Chapter 23: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
environment w distinct growing season
- Biomes – biotic units; combining assoc animals and
plants into a single classification
-tropical forest, temperate, conifer (taiga or boreal),
tropical savanna, temperate grasslands, chaparral
(shrublands), tundra, desert
-reflect contribution of trees, shrubs & grasses
- Forest – closed canopy
- Woodland & savanna – codominance of grasses and
trees
- Desert – scarcity of plant cover
Robert Whittaker – relationship bet mean annual
temp & ppt
-rel bet biome & climates
-ppt declines w decreasing temp (direct relationship)
 decrease in range of emvironmental conditions
defined by moisture availability
-mean annual temp – decreases from equator to
poles while seasonal variation in temp increases
-results in decline of growing season
- Ave annual ppt – decreases w increasing latitude
24.1 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS REFLECT
ADAPTATIONS OF THE DOMINANT PLANT LIFE-
FORMS
- Grasses – allocate less carbon to production of
supportive tissues (stems) than do woody plants (sheubs
& trees)  enabling them to maintain higher proportion
of biomass in leaves for photosynthesis
- Shrubs – allocate low % of resources to stems than do
trees
-woody tissues – advantage in ht and access to light
-disadv: maintenance & respiration  should be offset
by C gain by photosynthesis to maintain positive
carbon balance
- Leaf form – usd by ecologists to classify ecosystem
1) deciduous – live only for a single year/growing
season; plant doea not have the addtl cost of
maintenance & respiration
•winter-deciduous leaves – temperate; dormancy
corresponds to low temps
•drought-deciduous – subtropical & tropical
regions; leaves are shed during dry pd
2) evergreen – live beyond a year
•broadleaf evergreen – char of env w no distinct
growing season where PS & growth continue year-
round
•neede-leaf EG – env where growing season is very
short or nutrient availability contrains PS & plant
growth
- Carbon & nutrients – cost of leaf production; should
be high if deciduous
- Needle-leaf EG – adapted for survival in an
Tropical (and subtropical) rain forest – warm wet
climates w no distinct seasonality dominated by
broadleaf EG
Seasonal tropical forests – dry w distinct hot season
dominated by drought-deciduous trees
Woodland & savannas – ppt declines = stature &
density of trees decline; characterized by coexistence of
trees/shrubs and grasses
Arid shrubland (thorn scrub) & deserts – further
decline in ppt; trees can no longer be supported
Temperate – winter-deciduous; ppt is insufficient to
support trees, grasses dominate & give rise to prairies,
steppes & pampas
Tundra – extreme temp; gowing season is shorter &
trees can no longer be supported; short stature shrubs &
sedges; in arctic region
24.2 TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS
- Characterize the equatorial zone (10’ N & 10’ S)
- Amazon basin of S.America – largest & most
continuous
- Mean temp exceeding 18’C & minimum monthly ppt of
60mm
- 10km2 area may contain 1500 sp of flowering plants &
750sp of trees
- 90% of nonhuman primate live here
5 vertical layers:
1) Emergent trees
2) Upper canopy
3) Lower canopy
4) Shrub understory
5) Ground layer of herbs & ferns
- Lianas – climbing vines growing upward in canopy
-Buttresses – plank like outgrowths as prop roots to
support trees rooted in shallow soil that offers poor
anchorage
- Floor is thickly raced w roots forming dense mat on
ground
- Warm moist conditions promote chemical weathering
& rapid leaching of soluble materials
-OXISOLS – deeply weathered w no distinct horizons
-ULTISOL – develop in areas w more seasonal ppt
regimes
-ANDOSOLS – w recent ash deposits
- High net primary productivity & high annual rates of
litter input to forest floor
-24wks – average time for litter to decompose
Equatorial zone to region of the tropics – greater
seasonality in ppt
-broadleaf EG forests replaced by dry tropical forests
(undergo dry season whose length is based on
latitude)
 -more distant from equator = longer dry season
24.3 TROPICAL SAVANNAS
- Characteristics of semiarid regions with seasonal
rainfall
- Range of vegetation types in drier tropics characterized
by a ground cover of grasses w scattered shrubs/trees
- Cerrado – more densely wooded areas in S. America
- Campos & llano – more open appearance (lower
