Chapter - 2: OD interventions -

conceptual study
O rg a n iz a tio n D e v e lo p m e n t:

Introduction

D efinitions

Evolution o f OD

Foundations o f OD

Process o f OD

D istinguishing characteristics o f OD

O rg a n iz a tio n a l change

Introduction

Conceptual fram ework o f organizational change

Characteristics o f organizational change

Im portance o f organizational change

Burke-Litw in m odel

M anaging resistance to change

O D in terv en tio n s :

Introduction

Definition

Features o f OD interventions

Types o f OD interventions

Classification o f OD interve^]tif)ns

Benefits o f OD interventions

Problem s in im plem entation o f OD interventions

Param eters o f ideal OD interventions

Role o f HR in OD interventions

OD interventions : A n effective tool for organizational change

Role o f OD interventions for overcom ing the challenge o f organizational

sustainability

14
2.1 A) Introduction: O rganization Developm ent:

T oday all organizations try to cope up w ith the dem ands by changing the current
system w hich is unable to m eet the dem ands. B ut though change is inevitable, it is

difficult to im plem ent .Certain changes need structure to be changed or other m ay

need process to be changed in order to sustain the challenge. The key to m eet these

challenges lies in effective utilization o f know ledge, expertise and com m itm ent o f
people to enhance organizational effectiveness. This will give an organization a
com petitive advantage. Survival o f even the m ost successful organizations cannot be

taken for granted. O rganizations need to be flexible to adapt continually and need to
create the adaptive environm ent w ithin the organizations. The organizations w ith
rigid, narrow and lim ited policies or strategies can’t respond adequately to the
dem ands o f change. T he change denotes im provem ent or better beneficial state o f an
organization. The success o f this adaption lies in how well or w hat planned efforts
are put in by an organization. For this purpose organization needs a proper, scientific

application to m ake change happen effectively. The answ er to w hich is

“O rganization D evelopm ent.’

O rganization D evelopm ent is a set o f concepts and techniques for im proving

organizational effectiveness, and also individual well being. OD focuses on “hum an

side” o f an organization. OD is a m ethod for facilitating change and developm ent in
people, in technology, in organizational process and structure. OD involves
integrating desires o f individuals for grow th & developm ent along w ith
organizational goals and betw een organization, structure, processes, strategy, people
and culture. It develops new & creative problem solving technique. OD builds
continuous im provem ent m echanism w ith em phasis on high collaboration o f
em ployees & system s o f an organization. OD program s begin w hen top m anagem ent
identifies an undesirable situation and seeks to change it. Thus OD is oriented
tow ards im proving total system- i.e. the organization & its parts in the context o f the
larger environm ent that affects them.

15
2.2 D efinitions o f O rganization Developm ent: -

“O D is an effort : 1) Planned 2) O rganization w ide 3) M anaged from the top to 4)

increase organization effectiveness and health through 5) Planned intervention in the

organization’s “processes” using behavioral science know ledge.

-Richard Beckhard (1969)

“O D is a response to change, a com plex educational strategy intended to change the

beliefs, values, attitudes and structure o f organizations so that they can better adapt to

new technologies, m arkets and challenges & dizzying rate o f change its e lf ”

-Bennis (1969)

“O D is defined as a planned and sustained effort to apply behavioral science for

system im provem ent using reflexive, self analytic method.

-S ch m u ck & M iles (1971)

“OD is a process o f planned change - C hange o f an organization’s culture from one

w hich avoids exam ination o f social processes (especially decision m aking, planning
& com m unication) to one w hich institutionalizes & legitim izes this examination.

-Burke & H om stein (1972)

“T he aim s o f OD are - 1) enhancing congruence betw een organizational structure,

processes, strategy people & culture 2) developing new & creative organizational

solutions and 3) developing organization’s self renew ing capacity.

-Beer (1980)

“OD is an organizational process for understanding & im proving any and all
substantive processes an organization m ay develop for perform ing any task &
pursuing any objectives. A process for im proving processes, that is w hat OD has

sought to be for approxim ately 25 years.”

-Vaill (1989)

“ OD is a set o f behavioral science based on theories, values, strategies & techniques

aim ed at the planned change o f the organizational w ork setting for the purpose o f

16
enhancing individual’s developm ent & im proving organizational perform ance
through the alteration o f organizational m em bers on the jo b behaviors.

-Porras & Robertson (1992)

“O D is a system atic application o f behavioral science know ledge to the planned

developm ent & reinforcem ent o f organizational strategies, structures & processes for
im proving organizational effectiveness.”

-Cum m ings & W orley (1993)

“O D is a long term effort, led and supported from top m anagem ent to im prove an
organization’s visioning, em pow erm ent learning & problem solving through an
ongoing collaborative m anagem ent o f organization culture w ith special em phasis on
the culture o f intact w ork team s & other team configuration using the consultant -
facilitator role & the theory & technology o f applied behavioral science including
action research.

-French & Bell (1999)

W ith reference to all the OD definitions w ritten above, it can be observed that it has
been evolved by time. Planned change efforts though have rem ained com m on feature
& purpose o f OD, application o f behavioral science has increased in recent years.
A nalysis o f these definitions suggests that OD is not ju st “anything done to better the

organization” but it is a particular kind o f change process designed system atically to

bring desired outcome. OD thus is o f prescriptive nature for planned change for
helping organizations to sustain in com petitive & com plex environm ent.

2.3 Evolution o f OD: -

The history o f OD is rich w ith the contributions o f behavioral scientists and OD

practitioners. Though OD has a recent history, but all its approaches are finely
researched and put into practice w ith great degree o f success.

T he evolution o f OD can be represented and categorized into four stems -

1)The laboratory training stem -

2)T he survey research and feedback stem -

17
3)The action research stem -

4)T he sociotechnical or socioclinical stem.

Laboratory training stem consists o f innovations in applying laboratory training

insights to com plex organizations. Survey feedback stem is about understanding

feelings o f organizational m em bers before designing & im plem enting any OD

intervention or change effort. A ction research stem em phasizes on research to be

closely associated w ith change effort. Socio technical stem helps to find out
interaction betw een technical & hum an side o f an organization.

2.3.1 Evolution o f O D can be shown in a tabular form as below: -

Y ear C ontributor C ontribution

1 Laboratory Stem -

1946 Kurt Lewin & his staff Conducting T- group training

w hich is essentially a

unstructured group w here

participants learn from their

actions, experience & group

dynam ics - T - groups w ere
conducted at N ational
T raining Laboratory - by

Beime, Bradford & Lippit.

1957 Chris Argyris - -First to conduct team

Faculty m em ber at Y ale building interventions.

Univ.

1957 Douglas Me G regor - -applied T-groups skills in

Behavioural scientist com plex organizations.

1957 Herbert Shephard -Conducted survey based

laboratories for top
m anagem ent.

1957 Herbert Shephard & Robert -Initiated two w eeks

18
 Blake labs.where they com bined
case m ethod and lectures.

Em phasized on intergroup &

Interpersonal relations.
1957 Robert Blake & Jane M outon -Stem m ed famous “G rid’

concept
1958 Richard Beckhard -Coined “O D ” as a term for
the first tim e
-Conducted labs at National
Training L ab o ra to ry .

Survey Feedback stem -

1946 Rensis Likert - also -Survey feedback was found

supported by colleagues & by him . It involves

Floyd M ann. system atically collecting data
about organization 8c feeding

it back to discover problem s

& devise solutions.
-Invented Fam ous Likert

scale - for collection o f data.

3 A ction Research stem -

John Collier, Lewin, W illiam -dem onstrated that research

W hyte, Edith H am ilton could be used for organization

im provem ent if also
supported by action.A ction
research is highly
collaborative involving
consultant & Org. m embers.

