Electrical Surveying

Part I: Resistivity method

Lecture A
Dr. Laurent Marescot
laurent@tomoquest.com

1
 Introduction
Electrical surveying…

• Resistivity method
• Induced polarization method (IP)
• Self-potential (SP) method

Higher frequency methods (electromagnetic surveys):

• Electromagnetic induction methods
• Ground penetrating radar (GPR)

2
 Resistivity method
The resistivity method is used in the study of horizontal
and vertical discontinuities in the electrical properties
(resistivity) of the subsurface

3
 Application
• Exploration of bulk mineral deposit (sand, gravel)
• Exploration of underground water supplies
• Engineering/construction site investigation
• Waste sites and pollutant investigations
• Cavity, karst detection
• Glaciology, permafrost
• Geology
• Archaeological investigations

4
 Structure of the lecture

The next two lectures…

1. Resistivity of rocks
2. Equations in resistivity surveying
3. Survey strategies and interpretation
4. Summary of resistivity methods: case histories
5. Conclusions

5
1. Resistivity of rocks

6
 Resistivity and units

δL
δR = ρ
δA
δA
ρ =δR
δL
• ρ resistivity in ohm.m (Ωm)
• σ =1/ ρ conductivity in Siemens per meter (S/m)

Resistivity is the physical property which determines the aptitude of

this material to be opposed to the passage of the electrical current
7
 Electronic conductibility
The current flows by
displacement of electrons.
Known as electronic
conductibility or metallic
because it is a similar
conductibility to that of metals.
This solid conductibility is really
significant only for certain
massive mineral deposits.

8
 Electrolytic conductibility
The current is carried by ions. The electrical resistivity of
rocks bearing water is controlled mainly by the water which
they contain.

9
 Electrolytic conductibility
The resistivity of a rock will depend :

• on the resistivity of the natural pore water and consequently

the quantity of dissolved salts in the electrolyte

1g/liter=1000 ppm

• on the quantity of electrolyte contained in the unit of rock

volume (saturation)

• on the mode of electrolyte distribution, porosity

10
 Effect of temperature

ρ18
ρt =
1 + 0.025(t − 18)

A rock totally frozen is infinitely resistant and it is

impossible to implement resitivity methods (use EM
methods)

11
 Archie´s Law

ρ = ρw a φ −m S −n
• ρ resistivity of the rock
• ρw resistivity of the fluid (water)
• Φ porosity
• S saturation in water
• a factor which depends of the lithology (varies between
0.6 and 2)
• m cementation factor (depends of the pores shape, of the
compaction and varies between 1.3 for unconsolidated sands to
2.2 for cimented limestone
• n about 2 for majority of the formations with normal porosities
containing water between 20 and 100 %.
12
 Formation factor F

ρ = ρw a φ −m S −n
ρ = ρw F S −n

• For sand and sandstones: F≈ 0.62/φ2.15

• For well cemented rocks: F≈ 1/φ2

13
Permeability

There is no direct
relationship between
resistivity and
permeability.

This table shows also the

problem in identifying
rocks due to overlapping
resistivity values (no
contrast)

14
 Resistivity of rocks and minerals

Air, gas or oil: infinite or very high resistivity!

Liquid materials from landfills are generally conductive (<10 ohm.m) 15
 Effect of clay and graphite
• Clay has a high ionic exchange capacity, therefore the
conductivity of the pore fluid largely increases

Archie´s Law is not valid if clay is present!

• Graphite, often associated with pyrite, makes the resistivity

decrease

16
 Summary…
The conductivity of a rock increases if…

• The quantity of water increases

• The salinity increases (quantity of ions)
• The quantity of clay increases
• The temperature increases

17
2. Equations in resistivity surveying

18
 Maxwell equations
G
G ∂B
∇× E + =0 Faraday induction
∂t
G
G ∂D G
∇× H − = j Ampère − Maxwell
∂t
G G ∂p
∇ ⋅ D = p or ∇ ⋅ j = G
E electrical field (V/m)
∂t G
G B magnetic induction field (Wb/m 2 )
∇⋅B = 0 G
H magnetic field (A/m)
G
D displacement field (C/m 2 )
G
j current density (A/m 2 )
p charge density (C/m 3 ) 19
 Static approximation
G
∇× E = 0 Faraday induction
G G
∇× H = j Ampère − Maxwell
G
∇⋅ j = 0
G
∇⋅B = 0

