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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
➤ climbing permanent structures like a gantry or tel- ➤ work in the upper floor of a multi-storey building
ephone pole where there is no risk of falling (except separate
➤ working near an excavation area or cellar opening if activities like using a stepladder).
a person could fall into it and be injured
➤ painting or pasting and erecting bill posters at height At the centre of the Regulations (regulation 6), the
➤ work on staging or trestles, for example for filming employer is expected to apply a three-stage hierarchy to
or events all work which is to be carried out at height. The three
➤ using a ladder/stepladder or kick stool for shelf fill- steps are the avoidance of work at height, the prevention
ing, window cleaning and the like of workers from falling and the mitigation of the effect on
➤ using man-riding harnesses in ship repair, off-shore workers of falls should they occur.
or steeplejack work The Regulations require that:
➤ working in a mine shaft or chimney
➤ work carried out at a private house by a person ➤ work is not carried out at height when it is reason-
employed for the purpose, for example painter and ably practicable to carry the work out safely other
decorator (but not if the private individual carries out than at height (e.g. the assembly of components
work on their own home). should be done at ground level)
➤ when work is carried out at height, the employer
However it would not include:
shall take suitable and sufficient measures to pre-
➤ slips, trips and falls on the same level vent, so far as is reasonably practicable, any person
➤ falls on permanent stairs if there is no structural or falling a distance liable to cause injury (e.g. the use
maintenance work being done of guard rails)
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Working at height – hazards and control
➤ the employer shall take suitable and sufficient meas- ladders, scaffolds, gangways and passenger and mate-
ures to minimize the distance and consequences of rials hoists must be safe for use and be subject to regu-
a fall (collective measures, e.g. air bags or safety lar inspection. Working platforms should also be kept as
nets, must take precedence over individual meas- clear and clean as possible to avoid slip and trips and
ures, e.g. safety harnesses). the accidental loss of material to the ground below.
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
One particular form of such activity which can be ensuring that other holes in floors are similarly protected
particularly hazardous is the use of false-work. False- or covered. However, adequate levels of lighting and good
work is a temporary structure used to support a non- housekeeping are also important as is a high standard of
self-supporting structure during its construction or supervision and monitoring control.
refurbishment. An example is the wooden structure to
support a brickwork arch which is being built. Only com-
petent persons should plan, erect, load or dismantle 18.3.3 Protection against falls
false-work. The collapse of false-work structures is com-
mon and, when occurring at height, can cause serious Falls from a height are the most common cause of seri-
injury. Most accidents caused by the collapse of false- ous injury or death in the construction industry. The
work result from the lack of liaison between the various WAHR require that suitable and sufficient steps be taken
trades using it and its suppliers or erectors. to prevent any person falling a distance that would be
The cleaning of buildings and monuments involves liable to cause personal injury and specify that the maxi-
the use of hazardous techniques such as grit-blasting or mum unprotected gap between the toe and guard rail of
high pressure water-jets, which is often done from scaf- a scaffold is 470 mm. This implies the use of an interme-
folding or even ladders. With both these techniques, diate guard rail or infill. They also specify requirements
care is needed to protect the workers, the occupiers of for personal suspension equipment and means of arrest-
the building and passers-by from hazards such as noise, ing falls (such as safety nets, Fig. 18.3).
dust, falling debris and possible flooding of walkways. When working at height, a hierarchy of measures
The equipment must be maintained and inspected regu- should then be followed to prevent falls from occurring.
larly and operatives provided with training, supervision These measures are:
and suitable personal protective equipment (goggles, ear
defenders and gloves) and waterproof clothing. Other ➤ avoid working at height, if possible
measures will be necessary, such as the boarding up of ➤ the provision of a properly constructed working plat-
windows, which may require the provision of temporary form, complete with toe boards and guard rails
lighting inside the building. In the case of water-jetting, ➤ if this is not practicable or where the work is of short
the scaffold should be enclosed in tarpaulin sheets and a duration, suspension equipment should be used and
channel system should be used to enable water to run off. only when this is impracticable
Finally, stairwells and other holes in floors are another ➤ collective fall arrest equipment (air bags or safety
source of falls from height and measures must be taken nets) may be used
to address these hazards. Such measures include hand- ➤ where this is not practicable, individual fall restrain-
rails on stairs, guard rails to stairwells and lift shafts, and ers (safety harnesses) should be used
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Working at height – hazards and control
18.3.4 Fragile roofs and surfaces 18.3.5 Protection against falling objects
Work on or near fragile surfaces is also covered by the This topic is covered in Chapter 10 because it is a gen-
WAHR (see summary in Chapter 21). Roof work, partic- eral site issue. However, it is particularly relevant when
ularly work on pitched roofs, is hazardous and requires working at height and is also now covered by WAHR
a specific risk assessment and method statement (see (see summary in Chapter 21). A study by the HSE has
Chapter 6 for a definition) prior to the commencement indicated that over a 5-year period, 44 construction
of work. Particular hazards are fragile roofing materials, workers and members of the public (including children)
including those materials which deteriorate and become were killed by insecure loads, unsecured equipment and
more brittle with age and exposure to sunlight, exposed pieces of plant falling on them. Over the same period 59
Guard rail
(iii)
Toe board
(ii)
(iv)
(i)
Sloping roof edge protection; typical arrangement in conventional tube and fittings
(a) Supported from window opening
(b) Working platform below the eaves
(c) Top lift of a scaffold. Dimensions should be as follows:
(i) Working platform minimum width 600 mm
(ii) Minimum 950 mm
(iii) Maximum gap 470 mm
(iv) To rise to the line of the roof slope with a minimum height of 150 mm
(v) Gap between rails no more than 470 mm
Figure 18.5 Typical sloping roof edge protection. Barriers shown in (a) can be useful where spaces is limited, but they are
not capable of sustaining loads so large as (b) and (c) which also provide a working platform.