Socio technical Stem -

19
 Eric Trist, K em Bam fort -Stated that organizations are
com posed of social &
technical elements.

-Both social and technical

elem ents interact w ith each
other & change in one can

have effect on other.

(Table no. 2.1 : Evolution O f OD thought)

2.4 N ew generation o f OD; -

OD is evolved w ith innovations and new approaches in order to sustain. Participative

& collaborative approach by Likert also called as system 4 T is also an im portant
attem pt to exam ine discrepancy betw een present and designed situations o f an
organization. B um s and stalker stated that in case o f slow change m echanistic org.

structure in preferred w here as organic structure can be used in case o f fast change.
In 1970’s, Dr. D em ing stressed that the k ey for successful OD practice is continual

developm ent. M ckinsey initiated 7S m odel for change w hich was developed by
Richard Pascale and A nthony A thos in 1981. It stated that change needs careful
attention to 7S.Em ergence o f Q uality M anagem ent Systems also has played
im portant role in organizational change and its overall effectiveness. Peter Senge

cam e out w ith the concept o f learning organization w here people continually enhance
their capability to sustain. Business process Reengineering is also a reengineering
tool to im prove efficiency o f current practices w ith m odified design. In 1992, R obert
K aplan & D avid N orton cam e up w ith balanced scorecard to analyze w hether
operational activities are in congruence w ith four m ajor dim ensions - the financial
perspective, the custom er perspective, the internal process & learning & growth.
Edgar Schein form ulated process consultation betw een consultant & client. Strategic
change is a recent influence on O D ’s evolution. Com plex interaction betw een an

organization and its environm ent has produced the need for a strategic perspective to
OD & has encouraged planned change process at organizational level.

20
2.5 Foundations o f OD: -

OD follows certain foundations or also called as core values that help OD

practitioner to design appropriate OD interventions. These foundations act as

guidelines for effective OD Program.

I) P lan n ed C h an g e: -

Change cannot be im plem ented abruptly as it cannot achieve desirable objectives.

Planned change process was first developed by K urt Lewin. H e introduced tw o
concepts the first concept is called as force field Analysis and the second one is

model o f planned change.

Force field A nalysis states that organization w ork in equilibrium and status quo or
the current scenario o f an organization is a resultant o f tw o forces. Force which push

the change is called as driving force and force which oppose the change is called
restraining force. The organization needs to analyze these forces to m axim ize driving
forces and to m inim ize restraining forces. This technique helps to understand
dynam ics o f change. Model o f planned change is a three stage process which consists
o f unfreezing old behavior m oving to the new behavior. Change is basically m oving
from one equilibrium point to another.

Force Field Analysis: Kurt Lewin

U nfreezing Fo rt* A n * ly s li M o d « f
— S it u a t io n Unviftg

— S tru ctu re
— H a b it s i -3
M o vin g S I 2 ;
— S u p p o rt
— C lim a t e
— A c t io n
+1 i
Refreezing
* +2
— R e in f o r c e m e n t |
— B e n e f it s | +3 ;

(Fig. 2.1 Force field analysis source : web im age)

21
 Unfreezing Changing/Moving Refreezing

(Fig 2.2 - Planned change Process.)

2) System s theory: -

A ccording to this theory organizations are view ed as open system s w hich can
actively exchange w ith their environm ent. Open system consist o f inputs - through
puts - outputs. Inputs are from environm ent like energy, inform ation, m oney, people
etc. Throughput is conversion or transform ation o f inputs into outputs. System is
delineated by a boundary into internal system and external environm ent. The
boundary o f open system perm its exchange w ith internal processes and external

environm ent, hiform ation is im portant for open system s as it is considered as

feedback.

X.

11
mpt<3 OutcKjm
II HtjFrwAsapijriMi I. J

/
/
\ /
X

(Fig. 2.3 Systems theory (Source W eb image)

22
3) Action Research: -

This foundation w as laid down by John Collier, K urt Lewin, W illiam W hyte, Edith
r----------------------- - ~ ---- ^ ^
Hamilton. This foundation stresses the im portance o f research linked with action.
Action research is a process o f system atically collecting research data about an
ongoing system related to some goals or need o f that system. Feeding back this data
to the system , taking action by altering variables, w hich are selected & then

evaluating results & actions are taken to collect m ore data. A ction research is a
continuous process. It is regarded as fact finding process with a problem solving

approach. Form ation o f hypothesis is also im portant in action research as it guides

entire process

Inp u t Tr«ms<orfna»k>o O u ^ l

P ia n n ln g A c iio n R Q 9U t t«

P Tttlim ln jiry
d i^ g iH h g if L « iu -n ln g C h a n g e s in
O a t « 9 sth »m > s} p ro c e s s e s tM h a v io r
F ««d b ttc k or A c tio n p la n n b )^ Oat-B Q B the rin fi
re su H s A c t io n s t « p 5 M B a s u re rn s m
A c tio n p liu in in g

Unrrrtt«]^n 9 C h s n g iin g A v Ir M x in g

Feedback L o o g A Pcedbactc L o o p &

F ««d b a c K Loop C

(Fig. 2.4 A ction research source : web im age)

4) Parallel learning structure ( P L S ) -

It is specially created organizati©rfal structures for planning and guiding change

programs. It w as introduced by Dale Zand in 1975. It was then term ed as collateral
structures. PLS are m echanism s to facilitate innovation in large scale organization.
PLS is conceptualized as : 1) A structure is created 2) It operates parallel with formal

hierarchy 3) It has purpose o f increasing organizational learning. PLS is formed by

steering com m ittee and o f w orking groups. The OD interventions are first used on
these PLS w hich gives insight to im plem ent them on large scale.

23
5) A pplied Behavioral Science

OD is based on applied behavioral science. H um an Resources are affected by change

& if change needs to be successful it has to consider hum an side o f it. So OD

interventions are designed based on applied behavioral science.

6) Participation and Em powerm ent: -

This is unique feature o f OD and also an im portant foundation. It is not restricted to

top level o f an organization but also throughout the organization. To em pow er is to
give som eone pow er to take decisions. Em ployees are em powered in OD by giving
them authority in OD program s. Participation in som e or the other w ay enhances
em powerm ent. M any o f the OD interventions are deliberately designed to increase

involvem ent and participation.

7) Team s and Team work: -

Team plays a m ajor role in organizational success. . Com plex tasks can be
perform ed in a better w ay through teamwork. Team s play crucial role in change

efforts. Team building interventions are specially designed interventions to increase

team perform ance.

8) N orm ative Re-educative Strategy -

It is based on the assum ptions that norm s form the basis o f the behavior and change
com es through reeducation in w hich old norm s are discarded and supplem ented with

new ones.

2.6 Process o f O rganization Developm ent: -

OD process com prises o f three basic com ponents -diagnosis, action and program
m anagem ent. D iagnostic com ponent is about continuous collection o f data about the

total system, its subunits, its process and its culture. The action com ponent represents
all the actions and interventions that are designed to increased organizational
effectiveness. The p r o g r ^ m anagem ent com ponent consists o f all the activities

designed to ensure s u c ^ s s o f the OD process.

1) Diagnosis - T li^ ir s t step is to diagnose the current system o f an organization’s or

client’s system. It involves the client system ’s concerns, unrealized opportunities,

24
discrepancies or gap between actual & desired perform ance. D iagnosis starts with
data collection about the system it’s sub-units and processes. D iagnostic activities

provide the real picture o f a client system. D iagnosis can be done by designing

questionnaire, observations or conducting interviews and meetings. D iagnosis is a

continuous process w hich is necessary for planned change effort.

