5th Aeronautical Engineering Review Course

Manila, Philippines

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

1. Definition

1.1 Aeronautics
- is defined as “the science that treats of the operation of aircraft; also, the art or science of
operating aircraft.”
- basically concerned with predicting and controlling the forces and moments on an aircraft
that is travelling through the atmosphere.

1.2 Aerodynamics
- is the study of the motion of air and of the forces on solids in motion relative to the air.

2. Physics for Aerodynamics

2.1 Fundamental Units

2.1.1 Mass
- is the measure of the quantity of matter in a body.
- remains constant unless part of the body is removed or additional matter is added.
- mass of I kg is also the volume of one liter of pure water at a temp of four degrees C.
- unit of measurement for mass is kilograms (SI), denoted by kg.
- unit of measurement for mass is slug (E).
- one slug is the mass which weighs 32.174 lb under the standard gravity condition.

2.1.2 Weight
- is the force with which the body is being pulled towards the center of the earth.
- if attractive force changes, the body’s weight changes though its mass does not.

2.1.3 Density
- mass per unit volume (slug/cubic foot), or kg/cubic meter
- specific weight is weight per unit volume (pounds per/cubic foot), N/cubic foot

2.1. 4 Pressure
- is the average force acting on a unit area.
- it is denoted by Paschal (Pa) and measured in Newtons per square meter

2.1.5 Temperature
- is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in the gas.
- common units of temperature are Kelvin (K), degree C, degree R, and degree F.
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3. Standard Atmosphere

3.1 Atmosphere
- is the whole mass of air extending upwards from the surface of the earth.
- in conventional aerodynamics, the atmosphere can be regarded as a homogeneous gas
of uniform composition.

3.2 Constituents

Nitrogen …………………………..78.08%
Oxygen…………………………….20.94%
Argon………………………………..0.94%
Hydrogen……………………………0.01%
Neon……………………………...0.0012%
Helium……………………………...0.004%
Carbon Dioxide………………..……0.03%

Note: Water vapor is always present, the amount varying with the temperature and other factors but
averaging about 1.2% at the earth’s surface.

3.2 Standard “Sea Level” Conditions

According to the ICAO ISA (International Standard Atmosphere), the standard sea-level
properties of the atmosphere are as follows:

Acceleration due to gravity, g0 = 32. 174 ft/sec2 = 9.8066 m/sec2

Pressure, P0 = 29.92 in Hg = 2.116.2 lbs/ft2 = 101325 Pa or N/m2 = 14.7 psi
Temperature, T0 = 59 F = 518.7 R = 15 C = 288.2 K
Density, ρ0 = 0.002377 slug/ft3 = 1.225 kg/m3

3.3 The International Standard Atmosphere

- For the purpose of airplane aerodynamics and performance calculations the atmosphere
is divided into four regions.
- To provide a basis for comparing the performance characteristics of airplanes.
- To allow for the calibration of altimeters, it is desirable to have standard properties of the
atmosphere which represent “average” conditions.
- Standard properties have been established by the ICAO.
- Generally used by airplane and engine manufacturer around the world.
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According to standard atmosphere the standard sea-level properties of the atmosphere are
as follows:

Po = 29.92 in Hg = 2116.2 lbs/ft2 = 101325 Pa = 14.7 lb/in2

= 76 cm Hg = 760 mm Hg = 1 atm

To = 59F = 518.7 R = 15 C = 288.2 K

o = 0.002377 slug/ft3 = 1.225 kg/m3

go = 32.17 ft/s2 = 9.806 m/s

o = 3.7372x10-7 slug/ft-sec = 1.7894 x 10-5 kg/m-sec

(Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity)

* For subsonic airplanes only the troposphere and the stratosphere are important.

3.4 Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere around the earth is made up of layers that are distinguished by
temperature.

3.4.5 Troposphere
- the first layer closest to the earth.
- this layer contains about 75% of the total mass of the atmosphere.
- this is where all plants and animals live and breath.
- climate and weather also occur in this layer.