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
were fatally injured by the collapse of structures or parts and type of cement should significantly reduce the rate of
of structures. Whilst 37 of these deaths were caused deterioration.
by accidents during demolition work, the remainder Weather is also a significant factor which can
occurred during routine construction work. As mentioned increase the hazards associated with working at height.
in Chapter 10, workers and members of the public need High winds can affect the stability of scaffolding and
to be protected from the hazards associated with fall- ladders as has been mentioned elsewhere in this chap-
ing objects by the use of covered walkways or suitable ter. They can affect the work process itself by displacing
netting to catch falling debris. Waste material should be tools and materials and cause injuries to persons work-
brought to ground level by the use of chutes or hoists ing at height or those below the workings. Such winds, if
and not thrown from height. Minimal quantities of build- strong enough, can also lift roofing tiles or sheets partic-
ing materials should be stored on working platforms. ularly if the roof is only partially completed. Such prob-
lems often occur outside normal working hours causing
injuries to members of the public (including trespassers)
Toe board
clip Toe board and damage to neighbouring properties. It is very impor-
centres
About 3.0 m to tant to ensure that the construction work is protected
950 mm
Intermediate rail minimum
150 mm after working hours especially if bad weather is forecast.
Guard rail minimum Lightning is another weather hazard and it is inadvisable
for work to continue on roofs or scaffolds when thunder-
No gap more
than 470 mm storms are approaching. The effects of lightning are dis-
cussed in more detail in Chapter 14.
Even apparently benign weather can present health
and safety hazards. Skin cancer rates due to excessive
Not more exposure to sunlight has increased significantly over the
than 5.0 mm
last two decades. Even if skin cancer does not occur,
serious damage to the skin will result from regular expo-
sure to strong sun over several years. Typical damage is
wrinkled skin due to the breakdown of skin elasticity and
the formation of red patches of skin. There are also con-
cerns, with the depletion of the ozone layer, that strong
Figure 18.6 Flat roof edge protection supported at sunlight may cause serious deterioration in eye health,
ground level. Ground-level support allows work up to the leading to possible problems such as arc eye and long-
roof edge without obstruction. term eye damage. Precautions such as the use of pro-
tective creams, sunglasses and reduced exposure by
wearing suitable clothing are all essential controls. This
Head protection is mandatory on site for workers topic is covered in more detail in Chapter 17.
and visitors. Several of the lives lost due to accidents Finally, cold weather can also present hazards when
from falling materials could have been saved if hard hats working at height particularly when the cold weather is
had been worn. accompanied by wind, which will produce a ‘chill fac-
tor’ and an apparent temperature that is lower than the
18.3.6 The effect of deteriorating materials and actual one. Guard rails will become colder and the reac-
weather tions of workers much slower. Of course, cold weather
will have an effect on construction processes, such as
As many materials age, they become brittle, weaker and the mixing of cement and the laying of bricks. Workers
less stable. This has already been mentioned as a hazard should wear appropriate clothing and, if the temperature
associated with fragile roofs. It is also a problem in other is too low, work at height should cease.
situations found in construction work, such as refurbish-
ment work and the various cladding materials (includ-
ing asbestos) used inside and outside buildings. The well 18.3.7 Working over water
publicized concrete ‘cancer’, where concrete degenerates
to a powder leading to serious structural weaknesses, has Where construction work takes place over water, steps
occurred in several relatively young reinforced concrete should be taken to prevent people falling into the water
structures, causing either very expensive repairs or total and rescue equipment should be available at all times. If
rebuilds. Whilst all materials will deteriorate to some extent the work takes place adjacent to a river or canal, special
with age, good design, maintenance, construction meth- precautions are needed for persons using a towpath.
ods (using the correct mix ratios for mortars and concrete) The CDM Regulations cover any work where there is a
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Working at height – hazards and control
risk to operatives of drowning. Working on or adjacent and provided with guard rails, toe boards and ladder
to water or when people have to pass near or across access to working platforms. Other precautions include
water on their way to work gives rise to a risk of drown- fall arrest equipment such as safety nets or harnesses,
ing. People can also drown in other liquids such as slur- the non-overcrowding of the scaffold, the provision of
ries, chemicals and some free flowing foodstuffs in vats rescue equipment such as lifebelts and the availability of
and silos. a rescue boat under the control of a competent person,
At the planning stage of any work over or beside should someone fall into the water. Harnesses must be
water, the following points need to be considered: worn by those working on the scaffold in addition to the
use of appropriate personal protective equipment. There
➤ the provision of suitable fencing to ensure that per- should be a current register of workers and nobody
sons do not fall into the water, i.e. the provision of should work alone on the scaffold.