20
Current flow in the ground

21
 Equations for DC approximation
G G
E=ρ j Ohm´s Law

G Divergence is null except at the

∇⋅ j = 0 current source
G
E = −∇V Definition of electrical field E

K 1 G 1 2
∇⋅ j = ∇⋅E = − ∇ V = 0 Laplace´s equation
ρ ρ 22
 Potential from a single electrode
In polar coordinates, Laplace´s equation rewrites:

∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ 1 ∂ 2V
⎜r ⎟+ 2 ⎜ sin θ ⎟+ 2 2 =0
∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ r sin θ ∂ψ 2

In polar coordinates, the current flow is symmetrical

with respect of θ and ψ directions

∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞ ∂V C1
⎜r ⎟=0 r 2
= C1 V = − + C2
∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ∂r r
Direct integration can then be performed… 23
 Potential from a single electrode
Determination of C1 using the definition of current I…
G
G E C1 2πC1
I = ∫ j ⋅ ds = ∫ ds = ∫ 2 ds = −
ρ ρr ρ
Remember... S s s

2 ∂V
r = C1
∂r

24
Potential from a single electrode

C2 tends to 0, if D tends to infinity…

C1 2π C1
V = − + C2 I =−
r ρ

ρI
V=
2πr 25
Two current electrodes

26
Potential field between A B
two current electrodes
A and B

27
 Potential difference
Vp1 is the sum of the
potential contribution
from the current
electrodes C1 and C2

⎛1 1⎞
VP1 = Iρ / 2πr1 + (− Iρ / 2πr2 ) = (Iρ / 2π )⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ r1 r2 ⎠ 28
 Two potential electrodes

ρI ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
VM = ⎜ − ⎟
2π ⎝ AM MB ⎠
ρI ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
VN = ⎜ − ⎟
2π ⎝ AN NB ⎠
ρI ⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞
ΔVMN = VM − VN = ⎜ − − + ⎟
2π ⎝ AM MB AN NB ⎠
−1
2πΔVMN ⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞
ρa = ⎜ − − + ⎟
I ⎝ AM MB AN NB ⎠ 29
 Apparent resistivity
• In a heterogeneous medium, the measured resistivity is an
apparent resistivity, which is a function of the form of the
inhomogeneity and of the electrode spacing and surface
location.

• K is named the geometric factor.

ΔVMN
ρa = K
I
30
 Geometric factor
For a half-space, a general
definition for the geometric
factor can be written:

4π
K=
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− − + + − − +
AM AN BM BN A′M A′N B′M B′N 31
Electrode spreads

32
 Electrode spreads
ΔV
ρ a = 2πa Wenner array
I
ΔV Schlumberger array
ρ a = π n( n + 1)a
I

ΔV dipole-dipole array
ρ a = πn(n + 1)(n + 2)a
I
33
 Current penetration

⎛ 2 ⎞ −1 ⎛ 2 z ⎞
I f = ⎜ ⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝π ⎠ ⎝ AB ⎠

• z depth
• AB distance between current electrodes
• If fraction of current penetrating between the
surface and z
34
 ⎛ 2 ⎞ −1 ⎛ 2 z ⎞
I f = ⎜ ⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝π ⎠ ⎝ AB ⎠ 35
Principle of reciprocity

36
Heterogeneous Earth

37
 Modified Snell´s Law
tan θ1 = Lz1 / Lx
tan θ 2 = Lz 2 / Lx
⇒ tan θ1 / tan θ 2 = Lz1 / Lz 2

V = j ρL ⇒ L = V / j ρ
⇒ Lz1 ∝ 1 / ρ1 , Lz 2 ∝ 1 / ρ 2
⇒ Lz1 / Lz 2 = tan θ1 / tan θ 2 = ρ 2 / ρ1

tan θ1 / tan θ 2 = ρ 2 / ρ1 38
tan θ1 ρ 2
=
tan θ 2 ρ1

ρ1 < ρ 2

ρ1 > ρ 2
39
Current distribution

40
 Current distribution

This has an influence on the depth of investigation!

