Optimal Drill and Blast Techniques for Underground Mining

SECTION

ROCK FRACTURE MECHANISMS

4
4.1 MINERALS AND ROCKS

The crust of the Earth consists of different types of rock which are composed of one, or
frequently more than one, mineral element or chemical compound. Common rock-
forming minerals are quartz, calcite, feldspar, hornblends, mica and chlorite. Minerals
have different hardnesses and are usually classified according to a hardness scale ranging
from 1 to 10 (Mohs’ scale);

1. talcum easily crumbled with the fingers

2. gypsum easily scratched with the fingernail
3. calcite mica difficult to scratch with the fingernail
4. fluorspar easily scratched with a knife
5. apatite hornblende scratchable with a knife
6. feldspar very difficult to scratch with a knife
7. quartz scratches glass, can be scratched by a file (special steel)
8. topaz scratches glass, can be scratched by emery
9. corundum scratches glass, can be scratched by diamond
10. diamond scratches glass.

The different types of rocks are classified in three groups according to the manner in
which they are formed:

Magmatic rocks - have oozed out in molten form (magma) from the interior of the Earth
and crystallised. If the magma has solidified slowly under high pressure at a great depth
a rock with relatively large crystals will have been formed, e.g., granite. When the
magma has penetrated higher up in crevices or to the surface of the Earth in the form of
lava, it will have cooled more quickly and formed fine-grained rocks such as porphyry,
basalt and diabase.

Sedimentary rocks - have been formed by weathered material from the solid crust of the
Earth, which has disintegrated and sedimented at river mouths and on the beds of
prehistoric seas. Examples of sedimentary rocks are sandstone, shale and limestone.

Metamorphic rocks - are formed from eruptive or sedimentary rocks (19:1). The
influence of pressure or heat, or exchange of elements with the surroundings, has
transformed their structure and composition.

Metamorphic rocks Origin

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leptite volcanic lava

gneiss granite
amphibolite diabase, basalt
quartzite quartz sandstone
marble, crystalline limestone sedimentary limestone

4.2 DRILLING INDUCED FRACTURE MECHANISMS

In percussive, crushing and cutting drilling, the rock is broken up by being subjected to
high pressure from a button or an insert of cemented carbide.

IMPACT

Figure 4.1 Rock being subjected to high pressure

A stress is built up in the rock around the point of contact, and this stress increases with
increasing load. The material nearest the button is crushed continuously into a find
powder (drilling dust) and a crushed zone is formed in the vicinity of the button. If the
button is sufficiently pointed, the stress in the rock will gradually become so great as to
cause the rock to be broken and a large chip released. The load on the button will then
be decreased, the reason being that the contact between button and rock diminishes or
disappears altogether. A uniform and high feed rate will, however, cause the button to
continue penetrating and consequently, it will quickly make renewed contact with the
rock and the process will be repeated. As the penetration depth increases, so does the
size of the liberated chips and an increasingly greater force will be required to achieve
breaking. The figure shows the crushing process during one shock-wave.

If the button is blunt, more force will be necessary to achieve penetration and breaking.
Eventually, the breaking phase stops altogether and penetration ceases, despite the
button being subjected to a very high load.

The bit buttons or inserts must therefore always be reground, before the penetration rate
has decreased excessively.

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Optimal Drill and Blast Techniques for Underground Mining

Figure 4.2 Crushing process during one shock-wave

4.3 EXPLOSIVE INDUCED FRACTURE MECHANISMS

4.3.1 Damage Mechanisms in Underground Blasting

Upon detonation, an explosive undergoes an almost instantaneous change of state from a

solid to gaseous products. The pressure and temperature of these gaseous reaction
products will be around 1-6 Gpa and 1000 – 3000 K respectively, depending upon the
explosive density, velocity of detonation and efficiency of the reaction. The sudden
impact of high pressure explosion gases on the borehole wall transmits a shock wave into
the surrounding rock. This shock wave crushes the surrounding rock if its intensity is more
than the dynamic compressive strength of the rock. Beyond the crushed zone, it develops
radial tensile fractures. Interaction of this stress wave with a free face or an open joint
generates tensile and shear waves further extending the radial fractures. The explosion gases
in the borehole penetrate into these radial fractures and other pre-existing fractures and
extends them further.