barriers or fences with toe boards For pedestrians, using perhaps a towpath, a pro-
➤ the provision of life jackets, buoyancy aids and grab tected access or safe diversion route must be provided.
lines (fast flowing water such as rivers) Signs, lighting and protective barriers will also be required
➤ the provision of rescue equipment, lifebelts, harnesses, to minimize the risk of boats colliding with the scaffold.
safety lines and, in some cases, a rescue boat Finally, consideration must be given to health haz-
➤ where transport by water is required, arrangements ards which are associated with working near water. These
must be made for safe landing stages and life include biological hazards such as leptospirosis and teta-
jackets nus and general hazards to health associated with work-
➤ when boats are used they should be of suitable con- ing on any construction site such as noise, vibration,
struction, under the control of a competent person, musculoskeletal problems, electricity, mechanical haz-
not overloaded and properly maintained ards, flying particles, dust and contact with cement.
➤ the provision of rescue teams and procedures Appropriate control measures include disinfection,
➤ specific training for boat operatives, rescue teams good standards of personal hygiene, the use of appro-
and supervisors priate personal protective equipment, adequate washing
➤ all precautions must also protect the safety of the and first-aid facilities, and the provision of information,
public, especially children instruction, training and supervision.
➤ suitable security measures will be necessary to pre-
vent the theft of rescue equipment and boats out-
18.3.8 Methods of avoiding working at height
side working hours
➤ weather, tides and flooding conditions must be Much of the work which is done at height could often
taken into account when planning rescue measures be done or partly done at ground level – thus avoiding
and using boats as transport the hazards of working at height. The partial erection of
➤ all openings, drains and vats must be covered, scaffolding or edge protection at ground level and the
where possible. use of cranes to lift it into place at height are examples
of this. The manufacture of complete window frames
Site supervision is required to ensure that all barriers, in a workshop and then the final installation of a frame
fencing and rescue equipment is provided before any into the building is another. By the use of suitable exten-
work commences which could place personnel at risk sion equipment high windows can be cleaned from the
from drowning. The site supervisor will ensure that only ground and high walls can be painted from the ground.
authorized personnel alter barriers and operate rescue However, in most construction work at height, the work
equipment and boats. The supervisor will also ensure cannot be done at ground level and suitable control
that all rescue equipment is checked regularly and that measures to address the hazards of working at height
any defective equipment is repaired or replaced imme- will be required.
diately. He will ensure that personnel appointed as res-
cue teams are available during working periods and that
replacement personnel are available when necessary.
There are several general hazards associated with
18.4 Working above ground or where
working at height over or adjacent to water which are there is a risk of falling
similar to those for any work done at height. These
include falling from a height, scaffold stability, falling 18.4.1 Hazards and controls associated with
material, pedestrian safety and possible collision with working at height
the scaffolding by boats. Many of these issues can be
addressed by the provision of a properly designed scaf- Work at any height involves a risk of falling. The sig-
fold, erected by competent persons and securely tied nificance of injuries resulting from falls from height,
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
➤ ladders
➤ fixed scaffolds
➤ mobile scaffold towers
➤ mobile elevated work platforms.
Ladders 1
The Work at Heigh Regulations place a duty on employers
to ensure that a ladder is used for work at height only if a
risk assessment has demonstrated that the use of more
suitable work equipment is not justified because of the
low risk and:
Figure 18.7 Ladder showing correct 1 in 4 angle (means
of securing omitted for clarity).
➤ short duration of use or
➤ existing features on the site which cannot be altered.
Falls from ladders caused 13 deaths in 2005 and a third metal ladders, contact with electricity. The main category
of all major injuries caused by falls at work were due of ladder accidents is falls.
to falls from ladders (1,200). Ten ladder accidents are There are two common materials used in the con-
reported to the HSE every day. struction of ladders – aluminium and timber. Aluminium
The main cause of accidents involving ladders is ladders have the advantage of being light but should
ladder movement whilst in use. This occurs when they not be used in high winds or near live electricity. Timber
have not been secured to a fixed point, particularly at the ladders need regular inspection for damage and should
base. Other causes include over-reaching by the worker, not be painted since this could hide cracks and other
slipping on a rung, ladder defects and, in the case of defects, such as knots.
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Working at height – hazards and control
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
Figure 18.9 Attach paint cans and the like to the ladder.
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Working at height – hazards and control
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
badly constructed working platforms, inadequate guard It is fixed to the edge of the working platform at one
rails or climbing up the outside of a scaffold. Falls also end and the wall of the building at the other.
occur during the assembly or dismantling process. Base plate: a square steel plate fitted to the bottom of a
There are two basic types of external scaffold: standard at ground level.