2) Action C om ponent - OD interventions are sets o f structural activities in which

selected organizational units are engaged in sequence o f tasks for organizational

im provem ent. Interventions are actions taken to produce desired changes. Planning
actions, im plem enting them and evaluating the consequences o f actions are
distinguishing features o f OD.

3) Program M anagem ent - M anaging OD program effectively is crucial issue. It

follows sequence o f activities such as -

1) Entering into an OD relationship: - The OD program starts with a contract o f a

client system w ith OD consultant. This step starts with addressing and clarifying the
issue or a problem . The client system and the OD consultant discuss the problem and

collects the data for further process. Client system m ust know the expertise &
com petence o f OD consultant and client m ust also be able to present the problem or

issue clearly.

2) C ontracting: - OD contract is about expectations o f both the parties. OD contract

helps to develop a com m itm ent and support w hich is required for the entire process.

3) Diagnosis: - D iagnosis o f an organization helps the consultant to find out current

functioning o f an organization. It is basically a fact finding activity. D iagnosis is a

collaborative effort. Both organizational m em bers and consultant should be involved
in discovering the current organizational effectiveness.

4) Feedback : - It represents feeding back the inform ation gained through diagnosis
for analysis o f the client along with consultant explores the inform ation w hich gives

clear picture o f current situation.

5) Planning C hange : - The feedback w hich in received leads to plan the change
efforts variations alternatives, opportunities can be discussed for^,d^|Kdi|ig further

action steps.

25
6) Intervention: - A fter deciding action steps it becom es necessary to think on
various activities to im plem ent planned change efforts. These activities are sets o f

actions designed to correct or im prove the problem situation or even to seize the

opportunities. These are called as OD interventions.

7) Evaluation: - This step represents analysis o f the im plem entation o f various

activities as a part o f OD program. If successful, reasons for success, various changes

or m odifications occurred during the process and satisfaction w ith the results are

som e o f the param eters o f evaluation.

2.7 D istinguishing C haracteristics o f OD:

Thus, to sum m arize the distinguishing characteristics o f OD are:

1. OD is an organization w ide change effort.

2. OD focuses on culture & processes.
3. OD encourages collaboration betw een organization leaders and m em bers in
m anaging change.

4. Team s are im portant for all OD activities.

5. OD focuses on hum an & social side o f an organization & also intervenes in

technological & structural sides.

6. Participation & involvem ent o f m em bers at all levels o f organization are
hallm arks o f OD.

7. OD focuses on total system change.

8. OD practitioners are facilitators, collaborators and co learners w ith the client

system.
9. OD views organization im provem ent as an ongoing process.
10. OD relies on action research & extensive participation o f client system

members.
11. OD focuses on developm ental view that seeks betterm ent o f both individuals

& organization.
12. OD utilizes behavior science know ledge for im plem enting change efforts.
13. OD helps to alter or m odify the beliefs, values, attitude o f em ployees for
positive approach tow aras organizational change.
14. OD program also f o ^ s on institutionalization o f change efforts successfully.

26
 15. OD leads to im prove organization’s vision, em pow erm ent and problem
solving ability for enhancing organizational effectiveness.

2.1 B) C oncept o f O rganizational change:

T he situation w here in an organization is aKie to change itse lf for the long term
com petitive advantage is referred to as organizational change. O rganization has to

build a culture for positive response to this change. Organizational change is not a

single phenom enon; it is a series as one change m ay require various organizational

variables to be changed. The organizational change is all inclusive i.e it covers all the
areas o f an organization.

2.2 The types o f organizational change :

The Balogun and Hope - H ailey’s (2004) identifies types o f change and change
paths. This can be illustrated in figure as show n below :

End result

T ransform ation Realignm ent

Increm ental

N ature o f change

B ig Bang

( Fig.2..5 Types o f organizational change : source : Organizational change .Barbara Senior , Stephen

Sw ailes , 4* edition - pg.35, o rigin al: Balogun J.,Hope Hailey. Exploring strategic change (2004.) FT

Prentice Hall)

B alogun and Hope- H ailey’s in their m odel identify four types o f changes:

1. Evolution: The increm ental changes slow ly and steadily are evolutionary
changes.
2. Revolution: The nature o f change is big bang and aims for transform ation.
These changes are total turn around changes.

27
 3. Adaptation: The nature o f change is increm ental and aims for realignm ent

The change is response to environm ental dem and and is for sustainability.
4 Reconstruction: The nature o f change is big bang and aims for total change o f

an organization.

2.3 The fram ew ork o f organizational change:

O rg a n iz a tio n a l E n v iro n m e n t

d e m a n d s t h e c h a n g e in

S tru c tu ra l c h a n g e P ro c e s s o rie n t e d
E m p lo y e e re la te d
chan g e
1. Jo b d esig n ch a n g e

2. C o m m u n ic a t
1. T e c h n o p ro c e s s
io n p a tte rn 1. I n d iv id u a f
change
3. H ie ra rc h y ^
2. T e a m
2. H u m a n p ro c e s s

(Fig.2.6: Fram ew ork o f organizational change based on secondary research)

The organizational change is characterized by its inclusive nature i.e. it affects and
includes all system s and subsystems as per the need o f situation directly or indirectly.
The environm ent dem ands change in follov^ing areas:

28
1) Structural change: The change in structure o f an organization is structural

change. The structural change includes change in jo b design, com m unication

pattern or hierarchy o f an organization. Job design includes change in the jo b

description or jo b analysis or the w ay the job is perform ed in an enhanced and

better m anner for increase in perform ance. There are various OD interventions
w hich help to im prove the jo b design as per desired by a change situation.

Com m unication pattern or hierarchy is,,aKo related to structural change and the
invent o f new technology has chapged the traditional com m unication pattern. The

m ore flat structure o r hierar(my is effective nowadays. The organization also

focuses on self m anaging teams or virtual teams for enhanced perform ance.

2) Process oriented change: The change in process o f an organization in dem and

. w ith change in environm ent is called as process oriented change. The change in
process can be categorized in two ways: A) Techno processual change: This
includes the change in technology which leads to change in process o f an
organization. New technology can lead to less duration, faster production or less
manual efforts. B) Hum an processual change: This includes the change in

interpersonal relations or com m unication pattern o f an organization. The virtual

teams, high use o f technology for com m unication, self m anaging team s and

interactive systems can be som e o f the e x ^ p l e s o f hum an processual changes.

The OD offers various OD interventioj>^hat focus on both i.e techno processual

as well as hum an processual chan§

3) Em ployee related change: The environm ent m ay also dem and change in
em ployee behavior for enhancing the perform ance o f an organization and
effective adaption o f change. The em ployee related change m ay include: A)
Individual change: w hich includes change in attitude, behavior and perception
o f an individual. B) Team related change: The current global scenario dem ands
the change in the functioning o f teams. The team s today are m ore self m anaging,
high perform ing and also the foundation o f successful organization. The change
in functioning o f team can lead to enhanced perform ance. C) Inter group
change: The organizations are form ed o f various teams and these team s are
interdependent on each other. The relation betw een these teams can also change

29
 as per the dem and o f an organizational change. The confrontation or negotiation

betw een these teams can help in im proved and better performance.

2.4 C haracteristics o f organizational change:

1. O rganizational change denotes the organization’s ^ in lr o r sustainability.

2. O rganizational change affects all system s an ^su b sy stem s o f an organization.

3. O rganizational change is continuous in nature.

4. Organizational change helps an organization to expand its capability.

5. O rganizational change builds an adaptive culture.

6. O rganizational change helps an organization to be m ore responsive towards

the changing environm ent.