The relative importance of each mechanism in breaking rock has been debated. Many,
and contradictory, hypotheses have been proposed to explain the breakage process,
however due to the large range of rock mass conditions encountered in mining
environments, no single hypothesis can satisfactorily explain the rock/explosive
interaction in all cases. The relative importance and intensity of each mechanism depends
on the rock mass characteristics and blasting conditions.

Importantly, fracturing to the rock mass within the orebody, and within the intended blast
zone, is termed fragmentation. Fracturing produced to rock beyond the blast area is
considered damage. Damage can be described as unwanted fragmentation.

A review of the different hypotheses provides an understanding of how best to optimize

blast design. A summary of the most commonly accepted modes of rock breakage during
blasting include:
i. Failure in compression;
ii. Radial fracturing
iii. Reflection of the strain wave at a free face;
iv. Combined theory;
v. Nuclei theory;
vi. Impact breakage.

Failure in compression

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Optimal Drill and Blast Techniques for Underground Mining

Perhaps the simplest theory to explain rock fragmentation, model rock blasting studies
(Duvall and Atchison, 1957) has shown that a zone of intensely crushed and shattered
rock is formed immediately around the column of explosive. The extent of this crushed
zone is of the order of one borehole radius around the blasthole. It is usually assumed
that in the crushed zone, the intensity of the radiating strain wave exceeds the dynamic
compressive strength of the rock and therefore failure occurs. The extent of this crushed
zone is dependant on the explosion pressure, degree of decoupling and the rock’s
dynamic compressive strength. Fully coupled, bulk loaded emulsion explosives will result
in greater crushed zones, than decoupled charges and low density – low VOD explosives
(cf. perimeter control practices). Similarly softer rocks with low compressive strength
will exhibit a higher crushing zone compared to harder and competent rocks.

This hypotheses, although well accepted, only partially explains the breakage process and
does not account for rock fracturing at any significant distance from the blasthole.

Radial fracturing

Beyond the crushing zone the stress wave travels through the rock mass creating
tangential tensile stresses due to Poisson’s effect. Consider an element of rock mass
beyond the crushed zone. During the passage of the stress wave, the two points AB are
radially displaced to A1B1 respectively. The movement of arc AB can be resolved into
two components. One is a radial transformation and the second is the stretching along
AB. This stretching along AB develops tangential tensile strains called hoop strains.

Favreau (1969) showed that the tangential strains are less than the radial strains and the
difference between the two increases with increasing distance from the blasthole. The
experimental blasting results of Dick et al (1993) showed that the tangential strains are
approximately half the radial strains.

If the intensity of these tangential strains is greater than the dynamic tensile strength of
the rock they develop radial fractures. The fractures will extend and cause damage to
the surrounding rock up to this distance even without the influence of gas penetration.
Such situations are normally encountered in blasts with very little confinement.

t
A1
A

r

B
t B1
Figure Development of tangential strains due to radial compression

Reflection theory

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This theory is based upon the concept that the compressive shock wave generated by the
detonation is reflected as a tensile pulse when encountered by a free face or open
discontinuity. If the intensity of this tensile pulse is greater than the dynamic tensile
strength of the rock mass, it creates tensily fractures known as spalling (figure 4.3).
Since rocks are usually weaker in tension than compression, it is easier to fail the rock
mass in tension than compression. This reflected tensile wave also interacts with the
natural discontinuities and radial fractures and extends them further.

Crushed Zone
Free Face

Spall Failure

Reflected Tensile Wave

Figure 4.3 Compressive pulse is reflected as a tensile pulse.

No account of the effect of the gases is considered, aside from the comment that the
explosion gases are responsible for generating the initial compressive pulse. The figure
on top shows the tensile waves and spalling concepts associated with this hypothesis.

Gas expansion theory

Even after the passage of shock wave, the pressure of explosion gases within the blast
will be quite high and they permeate into the fractures already created by the shock wave
and extend them further.