density of appearance)
- Caatinga – thorn scrub as dominant cover
- moisture – control density of woody vegetation
(function of both rainfall & soil)
- Assoc w warm continental climate w distinct seasonality
on ppt & large interannual variation in total ppt
- Mean monthly temp do not fall beyond 18’C
- Seasonality in temperatures & maximum temp occurs
at end of wet season
- Occur on old plateaus interrupted by escarpments &
dissected by rivers
- Weathering – produced nutrient poor osixols
(deficient in phosphorus)
-ALFISOLS – in drier savannas
-ENTISOLS – driest savanna
- Productivity controlled by seasonal ppt & soil moisture
- Stem flow & litter accumulation – result in higher soil
nutrients & moisture
- Can support a large & varied assemblage of
herbivores
- Ungulate fauna – carnivores
24.4 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS (temperate zones)
- Vary w climate & geography; rainfall bet 25 to 80cm a
year
- Shrunk from 42 o 12% bec of conversion into cropland
& grazing lands
- Natural grasslands – occur in midlatitudes in
midcontinental regions where annual ppt declines as air
masses move inward the coastal env
- Do the poorest where precipitation is lowest & temp
are high
-Tallest in stature & most productive when mean annual
ppt is greater than 800mm & mean annual temp is
above 15’C
3 types: 1) Tallgrass pairie
2) Mixed-grass prairie
3) Shortgrass prairie
- Desert grassland – similar to shortgrass plains
- Annual grassland – assoc w Mediterranean climate;
rainy winters & hot sry summers
- Growth in early spring; dormant in summer
- Steppes – treeless except for ribbons & patches of
forests; divided into 4 belts of latitude
- Pampas – in southern hemisphere grasslands extends
westward
- Velds – southern Africa occupy eastern part of a high
plateau
Australian 4 types of grasslands:
1) Arid tussock - N; rainfall is 20-50cm in summer
2) Arid hummock – less than 20cm rainfall
3) Coastal – tropical summer rainfall region
4) Subhumid – along coastal where annual rainfall
bet 50-100cm
- Dominated by herbivores
- Grazing – stimulates primary production; Inverts –
major consumers (nematodes – below the hround)
- Feature: tall, green, ephemeral herbaceous growth that
develops in spring & dies back in autumn
3 strata: -crowns, nodes, rosettes of plants hugging the
soil
-ground layer
-belowground root layer
- Accumulate a layer of mulch (depending on history of
fire)
- Soils: MOLLISOLS – thick, dark brown to black surface
rich in organic matter
-become thinner & paler in the drier regions bec of
less organic mat
- Productivity related to annual precipitation
- Increase in temp = increase photosynthesis; reduce
productivity by increasing water demand
24.5 DESERTS represent a diverse group of
ecosystems
- arid regions- 25-35% of earth’s landmass
 mostly in 15’ & 30’ latitude- where air is carried aloft
along the Intertropical Convergence Zone subsides to
form semipermanent high pressure cells
 Temperate deserts- in rainshadow of mountain
barriers (far inland)
 mostly in Northern Hemisphere
 SAHARA- world’s largest desert
 lie north of Central Asia: Kara Kum of Turkmenistan
(westerly), Gobi Desert (eastward-Western China)
 SIERRA NEVADA- Western North America
 In southern hemisphere: lie within Subtropical High-
Pressure Belt
- intense radiation heat: due to warming of air &
cloudless skies
- 3 Regions of South Africa Desert:
 Namib Desert- west coast
 Karoo
 Kalahari Desert- North in Botswana
- Australia- >40% is desert
- Deserts differ in moisture, temperature, soil drainage,
topography, alkalinity, & salinity
 1. HOT DESERTS
- Artemisia & chenopod shrubs (shrub steppes or
desert scrub)
- vegetation: chenopods, dwarf shrubs, succulents,
creosote bush & bur sage
- Mojave, Sonoran, & Chihuahuan
- Adaptation:
 Drought Evasion- flower only when moisture is
present; persist as seeds during drought
 Drought Resistance- annual cycle of activities or
go into estivation or dormant stage during dry
season (lizards & birds do not reproduce if
extreme drought)
- Plants: deep-rooted woody shrubs whose taproots
reach water table (ex: mesquite & tamarix); deep
rooted perennials w/ superficial laterals (Larrea &
Atriplex); cactus w/ shallow roots
2. COLD DESERTS
- Great Basin, Gobi, Takla Makan & Turkestan
- climate: continental, w/ warm summers &
prolonged winters
- Vegetation: Sage Brush (Artemisia Tridentata- form