3.4.6 Stratosphere
- It extends to about 30 miles above the earth.
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- ozone in this layer stops many of the sun’s harmful ultraviolets rays from
reaching the earth.
- This layer plus the troposphere make up 99% of the total mass of the
atmosphere.

3.4.7 Mesosphere
- temperature decreases with height.
- It can drop to -180 C.
- This is where we see “falling stars”, meteors that fall to the earth and burn up in
the atmosphere.
- Extends to about 80- 90 km.

3.4.8 Thermosphere

- where temperature rapidly increases with altitude.

- temperature here range from 600 C to 2000 C.

3.4.9 Atmospheric Fundamentals

The actual composition of the atmosphere varies with geographical locations and altitudes.
However, in most applications to conventional aerodynamics, the atmosphere can be regarded as a
homogenous gas of uniform composition. The air maybe regarded as a gas which satisfies the perfect gas
law:
P = gRT

where:

P = atmospheric pressure in lbs/ft2, or N/m2

 = air density in slugs/ft3, or kg/m3
g = acceleration of gravity in ft/sec2, or m/sec2
R = gas constant (for dry air: °R = 53.35 ft/R, or 29.26 m/K)
T = absolute temperature in °R, or K (°R = °F + 459.7, K = °C +273.15)

4. Definition of Altitude
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4.1 Absolute Altitude

Ha = hG + r

Where: r = radius of the earth

hG = geometric altitude

4.2 Geopotential Altitude

h = ___r___ hG
r + hG

Note: There is a little difference between h and hG for low altitudes about 0.1 or 1 %
difference. Only at altitudes above 65 km does the difference exceed 1 percent.

4.3 Pressure Altitude, HP

The altitude given by an altimeter set to 29.92” Hg.

4.4 Density Altitude, Hρ

The altitude corresponding to a given density in the standard atmosphere.

It is found by using a computer or chart to correct pressure altitude for nonstandard air
temperature. Density altitude is sued for computing the performance of an aircraft and its
engines.

4.5 Temperature Altitude, HT

The altitude corresponding to a given density in the standard atmosphere.

Note:

In an atmosphere with standard conditions, all three altitudes are the same on the other
hand, in a non-standard atmosphere they will be different.
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5. SEA LEVEL UP TO TROPOPAUSE (11 km or 36,069 ft)

1. TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

T
T = To + ah; θ = -----------
To
Where:
T = temperature at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (11 km)
in °°R or 288 K
To = 519°R = 288 K
a = adiabatic lapse rate (-0.003566 °R/ft or - 0.00651 K/m or -6.51 K/km)
h = any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (11 km) in ft or m
θ = temperature ratio

2. PRESSURE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

P ah
δ = ------- = (1 + ------- ) 5.26
Po To

where:

P = pressure at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (11 km) in

2
lb/ft or Pa
2 2
Po = 2116.8 lb/ft = 101325 Pa = 14.7 lb/in
δ = pressure ratio (P/Po)

3. DENSITY VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

ρ ah
σ = ----- = (1 + -----------) 4.26
ρO To

where:
ρ = density at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (11 km) in
3 3
kg/m or slug/ft
ρo = 2116.8 lb/ft or 101325 Pa
2

σ = pressure ratio
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6. ABOVE TROPOPAUSE (11 km) UP TO STRATOSPHERE (32 km)

1. TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

T = 390.15 °R or 216.5K (constant from 11 km up to 32 km)

2. PRESSURE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

English System

P 1.26
δ = ------- = ----------------
-5 h
Po 4.805 x 10
e

where:

P = pressure at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (36,068 ft)

2
up to stratopause (104, 960 ft) in lb/ft
2
Po = 2116.8 lb/ft
h = any altitude above tropopause (36,068 ft) up to stratopause (104,960
ft) in feet

Metric System

P 1.26
δ = ------- = ----------------
-5 h
Po 1.578 x 10
e
where:

P = pressure at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (11 km) up

to stratopause (32 km)
Po = 101325 Pa
h = any altitude above tropopause (11 km) up to stratopause (32km) in
meters
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3. DENSITY VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

English System

P 1.26
σ = ------- = ----------------
Po 4.805 x 10-5 h
e
where:

P = pressure at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (36,068 ft)

2
up to stratopause (104, 960 ft) in lb/ft
3
Po = 0.002377 slug/ft
h = any altitude above tropopause (36,068 ft) up to stratopause (104,960
ft) in feet

Metric System

ρ 1.68
σ = ------- = ----------------
ρo 1.578 x 10
-5 h

e
where:

ρ = pressure at any altitude above sea level up to tropopause (11 km)

up to stratopause (32 km)
ρo = 1.225 kg/m
3

h = any altitude above tropopause (11 km) up to stratopause (32km) in

meters
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PROBLEMS:

1. Calculate the pressure, density and temperature at 30, 500 ft and at 61, 500 ft in the
standard atmosphere.

2. On a hot day, the measured temperature and pressure are 38 deg. C and 20.0 in Hg
respectively. Calculate the density ratio and the density.

3. A standard altimeter reads 14, 000 ft when the ambient temperature is 35 deg F. What is
the density altitude?

4. At a certain altitude, a standard altimeter reads 10,000ft. If the density altitude is 8,000 ft,
find the true temperature at that altitude.

5. If an airplane is flying at an altitude where actual pressure and temperature are 4.72 x 104
N/m2 and 255. 7 K, respectively, what are the pressure, temperature, and density
altitudes?

6. The flight test data for a given airplane refer to a level-flight maximum-velocity run made at
an altitude which simultaneously corresponded to a pressure altitude of 30,000 ft and
density altitude of 28, 500 ft. Calculate the temperature of the air at the altitude at which
the airplane was flying for the test.

7. At 12 km in the standard atmosphere, the pressure, density, and temperature are 1.9399 x
104 N/m2, 3.1194 x 10 -1 kg/m3, and 216.66K, respectively. Using these values, calculate
the standard atmospheric values of pressure, density, and temperature at an altitude of 18
km.

8. Consider an airplane flying at some real altitude. The outside pressure and temperature
are 2.65 x104 N/m2 and 220 K, respectively. What are the pressure and density altitudes?

9. During a flight test of a new airplane, the pilot radios to the ground that she is in level flight
at a standard altitude of 35,000 ft. What is the ambient air pressure far ahead of the
airplane?
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7. Fluid Laws

7.1 Fluid

- It is a material that flows; it changes its shape easily.

- A fluid is homogeneous, has a very slight resistance to tension and moves
continuously under shear.
- An ideal fluid is conceived to be fluid which has absolute no resistance to shear
forces, but no ideal fluids exit.
- A fluid may be either a liquid or a gas.
- The chief difference between gaseous fluids and liquid fluids is their resistance to
compression.

7. 2 Paschal’s Law (Blaise Paschal)

- In a liquid at rest, there can be no shear, since if there is shear the liquid will continue
to deform.
- Paschal stated, if gravity is neglected, the pressures at any point in a fluid must be
the same in magnitude in any direction.

7.3 Streamlines

- The path of any particle is called streamlines.

- It is the line tangent to which at any point is the direction of the velocity at that point.
- In a steady flow the shapes of the streamlines do not change from one instant to the
next.
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7.4 Stream tube

- The stream tube acts like an imaginary pipe. The pipe may have a variable cross section.
- There being no place in the stream tube where fluid is created or destroyed.
- The velocity is greater where the cross section is small than where it is large.

7.5 Law of Continuity (Principle of Mass Conservation)

- Continuity equation that the velocity of the airflow is inversely proportional to the
area of the cross-section of the tube as long as the density remains constant.

