement in her research
paper “Gender and school achievement in the Caribbean” (1997). Dr. Jules entertained the idea
that educational attainment was more likely explained by:
- Patterns of socialization displayed by males and females during childhood and adolescence
- Social processes within which the child is engaged.
- School differences, including teacher-pupil interaction, school organization, co-educational vs
single sex education, prestige schools vs government schools and extra-curricular activities
available at school.
- Socio-economic attributes of the child’s family.
It also determines whether there is a difference in learning strategies between male and females
using data collected based on:
- Teacher Behaviours: It was found that teachers were more likely to give positive and
supportive feedback to girls as opposed to boys. Differential
punishments between the boys and the girls were also contributing
factors. There was also distinction between the positive
reinforcement displayed to both sexes, with the girls receiving small-
scale reinforcement while the boys received more exaggerated
reinforcement (example, clapping).
- Student behavior: Misbehaviour within the classroom included non-completion of work
and breaking school rules was found among boys and girls displayed
more frequently by the boys. Intersex interactions were also limited
unless directed by the teacher, though girls were often the ones to
initiate voluntary interactions. It was also identified that girls adopted
a more responsible approach to the classroom.
- Classroom management: Most classrooms were run in a traditional fashion, with the teacher at
the front of the room. The seating arrangement was usually
determined by the students, resulting in a separation of both sexes.
The predominant style of teaching was didactic, question and answer
sessions and hence, one-way communication from the teacher to the
students was not effective in promoting understanding and
participation.
The key conclusions gathered from the study were that:
- Both boys and girls are found in the low attaining levels and need to be supported to
improve their achievement in education.
- Lowest attaining students (mainly boys) displayed poor social skills
- Lowest attaining students also displayed poor basic reading skills.
 - The boys are most likely to be criticised and punished.
- Boys have few examples of high attainment role models. The few high attaining boys in
these observations tended to act and misbehave like their lower attaining classmates
- The formal interaction between teacher and student places a great burden on the student to
'get it right'. At the same time, students can "hide" from participation.
- Without careful planning and directions for continued student work, teacher-less time may
lead to regressive and stereotypical behaviours among students
When quantifying the results of her observations, it was found that on average, girls scored 4%
more than boys, displaying significant superiority at the various curriculum subjects. It was also
determined that more girls were found in 'traditional' male subjects of mathematics, chemistry and
physics.
Girls scored higher than boys in the co-educational school types but the difference was not
significant in the schools with Sixth Forms, and between same-sex schools, girls scored an average
3.13% more than boys.
As would be expected, there were significant scores found between children whose parents worked
in different occupation. It was also learned that the mother was the person who helped with
homework most often and parental help with homework was more likely to be found among
parents from the higher levels of occupation.

“The Marginalization of the Black Male: Insights from the development of the teaching
profession” (1986) Errol Miller
In “The Marginalization of the Black Male” (1986), Errol Miller attributed the underachievement
of males to the feminization of the teaching profession. He concluded that this was done
intentionally in order to control African men into staying in the agriculture and industrial sectors
of the work force post-emancipation. He stated that this was done “to shift the possible emergence
of militant, educated black men who could possibly overthrow the power structure.”
Since, during colonial days, the teaching profession was a means of upward social mobility,
restricting black men from an educated position prevented them from moving up the social ladder.
He described it as “using the black women against the black men”
“Under-achieving Caribbean Boys: Marginalization or Gender Privileging” (2007) Mark
Figueroa
In his study, Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences at the UWI Mona Campus, Professor Mark
Figueroa, stated that in the 1970’s, the ratio of male to female students at the UWI Mona Campus
was 70:30, with the humanities an educational studies departments consisting of 80% women
while the law, medicine and applied sciences had 40%, agriculture had 20% and engineering had
4%. However, by the 1980’s women consisted more than 50% of the student body.
Figueroa concluded that the factors influencing the increase in female achievement, as well as the
decline in male achievement, originate from:
- The differences in the socialization of both genders:
The differential socialization of males and females in the home and school are attributed
by the ideas that certain tasks and activities are considered either ‘masculine’ or
‘feminine’. These contribute to the social behaviours of the males and females, as well
as set standard for what is behaviorally expected of them by society.
- The educational system as experienced by both boys and girls:
Boys are less prepared for school because of the high levels of freedom and the lower
levels of responsibility and self-control they are used to at home. However, they usually
receive fewer responsibilities allowing them to place greater emphasis on their studies.
At school, males receive harsher punishments due to the notion that males are stronger,
in need of less protection and are required to fend for themselves.
Since girls are usually raised with high levels of responsibility, specifically around the
household, they are better equipped for the formalities and discipline of the educational
institution. However, the expectations of the behaviours of girls are held to a higher
standard than those of boys. Girls also receive less harsh punishments due to the notion
that girls are weak and need to be protected.
- The nature of the working world with its differential demands on men and women
regarding educational qualifications:
Employment careers remain segmented into genders. The male oriented jobs are
usually more flexible and highly paid. The quality of being a leader has also firmly
been privileged as being appropriate to the male gender.
Seeking a better life for themselves, women are more likely to ‘cross-over’ into
traditionally masculine fields in order to increase their earning capacity and achieve
financial independence. Men are less likely to cross over into traditionally female fields
due to the fear of jeopardizing their masculinity.
Figueroa suggested that the solution to the issue is to provide a more balanced gender socialization
of boys and girls to ensure that both are equipped for the education system. He also suggested that
the school system adjusts to meet the beneficial needs of individual students, rather can
categorizing the needs into male and female.