pure stands) & Shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia- C4
species)
3. EXTREME DESERTS
4. SEMIDESERTS
- Animal life: beetles, ants, locusts, lizards, snakes, birds &
mammals (herbivorous & omnivory)
- Primary productivity: LOW
- Desert Soils: ARIDISOLS & ENTISOLS
24.6 MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATES support temperate
shrublands
- SHRUB- plant w/ multiple woody, persistent stems but
no central trunk (height: 4.5-8m)
- 30’ & 40’ latitude: dominated by evergreen shrubs &
sclerophyllous trees
- 5 Regions of Mediterranean Ecosystsem:
 Semiarid region sof North America
 Regions bordering Mediterranean Sea
 Central Chile
 Cape Region of South Africa
 Southwestern & Southern Australia
- Mediterranean Climate: hot, dry summers w/ at least 1
month of protracted drought, & cool & moist winters
(10-12’C w/ risk of frost)
- Vegetation:
 xeric broadleaf evergreen shrubs & dwarf trees w/
herbaceous understory- SCHLEROPHYLLOUS
 Small leaves, thickened cuticles, glandular hairs &
sunken stomata
 Reduce water loss during hot, dry summer period
 Oak & strawberry tree
 FYNBOS- in mountainous region of Cape Province in
South Africa
 broad leaf proteiod shrubs that 1.5-2.5m
 MALLEE (Southwest Australia)- low growing
Eucalyptus w/ broad sclerophyllous trees (5-8m)
 CHAPARRAL (North America)- thicket of shrubby
evergreen oats
 California: scrub oak & chamise (evergreen, winter
active, & summer-dormant)
 Rocky Mountain Foothills: Gambal Oak- winter
deciduous
 MATORRAL (Central Chile)- evergreen shrubs, 1-3m
tall, w/ small sclerophyllous leaves, although drought-
deciduous shrubs are also found
- lack an understory & ground litter; highly permeable
- Seeds: require heat & scarring action of fire to induce
germination
- ANIMALS:
 Chapparal & Sagebush: mule deer, coyotes, rodents,
jackrabbits, & sgae grouse
 Australian Mallee: mallee fowl, gray kangaroo &
wallaby
- SOIL: ALFISOLS (deficient in nutrients & litter
decomposition is limited by low temp during winter &
low soil moisture during summer months)
24.7 FOREST ECOSYSTEMS dominate the wetter
regions of the temperate zone
- temperate evergreen forests & broadleaf deciduous
trees in mild, moist climates of southern hemisphere
- EASTERN NORTH AMERICA:
 mesophytic forest of the unglaciated Appalachian
plateau
 beech-maple and northern hardwood forests
 boreal forest
 maple-basswood forests
 oak-chestnut & forests
 central hardwood forest
- Asiatic broadleaf forest (eastern china, Japan, Taiwan,
and Korea)
- Broad evergreen species (Japan, South Korea, and
southern China & Himalayas)
- Evergreen oaks and pines (South-eastern united
states)- poorly developed sandy or swampy soils
- Conifers: Pacific Northwest of North America
- Broadleaf deciduous forests of the temperate
region:end of growing season = autumn colors of
foliage shortly before the trees enter into their leafless
winter period
- Deciduous Forests Have Four vertical layers or strata:
1. UPPER CANOPY- dominant tree species
2. LOWER TREE CANOPY – understory
3. SHRUB LAYER
4. GROUND LAYER – herbs, ferns, and mosses
  variety of life below
- ANIMALS:
 Arthropods – single stratum
 Soil and litter invertebrates – subterranean stratum
 Mice, shrews, ground squirrels, and forest
salamanders – burrow into the soil or litter for shelter
and food
 Birds- move freely among the strata
- SOIL TYPE: ALFISOLS (glacial materials), INCEPTISOLS,
AND ULTISOLS
- availability of nutrients is related to rates of
decomposition and mineralization
24.8 CONIFER FORESTS Dominate the Cool
Temperate & Boreal Zones
- dominated by needle leaf evergreen trees
- Found in: circumpolar belt across the Northern
hemisphere and on mountain ranges
- Subalpine Zone: Norway spruce
- High Elevations: Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni),
Subalpine fir
- Middle elevations: Douglas Fir
- Lower elevations: Ponderosa pine& lodge pine (Pinus
contorta)
- Giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum)
- BOREAL FOREST OR TAIGA: largest expanse of conifer
forest &largest vegetation formation on Earth
 encompassing the high latitudes of the northern
hemisphere
 covers about 11% of earth’s terrestrial surface
 region of cold lakes, bogs, rivers, and alder thickets
 Three Major vegetation zones:
1. FOREST TUNDRA ECOTONE – with open stands
for stunned spruce, lichens and moss
2. OPEN LICHEN WOODLAND – stand of lichens and