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Combined theory

A combined theory was proposed which involves the actions of both the emitted shock
wave, gas pressurisation and the presence of discontinuities or points of weakness in the
rock mass. Figure 4.4 shows the several distinct phases of the fragmentation process:
shattering and pulverisation, compressive wave generation and radial cracking. The
emitted stress wave pre-conditions the rock mass by introducing numerous small
fractures, ultimately accounting for around 10 to 15% of the total available explosive
energy. It is suggested that the role of this energy is to provide basic pre-conditioning
only, and not to complete the process of fragmentation. After the first radial cracks are
said to develop in 1 to 2ms, the subsequent phases are responsible for fragmenting the
rock mass. The explosion gases enlarge the primary radial cracks together with the
sudden release of contained energy in the rock mass. As the compressive stresses in the
rock mass are quickly reduced by the movement of the rock mass (release-of-load),
additional small tensile fractures are introduced. These fractures serve as zones of
weakness to initiate the major fragmentation reactions.
Shattering Around the Blasthole Free Face
Free Face Expanding Borehole
Pulverised Zone

Radial Cracking
Tangential Stresses Create
Radial Cracks

Compressive Wave Radial Cracks Propogate Away Fromthe Blasthole

Tensile Wave
Free Face Compressive Wave
Expanding Borehole

High Pressure
Explosion Gases

Figure 4.4 Combined theory showing gas expansion, stress wave and reflection components.

Nuclei theory

Studies undertaken to promote this theory suggested that the stress wave generated by
the detonation process is capable of inducing substantial amounts of crack initiation at
regions distant from the blasthole. The region where fractures occurred consisted of
flaws in the rock mass in the form of fractures, joints, bedding planes or other
discontinuities which acted as nuclei for crack formation, development or extension. For
an unfractured material, around 10 dominant cracks emerge from a dense radial network
of fracturing around the blasthole. Importantly, gas pressurisation does not contribute to
the blasting process. The basis of the theory is that the shock wave fragments the rock
mass and the gas pressure acts to displace the fractured material, noting that the shock
wave can induce or re-initiate fractures not only at or near the blasthole wall, but also at
distances remote from the explosive column. The fragmentation process is shown in the

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figure 4.5 below. In a fractured medium, the constructive interference from the combined
action of the reflected p and incident s waves initiated new cracks at existing flaws,
bedding planes, micro-cracks, joint planes, etc.

P & S Waves
P & S Waves Free Face
Free Face

Flaw

Flaw
Free Face

Flaw

Figure 4.5 The fragmentation process according to the nuclei theory.

Important concepts of the proposed theory include:

i. New cracks are noted as forming independently of the location of the free face;

ii. Fracturing at the face occurs well in advance of the expected arrival of radial
cracks from the blasthole;

iii. Gas venting occurs relatively late from open cracks (ie. fractures not gas driven);

iv. Massive rock fractures more quickly, but fewer fractures will form because of
fewer nucleation sites.

This theory assists in explaining why many of the fractures observed during studies
where damage from blasting is observed using borehole cameras detect that damage is
commonly located close to, and usually joining, existing cracks, but not necessarily close
to a free face.

Impact breakage

The velocity and direction of fragments ejected from a mining face undergo significant
variations, which can lead to particles colliding in flight. If the impact of these collisions
is sufficiently great, further communition of the rock fragments will occur. The level of
in-flight collisions which will occur during burden relief is mainly a function of the
initiation sequence. For example, a fanned ring fired from the centre could be expected

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to produce finer fragmentation than row by row firing. Although this is commonly
observed, it is questionable how much breakage occurs as a result of this proposed
method of breakage.

Unlike the previous hypotheses, this method is only applicable to fragment size and
cannot explain damage resulting from the detonation process.

In each of the fragmentation/damage models presented, the roles of the two dominant
shock and gas mechanisms vary. In the gas expansion theory, fracturing is seen to be
controlled by the explosion gases whilst in other models of damage, the gas component
merely displaces the already fractured ground with shock generated components controlling
the extent of fragmentation.

Rock breakage during blasting is most likely a combination of both methods where the rock
is preconditioned by the emitted strain wave, and these newly developed fractures, together
with existing discontinuities in the rock, acted upon by the gas component. Where the
confining stress remain high, the ability of the gas to penetrate into the rock is reduced, and
damage is only inflicted by the shock wave.