Sole board: normally a timber plank positioned beneath
1. independent tied – these are scaffolding structures at least two base plates to provide a more uniform
which are independent of the building but tied to it distribution of the scaffold load over the ground.
often using a window or window recess; this is the Fans: specially designed platforms which prevent debris
most common form of scaffolding and and other materials falling on people passing or
2. putlog – this form of scaffolding is usually used dur- working below the scaffold.
ing the construction of a building; a putlog is a scaf-
fold tube which spans horizontally from the scaffold The following factors must be addressed if a scaffold is
into the building – the end of the tube is flattened and to be considered for use for construction purposes:
is usually positioned between two brick courses.
The important components of a scaffold have been ➤ Scaffolding must only be erected and dismantled by
defined in a guidance note issued by the HSE as competent people who have attended recognized
follows. training courses. Any work carried out on the scaf-
fold must be supervised by a competent person. For
Standard: an upright tube or pole used as a vertical complex scaffolds, a written plan may be required.
support in a scaffold. Any changes to the scaffold must be done by a
Ledger: a tube spanning horizontally and tying stand- competent person.
ards longitudinally. ➤ In busy town centres, the erection and dismantling
Transom: a tube spanning across ledgers to tie a scaf- of the scaffold should take place during quiet times.
fold transversely. It may also support a working ➤ The scaffold must be designed to carry all the required
platform. loads and use only sound fittings and materials.
Bracing: tubes which span diagonally to strengthen and ➤ Adequate toe boards, guard rails and intermediate
prevent movement of the scaffold. rails must be fitted to prevent people or materials
Putlog: a tube which is flattened at its end and spans from from falling.
a ledger to the wall of a building. A scaffold secured to ➤ The use of appropriate bay lengths and widths,
a building in this way is known as a putlog scaffold. bracing and tie-in arrangements together with edge
Guard rail: a horizontal tube fitted to standards along and stop-end protection.
working platforms to prevent persons from falling. ➤ The scaffold must rest on a stable surface; uprights
Toe boards: these are fitted at the base of working plat- should have base plates and timber sole boards if
forms to prevent persons, materials or tools falling necessary.
from the scaffold. ➤ The scaffold must have safe access and egress.
Raker: an angled or inclined load-bearing tube used to ➤ Work platforms should be fully boarded with no tip-
support a cantilevered scaffold working platform. ping or tripping hazards.
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Working at height – hazards and control
(a)
Figure 18.12 (a) Typical independent tied scaffold; (b) fixed scaffold left in place to fit the gutters.
➤ The scaffold must be maintained and cleaned, and ➤ If the scaffold must be erected near to vehicle
have proper arrangements for waste disposal. roadways then barriers or fenders should be fitted
➤ The scaffold should be sited away from or protected around its base.
from traffic routes so that it is not damaged by ➤ The scaffold should be properly braced and secured
vehicles. to the building or structure.
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
➤ Overloading of the scaffold must be avoided. ➤ the sheeting in of the scaffold without the use of
➤ The public must be protected at all stages of the extra ties
work and the appropriate highway authority con- ➤ vehicular impact.
tacted before a scaffold is erected beside a public
thoroughfare. With all scaffolds, brick guards and debris netting should
➤ Regular inspections of the scaffold must be made be used to prevent materials and equipment falling to
and recorded. the ground.
For putlog scaffolds, all the previously stated safety
requirements apply and some additional ones. The
There have been many examples of scaffold collapse
putlog ends, which must be properly flattened, should
causing serious injuries to workers and members of the
be fully inserted and securely bedded into well con-
public. Factors which may affect the stability of an inde-
structed brickwork. It is recommended that a putlog
pendently tied scaffold include:
scaffold should not exceed 45 m in height.
When the work is to take place in a busy area, all
➤ poor, incompetent erection and/or a lack of regular the normal safety features of scaffolding apply, but,
inspections in addition, special care should be taken with ladder
➤ the strength of the supporting ground or foundation access, debris netting and fans. Appropriate traffic signs
➤ the proximity to the scaffold of any excavation (and possibly traffic lights), cones, barriers and lighting
work arrangements at night will also be necessary.
➤ the effect of excessive surface water in weakening All scaffolds should have an assembly, use and dis-
the scaffold foundation mantling plan. Before accepting a scaffold erected by
➤ unauthorized alteration by incompetent persons a specialist scaffolding sub-contractor for use, the site
(perhaps by vandals) supervisor must check the scaffold and obtain a hand-
➤ the use of incorrect or damaged fittings during the ing-over certificate.
erection or extension of the scaffold The site supervisor will ensure that all scaffolds are
➤ the overloading of the scaffold erected in accordance with the standards outlined above
➤ adverse weather conditions and, at the beginning of each week, he should inspect
Figure 18.13 Fan scaffold. Panels are fixed around the base of the scaffolding to prevent children from climbing.
390
Working at height – hazards and control
the scaffold and ensure that any defect is rectified. A additional fixing to the structure so that they are pro-
report of the inspection and action taken should be tected from lifting during high winds.
entered in the site inspection register. A similar inspec- The width of the platform will vary with the type of
tion should also be carried out after high winds or other work being undertaken from a minimum of three boards
adverse weather conditions. to a maximum of seven (when trestles are to be used on
All materials used for scaffolding must be provided the platform).
in accordance with the relevant British Standards and The following points are relevant to the design of all
checked before use by a scaffolder. Such materials must working platforms whether loading or not:
be properly stored and maintained on the site.