- If a fluid is moving steadily and uniformly through a closed pipe or stream tube, the
mass of fluids passing one section in one (1) sec must be the same as the mass of
fluid passing any other section in one (1) section.

a.) For incompressible flow, ρ = constant ( V<100 m/s or M < 0.3 approx)

A1V1 = A2V2

AV = constant (incompressible continuity equation)

Differential form:

dV dA
---------- = - ---------
V A
b.) For compressible flow, ( V >100 m/s or M > 0.3 approx)

ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2

ρAV = constant (compressible continuity equation)

Differential form:

dV dA dρ
---------- + ---------- + ---------- =0
V A ρ

Note:

dA = is positive (the area is increasing)

dV = is negative ( the velocity is decreasing)

When the area is decreasing, dA is negative; then dV is positive and the velocity is
increasing.
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Example Problems:

1. A pipe gradually tapering in size, diminishing by 0.1 sq ft per foot run. What is
the change in velocity per foot where the pipe is 4 sq ft in cross section, if the
velocity there is 90 ft per sec. If the velocity increasing or decreasing.

2. A circular pipe, 100 ft long, gradually tapers from 3 ft in diameter at one end to
2 ft in diameter at the other. Fluid is flowing from the bigger toward the smaller
end. What is the rate of increase in velocity at the entrance if the velocity there
is 80 ft per sec?

3. Consider a convergent duct with an inlet area of A1. Air enters the duct with a
velocity of V1 = 10 m/s and leaves the duct exit with a velocity of V2 = 30 m/s.
What is the area of the duct exit?

4. Consider a convergent duct with an inlet area A1 = 3 ft2 and an exit area A2 =
2.57 ft2. Air enters this duct with a velocity V1 = 700 ft/s. And a density ρ1 =
0.002 slug/ft3 and air leaves with an exit velocity V2 = 1070 ft/s. Calculate the
density of the air ρ2 at the exit.

7.6 Bernoulli Principle

- Conservation of energy along a streamline.

- Bernoulli equation states that the total pressure is always the sum of the static
pressure and dynamic pressure.

Pt = pstat + q = constant

Where:

Pt = total pressure
pstat = static pressure
q = dynamic pressure = ½ ρ V2

– explains the relation between kinetic and potential energy in fluid in motion.
When the total energy in a column of moving fluid remains constant, any increase
in the kinetic energy of the fluid (its velocity) results in corresponding decrease in
potential energy (pressure). In a continuous flow of fluid, as the velocity increases,
pressure decreases, and as velocity decreases, pressure increases.
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a. For incompressible flow, ρ = constant ( V < 100 m/s or M < 0.3 approx)

2
V P
_____ + ____ = constant

2 ρ
2 2
V1 P1 V2 P2
______ + _____ = _____ + _____

2 ρ 2 ρ

Note: The isentropic equation of state is not needed.

Measurement of Airspeed

Application: Definition of equivalent airspeed Ve:

Equivalent Airspeed is the calibrated airspeed corrected for errors caused by the compressibility
of the air inside the pitot tube. It is equal to calibrated airspeed in standard atmosphere at sea
level.

2 (P1 - P)
Ve = __________
ρo

where:
P1 = total pressure or stagnation pressure
P = static pressure
ρo = density at sea level

Definition of true airspeed V:

True Airspeed

True Airspeed is the airspeed shown on the airspeed indicator after it has been corrected for
nonstandard temperature and pressure.

2 ( P1 – P)
V = ____________

ρ
or:
Ve
V = -----------__________
σ
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where:
ρ = density at altitude
σ = ρ / ρ density ratio

Problems:
1. An airplane is flying at sea level (std air density) at 100 mph. What is the difference
between impact and static pressure? (b) The airplane is flying at 100 mph at 10,000 ft
altitude, where the air density is 0.001756 slug/ft3. What is the difference between impact
and static pressure? (c) What will the airspeed indicator read when the airspeed is 100
mph at 10,000 ft altitude?

2. An airplane is flying at sea level at an airspeed of 160 kts. What is the difference
between impact and static pressure?

3. An airplane is flying at 10,000 ft altitude. The difference between impact and static
pressure is 0.25 lb/in2. What is the airspeed in kts?

4. The altimeter on a low-speed Cessna 150 private aircraft reads 5,000 ft. By an
independent measurement, the outside air temperature is 505 R. IF a pitot tube mounted
on the wing tip measures a pressure of 1818 lb/ft2, what is the true velocity of the airplane?
What is the equivalent airspeed?