7. Organizational change enhances organizational effectiveness along with
em ployee effectiveness.

2.5 Im portance o f O rganizational C h a n g e:^

The change m eans the alteration o f status quo. The change in any part or any
subsystem can affect the organization. Change can be proactive or reactive in nature.
W hen change is com pelled by external forces it is called as reactive change when

change is initiated by m anagem ent to enhance its organizational effectiveness it is

called as proactive change.

M anaging change effectively is one o f the m ost critical aspects in success o f an

organization. It is the coping process o f m oving from the present state to the desired
state. M anaging change is continuous as dem ands o f an environm ent change. Change
is basically an attem pt o f im provem ent to sustain or to survive. Change is looked
upon as a developm ental process as in a due course o f change, individuals, team &
organization in total develops to survive. Change can bring technological up-dation,
restructuring behavioral changes that help an organization to get through the severe
com petition. Innovation in technology help in faster production, restructuring
denotes faster & effective decision m aking & behavior changes can help an

organization to build a team which in responsive in turbulent time.

2.6 The Burke - Lit^vin m odel o f O rganizational change -

The m odel was developed by W arner Burke and G eorge U w in . This m odel shows
the causes o f first order and second order change whipn they call as transactional

30
change & transform ational change. The first order change is also called as
evolutionary, adaptive or continuous change. The second order change is labeled as
revolutionary or radical change. OD program s are directed to both types o f changes.

T he first order change or transactional change is about changing structure,

m anagem ent practices and system which changes m otivation o f individual and

individual developm ent w hich leads to increase organizational perform ance. The
second order change is a perm anent change w hich is change in m ission, strategy &
organization culture. That is w hy it is called as transform ational change.

A ccording to this model, interventions directed towards leadership, m ission and

strategy & organizational culture produce transform ational change and interventions
directed tow ards m anagem ent practices, structure & system produce transactional

( Fig.2.7 Burke Litwin model o f change ; source ; web image)

2.7 R esistance to ch.Bn^se-;-

\
Though change is inevitable & is continuous in nature em ployees can resist change.
The benefits o f change if not conveyed effectively then resistance occurs. Effective
change m anagem ent can be achieved if the resistance is m inim ized. To m inim ize
resistance & to maxim ize acceptance towards change it is im portant to understand-
nature o f resistance behaviors, feelings & attitude tow ards resistance.

31
R esistance to change can be broadly divided into two ca teg o riesj^

1)Individual resistance: - This resistance occurs b e c a u s ^ ^ basic nature o f hum an

beings, as change aUers norm al routine o f perform ing things.

2)O rganizational resistance: - This type o f resistance occur because change can

affect norm al setting o f w ork setting.

V arious causes o f individual resistance are: -

1. Fear o f unknow n

2. Fear o f loss
3. Fear o f failure
4. Force o f habit
5. Disruption o f interpersonal relationship.
6 . Failure to recognize need for change.

7. D isturbance in cultural assum ptions & values.

2) O rganizational resistance: - It denotes close system which can endanger the

sustainability o f an organization.

Reasons for organizational resistance: -

1. Structural inertia.

2 . W orkgroup inertia.

3. Lim ited focus o f change.

4. C om m itm ents & contracts already made.
5. Previous unsuccessful efforts.

O rganizations need to overcom e the resistance as it can have a serious im pact on its
sustainability. It is im portant to have a diagnostic and well designed approach to
overcom e resistance either by individual reasons or organizational reasons -

2.8 M anaging resistance to change: -

Resistance to change makes it difficult to an organization to im plem ent proposed

change w hich is required for developm ent & growth o f an organization. The

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resistance to change can also be considered as a valuable feedback o f the proposed

change scenario and can be effectively used in change process.

1.To create an open system in an organization.

2 .T 0 create aw areness about change am ong employees.

3.To share vision o f the change effort.

4 .T 0 educate the em ployees about change efforts.

5.To involve and em pow er the em ployees in the process o f change effort.
6 .To m otivate and counsel the em ployees to clarify the problem s regarding them.

7 .T 0 negotiate w ith the em ployees to cope up with resistance.

8 .T 0 involve the key individuals in convincing other employees.

9.To select the appropriate OD intervention.

1 0 .To create adaptive culture and inculcate continuous learning.

2.1 .C) OD Interventions: -

OD interventions basically h d p organization in problem solving and renewal. OD

offers variety o f interventions based on the problem. D esigning and im plem entation

o f appropriate OD interventions help to achieve success.

2.1 D efinitions of OD interventions: -

“OD intervention refers to the range o f planned, program m atic activities client and

consultant participate in during the course o f OD program.

-French & Bell, Rober Zawacki

“OD interventions are set o f structured activities in w hich selected organizational

units (target groups or individuals) engage in a task or sequence o f tasks with the
goals o f organizational im provem ent and individual developm ent.”

-French & Bell

“OD intervention is a sequence o f activities actions and events intended to help

organisation im prove its perform ance and effectiveness.

-Cum m ings & W orley.

33
“OD interventions are structured activities used individually or in com bination by the
m em bers o f client system to im prove their social and task performance.

-W ikpedia

Thus, the researcher proposes the sum m ary o f OD interventions as:

“OD interventions are structured activities based on the diagnosis o f a client

system and designed to enhance individual and organizational effectiveness in

collaboration with a consultant and client system .’

2.2 Evolution o f OD interventions

The roots o f evolution o f OD interventions can go deep in the scientific m anagem ent
as it also aim ed the change for increased productivity o f an organization. The Human
relation m ovem ent incorporated the hum an side in the process o f enhancing
organizational perform ance. The process o f evolution o f OD intervention was
landm arked by the invention o f Kurt Lewin and his theory o f planned change. This
theory stated that if change is m anaged with planned efforts it can be successful. So

for the planned change efforts the various behavioral scientists proposed the OD
interventions. The contributions from these scientists have helped an organization to

understand the entire process o f change in a system atic way. The term organization
developm ent was later form ed as there was a need to have specialized efforts for

effective change m anagem ent. This assignm ent o f the term helped to com bine all the
efforts under one umbrella. The evolution o f OD interventions thus com prise o f
laboratory stem, survey feedback stem, action research stem and socio technical stem
as discussed in conceptual study. T he process is still going on with extensive
research done by various OD practitioners and researchers. The field o f OD
interventions is increasing day by day and helps an organization to sustain in the era
o f continuous change. The e v o lu tio n ^ 'th e OD and OD interventions is shaped by
various experim ents and contributions by founders o f the field. The m ilestones in the
evolution o f the OD and OD interventions can be elaborated as follows:

l.T h e hum an relation m ovem ent introduced the concept o f unleashing hum an

potential through various OD interventions.

34
2.The w ork done at N ational Training Laboratory w ith an concept o f experiential

learning and the w ork is still going on. The founders like Kurt Lewin initiated the
idea o f theoretical roots to various OD interventions and theories in OD. The w ork o f

Ron Lippit at N TL also introduced interventions related to group developm ent.

3.T he interventions like T- groups and Socio technical system s (STS) introduced by
Tavistock institute in UK .

4.T he developm ent o f survey researcln tieth o d s derived and designed by Likert and
M ann em phasized the need o f ceilection o f data and evolution o f survey research OD
interventions.

5.The action research and diagnostic interventions proved to be very im portant as it

gave rise to interventions for accurate diagnosis and effective organizational change
m anagem ent.

6.The evolution o f Japanese M anagem ent techniques also proved essential as system
w ide interventions for organizationaj^effbctiveness.
7.The OD interventions like learning organizations by Peter Senge or G rid concept
by Blake and M outon proved to be beneficial for the organizations in com petitive
era.

8.T he evolution still continues w ith the recent interventions like appreciative enquiry

w hich is also one o f the m ost pow erful interventions.