Any scaffold that is being erected, altered or dis- ➤ They must be wide enough (at least 600 mm) to
mantled, or otherwise not suitable for use by employees, allow people to pass each other and for any required
must have a warning notice erected stating that it must equipment or materials to be carried and stored.
not be used. ➤ They must be free of openings and trip hazards.
All scaffolds must be checked at the end of each ➤ If members of the public are able to pass beneath, a
working day to ensure that access to the scaffold by double boarded platform with a sheet of polythene
children has been prevented. placed between the boards may be necessary to
prevent debris or tools falling on them.
➤ The principal hazards associated with working plat-
Requirements for scaffold erectors
forms are overloading, the fall of materials, tools and
All scaffolds must only be erected by scaffolders who are
equipment and slips, trips and falls of people work-
competent and experienced to undertake the work. All the
ing on the platform.
requirements, which were outlined in Chapters 3 and 10,
➤ Good housekeeping and supervision are essential
apply equally to scaffolders. Only scaffolding firms who
on all working platforms.
have a good reputation and accident record gained from
earlier contracts should be employed to erect scaffolds.
Finally, if it is likely that heavy loads are to be stored
Scaffolders should be supervised throughout the erec-
on a working platform, the scaffolding firm should be
tion of a scaffold and they should be capable of inspect-
informed so that special support may be designed into
ing scaffolding materials and equipment before it is used.
the scaffold structure.
They should be equipped with personal lifelines which
must be attached at all times while working at height. All
Scaffold hoists
scaffolders must have attended a specialist scaffolding
Hoists are widely used to transport materials to higher
course and be able to provide documentary evidence that
working levels. It is important that hoists are well main-
they have successfully completed the course.
tained, inspected regularly and in a good working order.
They should be positioned on firm and stable ground,
Design of loading platforms erected following the manufacturer’s instructions and
A loading platform is a particular working platform on a properly protected at either end. The hoist should
scaffold onto which materials and equipment is loaded be marked with its safe working load and its control
to further the construction project. A working platform is functions.
part of the scaffold or similar structure on which people The following applies to the use of all hoists whether
work, walk and stand. It must be designed so that it can they are mobile or permanent. The main hazards associ-
carry workers, their tools and working materials safely. ated with hoist operations are:
The platform is built by laying scaffold boards across the
transoms and, normally, at least three support points are ➤ overloading of the hoist
required for each board. There must be a slight over- ➤ overloading or incorrect use of lifting gear
hang (50–150 mm) across a support at each end of the ➤ automatic safe load indicator not working
board. Boards are normally butt jointed. Toe boards and ➤ failure of equipment due to lack of maintenance
guard rails, at least 950 mm above the working platform, ➤ incorrect positioning of lifting appliance
must be fitted inside the standards along the edge of the ➤ insecure attachment of load and falls from the
working platform. Ladders used to access the loading platform
platform must extend at least 1 m above the level of the ➤ unstable slinging of loads, hook not over centre of
platform. gravity
All stacking of materials and equipment, such as ➤ contact with overhead electricity cables
bricks, must be as close to standards as possible to ➤ lack of operator training
enable the added weight to be more evenly distributed ➤ no banksman used when driver’s view is obscured
throughout the scaffold. The boards will need some ➤ incorrect signals.
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
Only hoists which are suitable for the site and capable of ➤ The edges of the hoist platform and the landing
lifting the required loads should be selected and all per- should be as close together as possible so that
sonnel working with or near lifting appliances must wear there is no significant gap between for debris to fall
hard hats. All hoists must be secured and left in a safe through.
condition at the end of each working period so that any ➤ Loads, such as wheelbarrows, should be securely
child trespassers are protected. chocked and not overfilled.
➤ Lloose loads, such as bricks, should be carried in
proper containers or a hoist with an enclosed plat-
form should be used.
➤ The platform must not be overloaded and should be
clearly marked with its safe working load.
➤ The hoist must be erected by trained and experi-
enced people who will follow the manufacturer’s
instructions and ensure that it is properly secured to
the supporting structure.
➤ The hoist operator must be properly trained and be
competent.
➤ Loads must be evenly distributed on the hoist
platform.
➤ The hoist must be thoroughly examined and tested
after erection, substantial alteration or repair and at
6-month intervals.
➤ Regular inspections should be carried out at least
on a weekly basis and the results recorded.
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Working at height – hazards and control
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
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Working at height – hazards and control
Figure 18.17 Vehicle mounted mobile elevating work platform providing access to a large steel structure.
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
Air bags are used when it is either not possible or After the completion of the construction project,
practical to use safety nets. Therefore they are used cable-based fall arrest systems are normally suitable for
extensively in domestic house building or when it is dif- on-going building maintenance work. They may also be
ficult to position anchorage points for safety harnesses. used for the construction of complex roof structures,
When air bags are used, it is important to ensure that such as parabolic or dome structures, where a safety
the bags are of sufficient strength and the air pressure net may be more than 2 m below the highest point of the
high enough to ensure that any falling person does not structure.
make contact with the ground. Only reputable suppli-
ers should be employed for the provision of air bags.