Gas pressure mechanisms of blast induced damage are therefore dismissed and damage
control established on the basis of minimizing the shock induced component, or level of
induced strain.

Stages of Rock Breakage During Blasting

Rock breakage during blasting takes place in three stages.

Stage 1.
As the compression wave propagates outward from the explosive column the pressure
exceeds the rocks compressive strength. A zone of intensely crushed rock is formed
immediately around the borehole.

The shock wave causes a zone of dense radial fractures within two borehole diameters.
Cracks do not usually extend passed this area as the shock wave speed is 2.5-5 times the
crack propagation speed of the rock, so the shock wave quickly outruns the crack
propagation.

The use of decoupled charges and low density – low VOD explosives, can eliminate the
crushed zone and limit the extent of the shock wave induced fracturing.

Stage 2.
The second stage of rock breakage results from the gas pressure from the reacted
explosives. The high pressure explosion gases within the borehole penetrate into the
fracture network created by the shock wave and existing cracks and joints extending
them. This stage is instrumental in defining overall fragmentation.

The high gas pressure explosion gases in the rock mass, push and lever rock outwards
inducing tensile forces which also help with fragmentation. This stage is responsible for
the rock movement or heave. The time scale over which this stage works is considerable
longer than the stages 1 & 2 by a factor of at least 25.

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This stage uses up to 85% of the total useful energy released from the detonation. The
component is essential to obtain good fragmentation and looseness. It should be noted
however that Stage 1 is important to precondition the rock which assists the later stages
to function efficiently, especially in massive and hard rock masses.

If the rock has no room to displace, due to tight firing or a blast is buffered the gas will
vent through the path of least resistance which will usually be along the borehole and
through the stemming. This venting of gas will leave the rock mass with only radial
cracking. Most of the explosives energy will be wasted. Some breakage takes place due
to mid-flight collisions during the burden movement, however this breakage is
considered to be negligible compared to other stages.

Rock that has had this premature venting, will appear fragmented due to the cracking,
but will inevitably be extremely hard to dig as the rock has not been displaced.

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4.4 VIBRATION AND STRESS DAMAGE

High vibration levels can damage solid rock masses by initiating fresh fractures or
extending and dilating existing fractures. Vibration in this context can be
considered as strain or stress in the rock mass. At low levels of vibration, such
as at relatively large distances from the blast, the levels of induced strain are too
low to induce fracturing of the rock mass. At closer distances, levels of stress
are sufficient to extend existing fractures, but insufficient to induce fresh
fracturing. Very close to the blastholes, vibration levels will be sufficiently high
to induce fracturing in surrounding rock.

Particle velocity is frequently related to the ability to induce fresh fracturing, through the
relationship between particle velocity and particle strain, and is largely confined
to the rock mass in the immediate vicinity of the blastholes where the impact of
blasting is most acute. Because of its relation to induced strain, particle velocity
analysis has the ability to address methods of controlling the degree and extent
of blast induced fracturing at the time of blasting, suggesting a method of
prevention rather than remedial control.

  PPV
VP

The equation presents the relationship between peak vibration levels, PPV, and induced
strain, , for a rock mass of compressional wave velocity V P. The equation
makes assumptions regarding the linear elasticity of the rock through which the
vibrations are propagating, but is proposed as a reasonable estimate of the
relationship between rock fracture and induced vibration.

From Hooke's Law, and assuming a brittle failure mode of rock, the maximum particle
velocity, PPVCritical, which can be withstood by the rock before tensile failure
occurs can be computed from knowledge of the tensile strength,T, the Young's
modulus, E, and the p-wave velocity of propagation, VP, using the equation:

 TVP
PPVCritical 
E

The relation between compressional velocity, VP, and the elastic constants, E (Young's
modulus),  (rock density), and  (Poisson's Ratio) can be written as:

E(1   )
VP 
 (1  2 )(1   )

Substitution of the PPV equation into the V P equation produces the equation below,
assuming a Poisson's Ratio for the rock of 0.25. The simplified version requires
knowledge only of p-wave velocity, VP, tensile strength, T (estimated from
compressive strength as UCS/12), and rock density, rock. These values are
usually known for most rock types and locations.