2.3 Features o f OD interventions:

1. OD interventions are planned activitu

2. OD interventions refer to im plem entation of entire OD program

systematically.
3. OD interventions are decided m utually by client and a consultant.
4. Selection o f appropriate OD intervention denotes careful diagnosis o f current
system o f an organization.
5. A pplication o f OD interventions requires participation and involvem ent o f a

client system.
6. OD interventions focus on social and task perform ance enhancement.
7. OD interventions differ fi-om o p ^ n izatio n to organization based on

requirement.

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 8. Success o f OD intervention depends on the know ledge and expertise o f OD
c o n su ltan t, either internal or external.

2.4 Types o f OD interventions: -

1) D iagnostic activities: - These are fact finding activities designed to find the
current state o f a client system.

2) Team building activities: - These are designed to enhance effective operation

o f teams.

3) Intergroup activities: - -^ e se are the activities designed to im prove

effectiveness o f interdependent groups.

4) Survey feedback activities: - These activifies relies gathering inform ation that
is used in understanding problem s or opportunities.

5) Education and training activities: - A ctivities designed to im prove

individual’s skills abilities and knowledge.

6) Techno structural or structural activities: - AcjWrties designed to im prove the

effectiveness o f organizational structure & Job d e S i^ .

7) Process consultation activities : - The activities that are designed in

consultation to help the client to perceive understand and act upon events that occur

in client’s environment.

8) Grid organisation developm ent actiyitfes: - These activities are developed by

Robert Blake and M outon which c o n ^ tu te o f six phase model involving the total
organisation.

9) Third party peacem aking activities: - Activities designed and conducted by

skilled consultant to m anage inter personal conflict in the process o f organizational

change.

10) C oaching & C ounseling activities: - A ctivities that help the individual to define
learning goals, to understand others behavior & to see how others see their behavior.

11) Life & Career planning activities: - Activities that enable individuals to focus
on their life and career objectives & w ay to /c h ie v e them.

36
12) Planning & goal setting activities: - A ctivities that include goal setting,

problem solving, discrepancies if any to achieve objectives:

13) Strategic M anagem ent activities: - A ctivities that link the interventions with
basic m ission & environm ental scanning & w hich helps in long range planning.

14) O rganization Transform ation activities: - A ctivities that involve large scale

system changes or fundam ental change in the nature o f an organization.

Each o f the above m entioned interventions includes m any activities. Som e o f the
activities are problem specific & some are process specific.

2.5 OD interventions are broadly classified into -

1. Individual OD interventions.
2. Team building OD interventions.

3. Intergroup OD interventions
4. System w ide OD interventions.

1) Individual Interventions: -

Individual interventions m ainly focus on training or educational experiences which

are aim ed at individuals in a change effort. M any o f these interventions include

training, w orkshops, seminars or lectures including behavior and technical aspects.

Individual OD interventions m ainly includes: -

1)T - groups (T = tra in in g ) -

T-groups have its origin from NTL expem ifents and this technique was invented by
Kurt Lewin & his colleagues. A T - group is an essentially unstructured, agenda less
group session o f about 10-12 m em bers and a professional trainer who acts as a
facilitator for the group actions, reactions, interactions act as data for discussion for
group. The group m eets for three days to two weeks. Learning’s from T-group varies
from learning about oneself, understanding other’s behavior and group dynam ics. T-
group act as powerfril laboratory training. It gives an individual an insight to

diagnose the behavior and to im prove interpersonal relations.

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2) B ehavior M odeling: - It training technique used to im prove interpersonal
com petence it is based on A lbert B andura’s social leaning theory w hich believes in -

1) Individuals should perceive the link betw een behavior and certain outcom es 2)

m ust desire positive outcom es 3) m ust believe that they can do it.

3) Life and career planning: - T h ^ s e ^ p r o a c h e s help individual to analyze and

balance life and career simultane(5usly.

3) C oaching and M entoring: In an organization, individuals seek to have feedback

on their behavior and look for developing to be m ore effective. The OD consultant
and the supervisor both can guide an em ployee for it. C oaching generally focuses on
guiding on individual to enhance the perform ance. M entoring focuses on guiding an
individual for general career and personal developm ent. M entoring is generally one -
to- one session.

4) Instrum ented T raining - It^€Wisists o f self diagnostic surveys. The selection o f

appropriate instrum ent fo r* ^ lf diagnostics is based on the expertise and know ledge
o f an OD Consultant. There are w ide varieties o f such instrum ents w hich are based

on know ledge o f behavioral science the exam ples o f such instrum ents are - M BTI
questionnaire (M yers Briggs Type Indicator) or G rid OD. Such instrum ents help to

diagnose, assess and im prove individual behavior to be m ore effective.

2) T eam B uilding Interventions : -

A team is defined as a form o f group w ith small num ber o f people w ith
com plem entary skills who are com m itted to a com m on purpose, set o f perform ance,
goals and approach w hich they hold them selves m utually accountable.” (Jon
K atzenback & Douglas Smith). This definition gives an idea about w hat is expected
from an effective team. Team building refers to broad range o f planned activities that
help team s im prove the w ay they accom plish task and also help the team m em bers
enhance their interpersonal & problem solving skills. In the com plex environm ent
team building interventions can be effective in im proving team w ork and team
accom plishm ent. W ith the increased effect o f globalization, cross cultural team s are
form ed and team building interventions can effectively solve issues in such teams
and their im pact on decision m aking & problem solving. In the situation o f m ergers
and acquisitions w here different te^ms fi'om different organizations w ork together,

38
team building interventions can be o f great help to find cohesiveness in teams. Team

building can assist in developm ent o f group goals and norm s that support high
productivity and quality o f w ork life.

Team building process starts w ith diagnostic m eeting o f team m em bers. This process
is com m on for perm anent, tem porary or special groups existing in an organization.

The diagnosis represents collecting data about the current perform ance o f team. This
data gathering stage is initiated only after m anager or team leader & team m em bers
have agreed upon team developm ent and im provem ent. D ata can be collected

through questionnaire. O nce the data is collected it is fed back to the team members.
Then this inform ation is categorized by m ajor them es and team establishes an agenda
by placing priorities o f these them es. W ith the consultant’s observation and with the
inform ation received further action plans are devised. These action plans are team
building interventions. As it is a collaborative and participative m ethod o f team
m em bers , team leader, consultant and top m anagem ent. The results o f team building

interventions are high.

1) G estalt approach to team building:

This approach is focused on the thought that person function as whole, total

organism s. Each person possesses positive or negative characteristics and are

perm itted to express their feelings. People feel as a problem w hen they are not total
self and w hen they are com pelled to live others dem and than their own. Gestalt
approach is aimed to achieve awareness, integration, m aturation, authenticity self
regulation and behavior change. In Gestalt therapy the consultant facilitates the
em ployee to express positive or negative feelings, encourage transactions, design

exercises to help them to understand what they expect from others.

Exercises and technique used in te^m ^jrilding interventions.

1) Role A nalysis Technique: -

R ole analysis technique intervention is designed to clarify expectations o f team

m em bers to enhance team effectiveness. M any tim es, the role incum bent (team
m em bers) m ay not have clear idea o f the behavior expected from him /her and also
w hat others can do to help incum bent to fulfill his/her role. The concept was

39
developed by Ishwar Dayal and John M. Thom as w hile w orking for a new
organization in India. It helped the organization to clarify roles o f various

incum bents. The technique works successfully for new team s but if there is role
am biguity in the existing team then also can help in clarifying roles. The process is

about discussing the role w ith the team m em bers to redefine it for team building. The
role being defined is called as focal role. It includes : analysis o f focal role with

specific duties and behaviors and discussed by entire team and accordingly dufies
and behaviors are m odified until the group and individual are satisfied. Also

expectations in term s o f others role in a team is discussed by incumbent. Role profile

is prepared .Thus, each role in a team is discussed and role sum m ary is prepared.
This collaborative effort helps to c la rjf^ ro le s and to gain com m itm ent fi-om team
members.