Air bags or bean bags are known as soft landing sys- Emergency procedures (including rescue)
tems and are used to protect workers from the effects of A suitable emergency and rescue procedure needs
inward falls. Other possible solutions to this problem of to be in place for situations that could be expected to
the inward fall are the use of internal scaffolding or light- occur on the construction site. Such foreseeable situa-
weight ‘crash deck systems’. tions could include a crane driver trapped in his cab due
Air bags may be linked together to form an inflated to a power failure or a serious ill-health problem, or the
crash deck system. Such a system is suitable when a rescue of a person who has fallen into a safety net. The
safety net is not viable. It consists of a series of interlinked method of rescue may be simple and straightforward,
air mattresses that are positioned beneath the working such as putting a ladder up to a net and allowing the
area and is suitable for working at height inside a build- fallen person to descend or the use of a MEWP to lower
ing where safety harnesses would not be practicable. The the person to the ground.
mattresses are interconnected by secure couplings and Proprietary rescue systems are available and may
inflated in position on site using an air pump. The mat- well be suitable for many more complex rescues. The
tresses are made in various sizes so that any floor area system selected needs to be proportionate to the risk
configuration can be covered. A similar form of crash deck and there should not be undue reliance on the emer-
can be made from bean bags that are clipped together. gency services. However, arrangements should be in
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Working at height – hazards and control
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
Figure 18.20 (a) Roof ladder. The ridge iron should be large enough to be clear of the ridge tile. (b) Permanent protection
installed at valley gutter (the protection should be supported by at least three rafters beneath the roof sheets).
rails to provide a safe means of off-loading the materials are not adequate. This applies for example when fixing
onto the roof. the gutter or the scaffold guard rail at the start of work.
Ladders securely tied should be situated as close Safety helmets should be worn by all persons in accord-
as possible to the working area on the roof and extend ance with the Construction Head Protection Regulations
1 m above the roof level. Where the height to the roof whilst work is in progress overhead and/or there is a risk
exceeds 9 m, it is normally a requirement that a scaf- of head injury.
fold tower with ladders be provided such that the height During the construction of large industrial roofs,
between intermediate platforms does not exceed 9 m. a purlin trolley system is usually used together with a
If asbestos is present, then special precautions will safety harness. Such systems have a double handrail on
be required including the provision of overalls and res- the leading edge positioned on the opposite side to the
piratory protection, the need for damping down and the working side. As the working side is open to the roof,
avoidance of breaking asbestos sheets. Safe disposal of a safety harness is needed to protect against falls from
waste asbestos is particularly important. this edge. A second line of defence has recently been
Consideration should also be given to the wear- designed into these trolleys by the attachment of a hori-
ing of a safety harness where other forms of protection zontal barrier beneath.
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agreed with the occupier; adequate levels of lighting information gained in the maintenance work, inspections
must be provided, where necessary, to carry out the and thorough technical examinations should inform one
work safely. another. A maintenance log should be kept and be up to
date. The whole maintenance system will require proper
18.4.5 Inspections and maintenance management systems. The maintenance frequency will
depend on the equipment, the conditions in which it is
Inspection used and the manufacturer’s instructions.
Equipment for work at height needs regular inspection
to ensure that it is fit for use. A marking system is prob-
ably required to show when the next inspection is due.
Formal inspections should not be a substitute for any pre- 18.5 Practice NEBOSH questions for
use checks or routine maintenance. Inspection does not Chapter 18
necessarily cover the checks that are made during main-
tenance although there may be some common features. 1. Outline a hierarchy of measures to be considered
Inspections need to be recorded but checks do not. when a construction worker is likely to fall while
Scaffolds must be inspected on a regular basis by a working at height.
competent person. These inspections should take place
before the scaffold is used, after any alteration is made 2. Outline the measures to be taken to prevent falls
or after adverse weather conditions may have weakened associated with stairwells and other holes in floors
it. In any event an inspection should take place every 7 during the construction of a multi-storey building.
days and any faults rectified.
Under the WAHR, weekly inspections are still 3. A gable end wall of a three-storey building adjacent
required for scaffolding, as previously required by the to a canal needs re-pointing. An independent tied
Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations scaffold will be used for access. The scaffold will
where a person could fall 2 m or more. The reporting obstruct the towpath and will restrict the width of
requirements for inspection are set out in schedule 7 to the canal.
the Regulations as follows: Outline the health and safety issues associated
➤ the name and address of the person for whom the with this work and how they might be addressed.
inspection was carried out
➤ the location of the work equipment inspected 4. Sheet piles are to be driven into a river bed and the
➤ a description of the work equipment inspected water contained by the piles pumped out before
➤ the date and time of the inspection construction work starts. Identify the health hazards
➤ details of any matter identified that could give rise to that may be encountered by workers involved in this
a risk to the health or safety of any person operation and explain how such hazards may be
➤ details of any action taken as a result of any matter controlled.
identified in the previous paragraph
➤ details of any further action considered necessary 5. Describe the specific measures that may be
➤ the name and position of the person making the necessary to ensure safety when work is to be
report. carried out from a scaffold that overhangs a fast
flowing river.