41
Current distribution

42
 Reflection and transmission

ρ1 I ⎛ 1 ⎞ ρ1 I ⎛ k ⎞
VM = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
4π ⎝ r1 ⎠ 4π ⎝ r2 ⎠
ρ2 I ⎛ 1 k ⎞
VN = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
4π ⎝ r3 r3 ⎠

VM = VN ⇒ k =
( ρ 2 − ρ1 )
For r1=r2=r3
(ρ1 + ρ 2 )
43
 Anisotropy
n
hi H
S = S1 + S 2 + ... + S n = ∑ =
i =1 ρi ρl
n
T = T1 + T2 + ... + Tn = ∑ hi ρ i = Hρ t
i =1

ρt
λ=
ρl

e.g. • ρl longitudinal resistivity

λ ≅1 for alluvium • ρt transverse resistivity
λ >2 for graphitic slates • λ 44
coefficient of anisotropy
 Effect of topography

Equipotential: dashed lines 45

3. Survey strategies and interpretation

46
Resistivity survey equipment

47
48
 Device
• Current source: batteries in series
• Voltmeter and ammeter (resistivimeter)
• Electrodes: metallic stakes
current electrodes: stainless steel
potential electrodes: stainless steel or
nonpolarizing electrodes

Polarization occurs at the contact electrode/ground: this

creates an additional potential difference.

49
 Polarization and skin depth

• Use an alternating current to avoid polarization

• Very low frequency (<10 Hz)

Skin depth: depth δ at which the amplitude of the field

reaches 1/e of its original value a the source

ρ
δ ≈ 503
f 50
 Contact resistance

dL dL
dR = ρ =ρ
s 2πL2

ρ ⎛1 1 ⎞
R= ⎜ − ⎟
2π ⎝ r L ⎠

L = distance to the centre of the electrode [m]

r = radius of the electrode [m]
R = resistance [ohm]
ρ = resistivity of the surrounding ground [ohm.m] 51
To decrease the contact resistance…
• Add electrodes in parallel
• Increase the current intensity
• Increase the diameter of the current electrodes
• Put electrode deeper into the ground
• Add water (with salt) near the electrodes

About 90% of the contact resistance contribution comes

from a portion of the ground around the electrode that is
equal to 10 times the diameter of the electrode

52
Equivalent circuit

53
 Origine of noise

• Telluric currents
• Man-made currents
• Metallic conductors in the ground (short-circuits)

Solutions:
• Use of alternating current
• Stacking operations
• Rejection filters (16-20 Hz, 50-60 Hz)

54
 Survey strategies
• Resistivity mapping, constant separation traversing (CST):
used to determine lateral variations of resistivity. The
current and potential electrodes are maintained at a fixed
separation and moved along profiles
• Vertical electrical sounding (VES):
used in the study of near-horizontal interfaces. The
electrode spread is progressively expanded about a central
point
• Resistivity tomography (ERT):
is a mix between CST and VES. Also named electrical
imaging
55
Constant separation traversing (CST)

56
Constant separation traversing (CST)

57
Constant separation traversing (CST)

58
Constant separation traversing (CST)

59
Constant separation traversing (CST)

• Demo during the lecture

60
Interpretation of CST

61
62
63
64
65
66
67
Pontis Nappe

Siviez-
Mischabel
Nappe

Water
infiltration
Unstable
area 68
 Small scale resistivity map (archaeology)

AB=4m

wall

fountain? 69
 Mobile arrays

100 data points/seconde

70
Source: Geocarta, Paris 1 data point each 20cm
 Mobile arrays

71
Source: Geocarta, Paris Vineyards investigations
 Mobile arrays

Current injection A B

M1 N1
Resistivity measurement
(three investigation depths)
M2 N2

M3 N372
Source: Geocarta, Paris
 Mapping example with mobile array
(spacing 2m)
Surface: 140 hectares

Apparent resistivity

15 ohm.m 150 ohm.m 73

Source: Geocarta, Paris
Profile spacing 6m Profile spacing 12m Profile spacing 24m

Apparent resistivity

10 ohm.m 90 ohm.m 74
Source: Geocarta, Paris
 Ecartement 0.5m Ecartement 1m Ecartement 2m

Apparent resistivity

10 ohm.m 60 ohm.m 75
Source: Geocarta, Paris
Vertical electrical sounding (VES)

76
Vertical electrical sounding (VES)

77
Vertical electrical sounding (VES)

78
Vertical electrical sounding (VES)

79
80
One layer and two layers

81
82
83
Three layers and more…

84
85
 Equivalence

R = hρ h
R=
ρ 86
 Parametric sounding
A parametric sounding is a VES carried out on an outcrop
or near a borehole to precisely determine the resistivity of
a geological formation.

A precise determination of resistivity reduce the problem

of equivalence

87
Suppression

88
89
• Demo during the lecture 90
 Interpretation of VES

• Demo during the lecture 91

Interpretation of VES

92
93
94
95
96
97
98