2)R ole N egotiation T e c h n iq u e - It was developed by Roger Harrison and involves

r-' ■
a series o f controlled negotiations am ong group m embers. The steps o f the role

negotiation w hich includes contract setting o f list o f various things with issue
diagnosis w here m aster list is prepared by a l l . It is followed by role negotiation. This

steps involves im proving effectiveness by changing behaviors with written

agreem ent. This intervention helps to im prove team effectiveness w here pow er &

influence issues create unsatisfactory status quo. Thus this intervenfion helps in
better team functioning.

3) Interdependency exercise: - This intervention is useful if team m em bers have

e x p r e ^ d a desire to im prove cooperation am ong them selves and am ong their units.
This intervention helps to get acquainted, to surface problem s and to provide

inform ation. This helps to clarify inter dependable joints o f the jo b and cooperafion
am ong the team m em bers can w ork out interdependencies, efficiently to be m ore
productive and effective.

4) T he Appreciations & concernsjlxjErcise - If the diagnosis suggests one o f the

deficiencies ifTa team is lack o f expression o f appreciation and not dealing with
concerns or im itations o f a group. Then this intervention can be o f help. The exercise
starts when facilitator asks the team m em bers to list down two to three appreciations
for each m em ber & two to three concerns too. The face to face discussion is carried
out on the same. This exercise thus helps to understand reasons for inefficiency o f
team members.

5) R esponsibility C harting: - The technique was developed by Richard Beckhard &

Reuben Harris. This technique helps to clarify who is responsible for w hat in various

decisions and actions in a team. M any tim es w hat looks sim ple on the paper m ay be
com plex in a reality. D ifferent tasks are carried out by a team and every team

m em ber w ould have different responsibility in those tasks. Som eone w ould be
leading one task, the other m ay be approving the task, and still others contribute in a

task but not at a responsible position. If roles are not clear then it can lead to
am biguity can lead to ineffective team functioning. The process o f responsibility

charting starts with a grid - w here decisions for entire w ork area is listed on left hand
side and actors who m ight play some or other role is listed on top o f the grid.

There are five types o f behavior m arked on the grid -

1)R = Responsibility to initiate action.

2)A pproval required or right to veto = A - V
3)S = Support the action
4)1 = Inform but not influential

5)Non involvem ent -

6) Visioning: - The concept was developed by Ronald Lippit and represents and
intervention w here team m em bers develop or describe o f their vision o f w hat they

w ant their organization to be like in ftiture m ay ^ in a specified tim e frame.

3) Intergroup OD interventions: -

Richard Beckhard, an OD practitioner and one o f the pioneers o f OD, notes, “One o f
the m ajor problem s affecting organizational effectiveness is the am ount o f
dysfunctional energy expended in inappropriate com petitions & fighting betw een
groups that should be collaborating.” This com petition & conflict is a result o f varied
objective, values, efforts and interests o f two groups. The interdependence o f

fijnctions is one o f the potential sources o f conflict.

1) Intergroup team building: - T h i^ n te rv e n tio n is also know n as confrontation.

The concept was developed by B l ^ , Shepherd and M outon. In this intervention, the

41
consultant m ust intervene to open com m unication betw een two groups. It starts with
intergroup team building meeting. This m eeting involves following steps. :

1) Each group prepares the lists under the headings -

•H ow do w e see ourselves?

•H ow do w e think other departm ent sees u

•H ow do w e see other departm ent?

2) Then the group m eets and discusses the list with one o f the team m em ber as
spokesperson.

3) Then the group separately meets to discuss discrepancies & feedback. It allows
correcting the perception & behaviors.

4) Cross groups are m ade with members^=dm each departm ent and discuss diagnosis
o f the lists & developing c o n f lk t^ d u c in g alternative. Together groups develop

action plans for solving problems.

5) A follow up m eeting is scheduled to evaluate the progress.

2) O rganization M irror interventions: - It is a set o f activities in which a particular

organizational unit called as host group gets feedback from other groups about how it
is perceived ,for this purpose m eeting is conducted. OD consultant gathers the

inform ation through questionnaires beforehand; to get sense o f problem s. The

outsider’s fish bow ls the discussion. (Fish bowl is where group talking is in the inner

circle & one w hich listens is on the outer side) The host group listens and after the
entre discussion seeks for clarification if any. Subgroups are formed o f host group

m em bers and key visitors to id e n ti^ f^ ^ e c ific im provem ent that will increase
operating efficiency. A summar^^^r^ort is prepared that outlines action plans. After

certain tim e interval follow up m eeting is conducted.

3) W alton’s approach to third party peacem aking: - This approach was developed
by R.E. W alton. It is based on the fact that each group m ust have to confront about
the exiting conflict. Confrontation is done by third party i.e. consultant. The third
party m ust be able to diagnose conflict situations. W alton presents a diagnostic
m odel based on four elements - 1) The conflict issue 2) the precipitating

42
circum stances in w hich com flict occurs. 3) The conflict relevant acts o f the
principals 4) consequences o f the conflict. Thus, with the help o f these four elem ents

diagnosis or source o f conflict can be known. This helps in understanding &

developing conflict resolution action plans.

Intergroup interventions include a better w ay o f w orking together, increased

recognition o f interdependence, less com petition & m ore collaboration.

4) System w ide Interventions: -

A lso called as techno structural interventions refers to range o f interventions aimed

at im proving organizational effectiveness through changes in the task, structural,
technological & goal processes o f an organi 2:ation.

1)Socio technical System (STS)"!^ This theory was developed by Eric Trist, Fred
Em ery and others at the Tavistock Institute in the 1950’s. A ccording to this theory
organizations are com prised o f two interdependent systems, a social system and a
technical system any change in one system can affect the other system. To achieve

high productivity and em ployee satisfaction, an organization m ust optim ize both
systems. These optim ization efforts have led foundation to efforts o f w ork redesign

and organization restructuring.

2)S elf m anaged w ork teams: - It is also alternatively called as self regulating work

groups, cross-functional teams, autonom ous work groups, high perform ance teams
etc. S elf m anaged w ork team is an autonom ous group w hose m em bers decide how to
handle and m anage their tasks. The team com prises o f m em bers from different parts
o f an organization and with different skills and backgrounds. Top m anagem ent gives
authority to such team s to their group processes. Structure o f their team, the
requirem ents o f their team s and objectives to achieve them. Diverse nature o f team
helps to w ork effectively. There is increased responsibility on such team s as they
have to set w orking sc h e d u l^ , prepare budget, create jo b assignm ents, develop
perform ance goals, hire ajia select team m em bers, assess the perform ance & have
control an all group processes. M ost com panies m ay not use self m anaged team s
organization w id e / ^ t it can be used only for specific projects.

43
The characteristics o f self managed teams are -

1. Team m em bers are com m itted to team and organizational vision.

2. Team m em bers are highly skilled in their areas.

3. Inform ation in openly shared.

4. High participation and em pow erm ent is required.

5. There is clarity about roles in a team.

6. D ecisions are m ade based one consensus.

3) W ork Redesign: - This m odel was developed by Richard H ackm an and Greg
Oldttam. This model is an OD approach as it com prises o f diagnosis, participation,

and feedback and group developm ent by redesigning the jobs. Model recom m ends
analyzing jo b s using five core jo b characteristics w hich are skill variety, task

identity, task significance, autonom y and feedback from jo b enhancing m otivation,

jo b satisfaction and work effectiveness. But some factors can m inim ize or m oderate

these outcomes. One such factor is know ledge and skill and deficiency in it can lead
to less than desired perform ance. G row th need strength is yet another factor, if this

need is low i.e. individuals need to learn and develop can also lead to less m otivation
and job satisfaction. The third factor is ‘C ontext’ satisfactions i.e. dissatisfaction with

pay, job security, cow orkers, supervisors can also lead to less motivation.