Whilst there is no longer a specific statutory form to be
completed, a record of the inspection should be made 6. Outline the precautions that might be taken in order
on the recommended form for inspections shown in to reduce the risk of injury when using stepladders.
Appendix 18.1, with a list of typical scaffolding faults
in Appendix 18.2; a possible checklist, which could be 7. Explain the issues that would need to be addressed
used, is given in Appendix 18.3. if work is to be carried out safely from a ladder.
Most equipment used while working at height will
need regular inspection and, in some cases, a thor- 8. Outline the main points to be considered when
ough examination. Such equipment includes hoists and selecting and inspecting a wooden pole ladder prior
MEWPs, grit-blasting and water-jetting equipment and to use.
electrical appliances.
9. A wooden pole ladder is to be used as a means of
Maintenance access to a scaffold.
Inspections and even thorough examinations are not Outline the features of the ladder that should be
substitutes for properly maintaining equipment. The considered, and the particular items that should
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be inspected, in order to ensure its suitability for (c) Outline the procedures to be adopted in order
the job. to ensure the safety of employees using the
scaffold as a working platform.
10. Identify measures that should be adopted in order
to protect against the dangers of people and/or 18. A row of terraced houses is to be built alongside an
materials falling from a mobile tower scaffold. existing public road that runs up a slope.
(a) Sketch the front and end elevation of suitable
11. Grit-blasting and concrete repairs are to be carried out scaffold for this work, clearly identifying the key
on the external façade of a five-storey building. Access safety features.
will be by an independent tied scaffold, which will take (b) Outline the procedures and practices required
up the entire width of the adjoining pavement. to ensure the safe erection and use of the
Outline the possible hazards associated with this scaffold in (a).
work AND the precautions that should be taken.
19. A mobile tower scaffold is to be used in the re-
pointing of external brickwork on the gable end wall
12. The exterior paintwork of a row of shops in a busy
of a building, which is 10 m high at its highest point.
high street is due to be re-painted. Identify the
(a) Explain the possible dangers associated with
hazards associated with the work and outline the
this operation.
corresponding precautions to be taken.
(b) Outline, with the aid of diagrams, the
precautions to be taken to minimize the risks.
13. As part of the refurbishment of a three-storey
building within a busy city centre, a section of stone 20. Identify, by means of a labelled sketch, the main
façade is to be cleaned using a specialist cleaning requirements for a loading bay on a scaffold in order
contractor. The work will be undertaken using high that materials for bricklayers and roofers can be
pressure water-jetting. safely placed on the bay by a forklift truck.
Describe a safe system and method of work to be
adopted by the contractor to ensure the safety of: 21. Outline the measures required to ensure the safe
(a) the water-jetting operatives operation of an inclined hoist used to raise and
(b) the workers carrying out the internal refurbishment lower roofing materials.
work
(c) the public and users of the highway. 22. Outline the precautions to be taken when carrying
out repairs to the flat roof of a building.
14. Scaffolding has been erected to the outside of a
23. The waterproof membrane on the flat roof of a two-
block of high-rise flats in order to undertake window
storey, high security office block is about to be
replacement and repairs to external cladding.
replaced. Access for personnel not engaged in the
Outline the factors that could affect the stability
roofing work is prohibited but an access route from
of the scaffold.
inside the building is available. The only external
access route for materials is via a lightweight,
15. An independent scaffold tied to a 10-storey office
inclined builders’ hoist, which must be erected and
block has collapsed into a busy street.
dismantled daily.
Outline the factors that may have affected the
Describe the procedures necessary to ensure:
stability of the scaffold.
(a) the safety of the occupiers of the building
(b) the safety of the operatives whilst working on
16. List EIGHT items to be examined when inspecting a
the roof
putlog scaffold.
(c) the safe erection and dismantling, and use, of
the inclined hoist.
17. A four-storey building on the main street of a busy
town centre requires external repairs to its fabric. 24. Minor repairs to the external fabric of a multi-storey
The scaffold to be erected for the work will take up office block are to be carried out. The chosen
the entire width of the pavement. method of access to upper floors is by a man-riding
(a) Sketch the front and end elevation of a suitable skip suspended from the hook of a mobile crane.
scaffold for the work, clearly labelling the key (a) Outline the specific requirements relating to the
safety features. safe use of the skip.
(b) Identify, by means of a sketch where appropriate, (b) Describe other measures that should be
the measures that will be needed to ensure safe in place to ensure the safety of all persons
passage for pedestrians and traffic. affected by the work.