black spruce
3. MAIN BOREAL FOREST – stands of spruce and
pine broken by popular and birch on disturbed
areas
 dominated by cold continental climate with strong
seasonal variation
 summers are short, cool, and moist
 winters are long, harsh and dry with a prolonged
period of snowfall
 PERMAFROST – impedes infiltration and maintains
high soil moisture
 perennially frozen subsurface that may be hundreds
of meters deep
 upper layers may thaw in summer and refreeze in
winter
 forces all water to remain and move above it
TAIGA/ BOREAL FOREST:
- all boreal species, both broadleaf trees and conifers, are
well adapted to fire(provides a seedbed for
regeneration of trees)
- severe fires eliminate hardwood competition and favour
spruce and jack pine regeneration
- ANIMALS:
 Caribou- feeding on grasses, sedges
 Lichens- inhabit open spruce-lichen woodlands
 Moose/ Elk- largest of all deers; low land mammals
feeding on aquatic and emergent vegetation as well
as alder and willow
 Cyclic snowshoe harc (Lepus americanus)
 Arboreal red squirrel
 Quill- bearing porcupine- feed on leaves twigs and
the inner bark of trees
 Wolf, lynx (Lynx Canadensis), Pine martin (Martes
Americana) and owls
 Crossbills (Loxia spp) cross beaks (Coccothraustes
spp) and siskins (Carduelis spp)- migratory
neotropical birds and the habitat of northern seed-
eating birds
 Herbivorous insects – spruce budworm
(Choristoneurafumifernata)
- low net primary productivity
- limited by low nutrients, cooler temperatures, and the
short growing season
- inputs of plant are low
- rates of decomposition are slow under the cold wet
conditions, resulting in the accumulation of organic
matter
- Soil: SPODOSOLS- thick organic layer, mineral soils-
infertile
24.9 Low Precipitation & Cold Temperates Define
The ARCTIC TUNDRA
- frozen plain, clothed in sedges, heaths and willows;
dotted with lakes and crossed by streams
- Tundra – “tunturi” meaning - tree less plain
- Two broad types of ARCTIC Tundra:
1. TUNDRA – 100 percent plant cover and wet to moist
soil
2. POLAR DESERT – less than 5 percent plant cover and
dry soil
- Conditions are product of at least three interfacing
forces:
 permanently frozen deep layer of permafrost
 overlaying active layer of organic matter and mineral
soil that thaws each summer and freezes the
following winter
 vegetation that reduces warming and retards thawing
in summer
- PERMAFROST- chills the soil, retarding the general
growth of plant parts both above- and below ground
 limiting the activity of soil microorganism, and
diminishing the aeration and nutrient content of the soil
 pushes stones and other material upward and
outward from the mass to form a patterned surface of
hummocks, frost boils earth stripes, and stone polygons
 SOLIFLUCTION TERRACE OR “FLOWING SOIL”-
formed on sloping grounds, creep, frost thrusting, and
downward flow of supersaturated soil over the
permafrost
 CRYOPLANATION- molding of landscape by frost
action
- Vegetation is simple:
 Number of species tends to be few and growth is
slow
 Low ground – cotton grasses, sedges and sphagnum
 Plants are photosynthetically active about three
months out of the year
 Nearly erect leaves: permit almost complete
interception of the low angle of the arctic sun
 underground root-to-shoot ratios (3:1 to 10:1)
 roots are concentrated in the upper soil
 belowground net annual production is typically three
times that of the aboveground productivity
- ANIMAL LIFE:
 Invertebrates: segmented white worms (Echytracidae),
collembolas and flies (Diptera), chiefly crane flies
 Summer : black flies (Simulium spp.) deer flies
(Chrysops spp) & mosquitoes.
 Herbivores: lemming, Arctic hare, caribou, and musk
ox
 Caribou – greatest herbivore biomass
 Lemmings – consume three to six times as much
forage as caribou do
 Caribou – extensive grazers, spreading out over the
tundra in summer to feed on sedges,
 Musk oxen – feed on sedges, grasses, and dwarf
willow
 Herbivorous birds: Piarmigan and migratory geese
 Wolf – major arctic carnivore
- Lower Latitudes: Alpine tundra- in higher mountains of
the world
 severe environment of rock-strewn slopes, bogs,
meadows, and shrubby thickets
 strong winds snow cold and widely fluctuating
temperatures
 atmosphere is thin, little permafrost, soils are drier
 soil moisture conditions compare with those of Arctic
 Precipitation: higher; steep