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 T 
PPVCritical  1.2 
 VProck 

Based on the equation above, once the peak vibration level exceeds the value PPVCritical,
the rock can be expected to fracture, and new fracture patterns can be expected
to superimpose over existing fracture patterns. If the value of vibration greatly
exceeds PPVCritical, the degree of induced fracturing can be expected to be more
intensive than if the value is only marginally exceeded. It has been suggested by
Harries that the number of fractures induced by blasting stress was equal to the
ratio of strain in the rock to the tensile breaking strain of the rock. Clearly, at
very close proximity to an explosive charge, induced vibration levels, stress
levels, and degree of induced fracturing are all very high, and all tend to
decrease at increasing distance away from the charge.

Less conservative estimates of Poisson's Ratio will result in a PPV Critical higher than that
given in the above equation, by a factor of up to 2. Higher values for PPVCritical
mean that less effort is required to control and minimise vibration levels from blasting.
For rocks with Poisson's Ratio around 0.1, PPV Critical values would be around
20% lower.

4.4.1 Types of Damage

Three distinct forms of damage can be defined:

i. Overbreak;

ii. Fresh fracturing;

iii. Fracture dilation and/or extension.

Overbreak

Overbreak represents the most severe form of blast induced damage and is attributable to
the combined action of both the shock and gas components of the detonation
process. The distance overbreak occurs from the axis of the blasthole will be
heavily controlled by the explosive loading properties, rock mass conditions,
and in particular, the frequency and orientation of any structural discontinuities.
Fresh fracturing occurs at further distances from the explosive charge when the
level of induced strain resulting from the blast vibration exceeds the material
properties, commonly the tensile strength. The mechanism for fracture extension
is less clearly understood, although can be discussed in a similar context to fresh
fracturing with fracture extension occurring in the areas of stress concentration
(attributable to the existing fracture network), therefore requiring a lesser level
of vibration.

The figure below shows a blasthole with the modelled zones of overbreak, fresh
fracturing and fracture dilation/extension. Importantly this figure indicates the
relative scales for the different intensities of damage.

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Zone of Int ense Fracturing

Zone of Induced Fracturing

Zone of Fracture Dilat ion

2400 mm/s
1200 mm/s
150 mm/s

Figure 4.7 A blasthole showing indebtified zones of damage around the hole.

Fresh Fracturing

The limits of fresh fracturing are difficult to precisely delineate, particularly defining the
distinction between the extent of fresh fracturing and the on-set of only fracture
dilation/extension. The division is further complicated at considerable distance
from the blasthole where often reports of fresh fracturing are cited, as opposed
to fracture extension, perhaps due to the inability of the measurement
equipment to detect closed fractures. In general, fresh fracturing is restricted to
distances close to the blasthole. As an example, for a 57mm diameter blasthole,
creation of new fractures has been observed only at distances less than 1½
metres from the blasthole, and for a 32mm diameter blasthole, the fresh fracture
envelope extended not more than ¾ metre from the explosive column.

Fracture Extension

The term fracture dilation/extension is used to indicate both the opening, and the
extension of existing fractures. In general, instances of both fracture dilation and
extension occur at considerable distances from the blasthole. This is in
agreement with the Nuclei theory of damage which suggests that fracturing, and
in particular the extension of existing fractures can occur remote from the
explosive charge.

Damage Summary

The following limits are applied as an estimate for the three types of observed damage:

i. 4 x PPVCritical as the practical limit of damage around a blasthole

ii. PPVCritical as the limit for fresh fracturing

iii. ¼ x PPVCritical as the limit of fracture extension and dilation for underground
operations.

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Hence, for typical underground blasting, the vibration level corresponding to the
practical limit of induced fracturing would be in the range 4000 to 5000mm/s,
and the vibration level corresponding to fracture dilation and fracture extension
would be 200 to 300mm/s. It could be assumed that levels less than 200mm/s
will cause no damage, with the exception of possible spalling of loose rock from
exposed surfaces. Fresh fracturing is expected to be in the 800 to 1200mm/s
window.

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