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Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction
25. Extensive repairs are to be carried out to the flat roof basis over 10 nights, when the only other activities
of a two-storey office building, which is to remain in the store are shelf-replenishment and cleaning.
in use during the work. A small platform hoist is to The majority of the work will involve access above
be used for lifting materials to the roof. There is no a suspended ceiling at a height of 5 m above the
access to the roof from inside the building. ground but plant situated on the roof of the store is
Outline the procedures and protective measures also to be replaced.
needed to ensure: Describe the main features that must be covered
(a) the safety of occupiers of the building to ensure the health and safety of contractors and
(b) the safety of operatives whilst work is carried others on site during the work.
out on the roof
(c) the safe erection and use of the hoist and other 27. A painting contractor has been contracted to paint
access equipment. roof girders in a racked storage warehouse. Painters
will gain access to the roof area from both mobile
26. A partial upgrade of an existing ventilation system elevating work platforms and ‘Youngman’ staging
is to be undertaken in a large supermarket. The platforms. High reach pallet trucks will continue to
work is to be carried out on a progressive overnight be used in the warehouse during the work.
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Appendix 18.1 – Inspection recording form with timing and frequency chart
Timing and frequency chart (reproduced from HSG150)
Place of work or work equipment Timing and frequency of checks, inspection and examinations equipment
Inspect Inspect Inspect Inspect Inspect Inspect after Inspect at Check on LOLER
before after any after after at exceptional intervals each Thorough
work at event accidental installation suitable circumstances not occasion Examination
the start likely to fall of or intervals which are exceeding before (if work
of every have rock, or assembly liable to 7 days use equipment
shift affected other in any jeopardise the (see (REPORT subject to
(see its material position safety of work note 3) NOT LOLER) (see
note 1) strength (see notes equipment REQUIRED) note 4)
or 2 and 3)
stability
Notes
1. Although an excavation must be inspected at the start of every shift, only one report is needed in any seven-day period. However, if something happens to affect
its strength or stability, and/or an additional inspection is carried out, a report must then be completed. A record of this inspection must be made and retained
for three months.
2. ‘Installation’ means putting into position and ‘assembly’ means putting together. You are not required to inspect and provide a report every time a ladder, tower
scaffold or mobile elevated work platform (MEWP) is moved on site or a personal fall protection system is clipped to a new location.
3. An inspection and a report (see image titled Inspection Report) is required for a tower scaffold or MEWP (used for construction work and from which a person
could fall 2 metres) after installation or assembly and every seven days thereafter, providng the equipment is being used on the same site. A record of this
inspection must be made and retained for three months. If a tower scaffold is reassembled rather than simply moved, then an additonal, pre-use inspection and
report is required. It is acceptable for this inspection to be carried out by the person responsible for erecting the tower scaffold, providing they are trained
and competent. A visible tag system, which supplements inspection records as it is updated following each pre-use inspection, is a way of recording and keeping
the results until the next inspection.
4. All work equipment subject to LOLER regulation 9, thorough examination and inspection requirements, will continue to be subject to LOLER regulation 9
requirements.
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INSPECTION REPORT
1. Name and address of person for whom inspection was carried out.
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Footings Standards Ledgers Bracing Putlogs Couplings Bridles Ties Boarding Guard rails Ladders
and and toe
transoms boards
Soft and Not plumb Not level Some Wrongly Wrong Wrong Some Bad Wrong Damaged
uneven missing spaced fitting spacing missing boards height
No base Jointed Joints Loose Loose Loose Wrong Loose Trap Loose Insufficient
plates at same in same couplings boards length
height bay
No sole Wrong Loose Wrong Wrongly Damaged No check Not Incomplete Some Not tied
plates spacing fittings supported couplers enough missing
Explain how the work should be planned and fall through) and wide enough to allow safe access
undertaken in order to ensure the health and and the safe movement of materials?
safety of both painters and warehouse staff. ➤ Has the scaffold been erected by a competent
➤ Is the scaffold on a firm foundation? person? Are inspection records in order?
➤ Are standards (uprights) resting on suitable base ➤ Are all components in good condition?
plates and (where the scaffolding is not on hard ➤ Are guard rails and toe boards fitted to all work-
standing) timber sole boards? Bricks, blocks and ing platforms to prevent people and materials
other building materials should not be used as falling?
packing. ➤ Is additional protection such as wire mesh brick
➤ The scaffold should not be undermined by exca- guards used where appropriate?
vations close to its supports. ➤ Is the scaffold loaded with excessive quantities of
➤ Are the uprights vertical and the horizontals materials?
horizontal? ➤ Are materials safely stacked? (Loads such as piles
➤ Are the uprights close enough together and is the of bricks should be in line with the standards.)
spacing consistent? (Note: the permissible width ➤ Is the scaffold structure adequately stiffened by
of bays will vary with the operations for which the the use of diagonal bracing?
scaffolding is intended. The greater the loading, ➤ Is the scaffold adequately tied to a structure, or
the closer the uprights will need to be.) suitably buttressed, to prevent collapse?
➤ Are load-bearing couplers used where appropriate? ➤ Are incomplete sections of the scaffold marked
➤ Are working platforms properly supported (each with suitable warning notices?
board resting on at least three supports – no ➤ Where there is sheeting or some other feature
board should overhang the last support by a dis- which will increase the windage of the scaffold,
tance greater than three times its thickness), fully has this been allowed for in the design?
boarded out (no gaps for people or materials to ➤ Is there safe access to all the scaffold’s working
platforms?
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