Thus, if the core jo b dim ension is present in a job, the jo b characteristics model
predicts certain positive effects in an em ployee’s psychological state. This can thus

lead to high individual & team developm ent throughout the organization.

4)Survey research and feedback: Surveys are conducted for im provem ent. It is also
considered as a com m unication tool. It helps to facilitate dialogue between
em ployees and top m anagem ent. Surveys help to assess the current state o f an
organization. It can also identify various problem s that lead to less m otivation or
dissatisfaction. Survey research and feedback is a process in w hich OD consultant
and m em bers o f an organization collaboratively collect the data and analyze them for
proactive organizational change. W ith the involvem ent o f top m anagem ent, a
prelim inary planning o f survey questionnaire is done. The survey questionnaire is
then filled by organizational m embers. Data collected are sum m arized and fed back
from top to low er level. Based on feedback and problem s diagnosed action plan is

44
decided. This organization w ide survey research helps to understand problem s and

feedback w hich results in changes for desirable performance.

5) System 4 M anagem ent: - This system w ide intervention was designed by Rensis
Likert. He identified four systems as follows; -

1) System 1 - exploitative -authoritative (autocratic, top down approach)

2) System 2 - benevolent authoritative (top down, less corrective)

3) System 3 - consultative

4) System 4 - participative (based on participative m ethods o f decision m aking &

supervision, em phasis on em ployee invplvefnent & participation.)

Likert devised a m easurem ent device i.e. questionnaire to indicate perceptions o f

em ployees o f the organization which investigates the system 4 param eters. The
results are plotted as profile which illustrates difference that can occur in

organization to be least effective whereas system 4 as m ost effective organization.

OD practitioner m ust divert his/her efforts to m ove towards system 4 organization

w hich can be done by involvem ent, participations and em pow erm ent o f em ployees.

6) Stream A nalysis: - The model was developed by Jerry Porras and is valuable to
understand change and m anaging change process thoroughly. He classified
organizational w ork setting (the environm ent in w hietT people w ork) into four

variables: -

1) O rganizing arrangem ents: - includes goals, strategies, system s policies and

procedures.

2) Technology: - tools, equipm ents, m achinery, work fl^rW design, technical systems.

3) Social factors: - includes culture, interaction„p(rocess, netw ork attributes, informal

patterns.

4) Physical setting: - includes space configuration, am bience architectural design.

The process starts with thorough diagnosis through interview s, brain storming
sessions, questionnaires. A task force o f representative Irom all parts o f an
organization reviews problem s and categorizes these problem s into four stream s, as

45
discussed above. Then interconnections betw een the problem s are identified, m ore
interconnections denotes core problem s. A ction plans are developed which are

various OD interventions based on core problem s. Thus OD interventions help to

correct dysfianctional aspects and change jo b behavior o f em ployees and leads to

organizational improvement.

7) M BO : - M anagem ent by objectives is a process o f goal setting. It integrates

individual goals w ith organizational goals. This approach includes im proved

perform ance, effective com m unication and participation which enhance m orale and
jo b satisfaction. M BO believes that if people are involved in setting goals, they will
w ork harder and perform better. Participation in goal setting process allows

m anagers to control and m onitor perform ance by m easuring perform ance and results
as against two objectives which were decided1?y subordinate also.

8) T otal Q uality M anagem ent: is continuous quality im provem ent. It involves

im plem entation o f num ber o f organization im provem ent techniques like quality
circles, statistical quality control, statistical process control; self m anaged teams,

quality m anagem ent systems and extensive use o f em ployee participation. TQM and
OD shares com m on values i.e. system w ide appearance depends on planned change,

believes in em pow erm ent & involvement, both is continuous in nature. It is found
that TQ M can be applied as one o f the m ethodology along w ith other interventions

for effective change efforts. Thus, TQM brings desirable benefits such as im proved
quality, higher productivity, and enhanced em ployee development.

9) Q uality Circle: - Quality circles are inherently problem solving & goal setting &
w ith aim o f enhancing product quality. It was originated as Japanese M anagem ent
concept w hich was initiated b y /W . Edw ards Deming, Joseph Juran, A.W.
Feighenbaum . Q uality c ir c le s ^ n s is t o f a group o f seven to ten em ployees, across
the units, who m eet re g u l^ ly to analyze and suggest quality im provem ent plans.
These suggestions are forwarded to steering com m ittee for further action plan. The
steering com m ittee approves it and then action plan is im plem ented. The follow up
m eeting is conducted thereafter. M any organizations have im plem ented Q C ’s
successfully and achieved desired results. Q.C. believes in continuous im provem ent
by em pow ering teams.

46
10) Q uality o f w ork life (Q W L ):^ is considered to be a w ide application o f

organizational im provem ent efforts. It attem pts to restructure various dim ensions o f
an organization. Q W L is also characterized by em ployee participation. It also acts as

a problem solving m echanism .Q W L projects differ from organization to

organization. But the features o f QW L project rem ains constant.

11) Reengineering^-^^ko called Business process reengineering (BPR) is a system

w ide change approach focusing on basic processes o f an organization. It can be

defined as fundam ental rethinking or redesigning o f processes to achieve
im provem ent or change in perform ance. Thus reengineering is m ore o f restricting
and is o f continuous nature. For successful im plem entation o f BPR, it requires an
effective team.

12) L earning O rganization: - It i ^ s y s t e m w ide change program that em phasizes

on continuous self directed le.3 m ing that will lead to positive change and growth o f
individual, team and organization. In the age o f globalization, com petition and new
internet technology, organizations that are flexible and able to adapt according to

challenges can also sustain. Learning organizations are responsive constantly and can

develop ow n technology or products according to changing competition.

Characteristics o f learning organization: -

1) C onstant readiness for change & to take advantage o f new opportunities.

2) Learning organizations continuous plan with integration o f all levels o f an

organization.

3) Im provised im plem entation- Leafning organizations believe in experim entation

rather than im plem enting rigid pmns.

4) Collaboration and contribution by each level o f an organization is crucial in

learning organization.

5) Com m itm ent towards continuous learning is key elem ent o f learning

organization.

6) Continuous revaluation o f vari 9Jls policies, procedures , plans is necessary for

learning organization.

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In short, learning organizations do not wait for problem s to arise but constantly
undergo re exam ination o f goals for sustainability.

13) Large scale system change and org^tm ation transform ation: V arious
interventions discussed earlier are part o f large scale system change. It covers all the

interventions i.e. individual, team , inter group .structural interventions as large scale
system is a m assive change involving num ber o f organizational units, num ber o f

people affected, various organizational subunits altered. The period o f large scale
change is long.

C haracteristics o f large scale system change are:

1) A re- conceptualization o f nature o f business.

2) Use o f Parallel Learning Structures.
3) Reduction or restructuring o f hierarchical levels

4) Team building interventions.

5) Survey feedback and research.
6) Extensive use o f task forces.

7) Intensive leadership training.

Thus, large scale system change can only be possible if m ultiplicity o f

interventions is im plem ented in a specified time^

2.6 Benefits o f OD interventions :

1. The OD interventions are range o f tools and techniques used to m anaged change
effectively. The organization can select appropriate OD intervention as per the need.

2.The OD interventions are based on OD values and assum ptions so focus on

behavioral, technical and structural aspect o f change.

3 .0 D interventions prom ote individual well being and enhanced perform ance.
4.The team building interventions creates the team effectiveness for organizational

effectiveness.
5.The conflict is effectively resolved through the inter group or confrontation OD

interventions.
6 .0 D interventions help not only to understand the jo b o f the incum bent but also the

role and responsibility in the process.

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7.Effective im plem entation o f OD interventions creates a responsive and adaptive
culture in an organization. ^

8.T he range o f OD interventions offers l^ g e scale transform ational tools and

techniques for sustainability o f an organization.

9.The OD interventions involve em pow erm ent o f em ployees.

10.The process o f im plem entation o f OD interventions helps in selecting appropriate

OD intervention for shared vision, m otivating the change, enhanced perform ance and
organizational effectiveness.

2.6 Problem s faced in im plem entation o f OD interventions

1. The objectives o f change if not clear and com m unicated to the change targets can
lead to m isinterpretation o f OD efforts.

2.Lack o f trust and support from top m anagem ent can also be hurdle in the
im plem entation o f OD interventions.
3.The expertise o f OD consultant either internal or external is crucial in the entire
process o f im plem entation o f OD interventions.
4.The selection o f appropriate OD intervention is also im portant , if it is not done

through proper diagnosis and research can lead to failure o f entire process.
5.The change targets need clear vision and com m unication for the entire process o f
im plem entation o f OD process , lacking this can give rise to resistance to change.

6.R esistance to change is one o f the critical aspect in the im plem entation process o f
OD interventions.
7.The feedback loop if m issing in jHe entire process can m islead the real objectives
o f OD process.
8.The im plem entation o f OD interventions cannot be considered as quick fix but it
needs continuous up- dation as per changing dem ands.
9.Lack o f proper evaluation technique can also be a critical issue in the

im plem entation o f OD interventions.

lO.OD intervention cannot be im plem ented in parts but it needs holistic approach.

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2.8 Param eters for ideal OD interventions

• A pplication o f OD intervention needs system atic approach.

• OD intervention should be applied based on the need or problem o f an

organization.

• A pplication o f OD intervention is different for different organizations.

• Im plem entation o f OD intervprmon needs expertise o f internal or external

consultant.

• The process o f application o f OD interventions is continuous.

• Em ployees m ust be well aw are o f application o f OD interventions and should

know the m otive behind im plem entation o f particular OD intervention.

• The entire process o f im plem entation should follow the values and
assum ptions o f OD , i.e action research, survey feedback, team s and team

work, parallel learning structure, norm ative and re-educative strategy, open
systems ,involvem ent and participation etc.

• Evaluation o f OD intervention should be done systematically.

• A pplication o f behavior science in designing and im plem entation o f OD

intervention enhance the effectiveness.

• Selection o f appropriate OD intervention needs careful diagnosis which

enhance the success o f application o f OD interventions.

2.10 Role o f H R in im plem entation o f OD interventions for m anaging change -

HR departm ent is responsible for 4eveloping the m ost im portant asset o f an

organization & good HR p ra c tic e ^ e liv e rs organizational perform ance that achieve

organizational objectives sjie^ssflilly . HR aims to develop m anpow er according to

objectives & goals o f an organization. So, w hen on organization faces a challenge to
sustain then it is a responsibility o f an HR departm ent to prepare em ployees for

upcom ing challenges.

Follow ing are the areas o f concern in im plem entation o f OD interventions program

in m anaging organizational change: -

> C reating awareness for change.

> M otivating em ployees for chaifge.
> Explaining need for ch^prge to employees.

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 > Tie-Up with OD consultant either internal or external
> Contract with OD consultant for specific OD program.

> Play a m ediator betw een top m anagem ent & OD consultant.

> D eciding OD interventions w ith consultant

> Im plem entation o f OD interventions.

> Involving em ployees & their feedj)a(5k for effectiveness o f applicability

o f OD interventions.

The role o f HR is very crucial in applicability o f OD interventions successfully. HR

involvem ent is m anaging change w ith OD intervention strategies is understood as

effective m anagem ent o f organizational change in alignm ent o f organization’s
corporate & business strategies. HR clearly acts as change agent and perform s
im portant duty in application o f OD interventions and m anaging organizational
change.

2.11 OD interventions: An effective tool for organizational change

W hen an organization itself initiate^Mlie change w ith a deliberate attem pt it is called

as planned change. As per the dem ands o f an environm ent on organization i.e. client

system approach OD consultant and the efforts or techniques that are used to change

i.e. OD interventions focus on individual, team and overall organization.

1)Individual Effectiveness: - Each organization consists o f individuals w ith their

ow n unique values, attitudes and motivation. W hen organization seeks a change in
individual behavior for change then use o f OD interventions pertaining to individual
developm ent can be o f great help. Interventions for individual developm ent range
fi-om em pow ering them to counseling & mentoring. The assum ption o f such efforts is
that developing better individual or em ployees can m ake effective organization.
2)Team Effectiveness: - Team s form fundam ental unit o f an organization. Team s or
w ork groups play very im portant role in organizational effectiveness. There is range
o f team building interventions . ^ r e effective team s m ay increase w ork m otivation,
im prove perform ance and e f ^ ie n c y . There is an em phasis on im proving problem
solving processes and resolving conflicts and enhancing productivity and

effectiveness.

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3)O rganization Effectiveness: - OD also focuses on system w ide change. There are
OD interventions which relate to restructuring o f organizations & also are OD

interventions that change entire system with the em phasis on all type o f
interventions, i.e. individual, team & structural.

Thus, every organization should have open system s to accom m odate change. The

organization or a system need to m aintain its equilibrium and if that equilibrium is

disturbed by both internal & external forces, change occurs. If organization is not
able to plan the change process effectively it m ay lead to failure. The plan change

efforts can help on organization to achieve desired results. These plan change efforts
are OD program s consisting o f OD interventions.

2.12 Role o f OD interventions in overcom ing t)ire challenge o f sustainability of

an organization:

Organizational sustainability is defined as “an organization’s ability to achieve its

goals and increase long term stakeholder value by integrating economic,

environm ental and social opportunities into strategies.’’(D avid A lm an -2011-

sym posium on sustainability-profiles in leadership- NYC 2001). Sustainability is not
about today but the actions o f today should benefit for the years to come.

O rganizations m ust have following considerations for sastainability:

> A balanced focus on long term and short term goals o f an organization to adapt
challenges.

> O rganization’s treatm ent to em ployees as an asset

> A n organizational design to fulfill the future needs and to enhance the capability
o f an organization.
> O rganizations m ust identify the pace o f change.
> Organization m ust invest in know ledge driven initmtives.

O rganizational sustainability can be introduced with clarity in vision, m ission and

plans w hich are environm ent sensitive i.e w hich either changes or gets m odified with
the environm ental dem ands and changes. It is also to be noted that the effective
strategic planning regarding these can initiate the required changes w ithin a strong

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organizational fram ework w ith open system approach for incorporating the adaptive
cuhure. The organizational culture is m arked with how well versed the dem ands and

problem s related to it are assessed and solutions can easily com e up w ith scope for
creative culture effectively institutionalized within. This can only be possible with

effective hiring o f right people according to changing needs o f an organization and

em pow ering all the em ployees to participate and get involved in it. If these principles
are put through the organization w ith proper and long term approach then surely an
OD can be effective solution for it because the principles stated above are underlying

foundations o f O rganization Developm ent.

OD interventions focuses on individual need for change or team related need o f
change or even the system w ide need o f change. The OD process is based on the firm
foundation o f OD values and assum ptions w hich m ake it m ore authentic and
genuine. The features o f OD like diagnosis , action research ,survey feedback,
participation and involvem ent and re-education confirm s the all inclusive approach

tow ards organizational change. ODI creates culture for coping up the challenge o f
sustainability and also the effective application o f OD interventions sustains the

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