(b.) For compressible flow, ρ = constant ( V > 100 mps or M > 0.3 approx)

ϒ
2
V P
-------- + ----------- ------------- = constant
2 ϒ -1 ρ

ϒ ϒ
2 2
V1 P1 V2 P2
--------___ + --------- ----------- = ------- + ----------- ---------
2 ϒ -1 ρ 2 ϒ -1 ρ2

ϒ-1
-----------
ϒ
2
2Va P2
V22 = V12 + -------------- 1 - ---------
ϒ -1 P1
or:
ϒ -1
----------
ϒ

2 Pt - P
2
M = ----------- ---------- + 1 -1
ϒ -1 P
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The isentropic equation of state can be used

P
------ = constant
ρϒ
ϒ
P2 ρ2
-------- = ( ------ )
P1 ρ1

The speed of sound is given by:

ϒP
Va = _____ = ϒgRT

Definition of Calibrated Airspeed, Vc:

(ϒ-1) / ϒ
2
2Vao Pt - P
2
Vc = ------------ ------------- + 1 -1
ϒ -1 Po

THERMODYNAMIC PARAMETER RELATIONSHIP

ϒ ϒ/ (ϒ-1) ϒ 2ϒ/
(ϒ-1)
P2 ρ2 T2 ω2 Va2
_____ = (________ ) = ( _________ ) = ( __________) = ( ________ )

P1 ρ1 T1 ω1 Va1
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PROBLEMS:

1. A horizontal pipe, 1 ft in diameter, taper gradually to 8 in., in diameter. If the flow is

3
500 ft /min of H2O, what is the difference between the pressures at the two sections?

2. Water flows through a horizontal pipe at a velocity of 50 ft per sec. Owing to the pipe
gradually expanding to a larger size, the velocity decreases to 35 ft/sec. What is the difference
between the pressures at two points, one in each size of pipe?

3. The diameter of a horizontal tube is 4 in., in which tetra bromoethane (spec.grav. =

3.0) is flowing at the rate of 0.50 cu ft per sec. The pressure is 30 lb per sq in. (gage). If the tube
gradually decreases to 3" in diameter, what is the pressure there?

4. Alcohol (spec. grav. = 0.80) is flowing through a horizontal pipe which is 10” in
2
diameter, with the velocity of 40 ft/s. At a smaller section of the pipe, there is 6 lb/in less
pressure. Assuming that the flow is smooth, what is the diameter there?
2
5. Air is flowing horizontally at a speed of 100 mph through a duct 4 ft in cross section.
The duct gradually narrows down to a throat section. If a U-tube shows a difference in pressure
between the throat and main sections of 7 in. of water, what is the cross-sectional area of the
3
throat? (Assume that the air is non-compressible and has a density of 0.002377 slug/ft

6. A horizontal water pipe is reduced in size from 18” in diameter at a point A to 6” in

3 2
diameter at B. The flow in the pipe is 10ft per sec, and the pressure at A is 20 lb/in (gage) where
the diameter is 3 ft, what is the pressure where the diameter is 2 ft?
3
7. Air flows through a horizontal pipe at the rate of 3,000 ft /s. If the pressure is 30
2
lb/in (gage) where the diameter is 3 ft, what is the pressure where the diameter is 2 ft?

8. Water flows through a horizontal pipe at the rate of 800 gal per min. What is the
difference in pressure between a point where the diameter is 2 in. and a point where the diameter
is 1 in?

9. A horizontal pipe line enlarges from a diameter of 6” at point A to a diameter of 12 in.

at point B. The
3 2
flow of water is 20 ft , and the pressure at A is 10 lb/in . What is the pressure at B?

10.) A high speed subsonic Mc-Donnell Douglas DC-10 airliner is flying at a pressure
altitude of 10 km. A pitot tube on the wing measures a pressure of 4.24 x 104 N/m2. Calculate
the Mach No. at which the airplane is flying. If the ambient air temperature is 230 K, calculate the
true airspeed and the calibrated airspeed.
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7.7 VENTURI TUBE

- It is a convergent-divergent tube with a short cylindrical throat or constricted

section designed to speed up the flow of fluid passing through it.
- According to Bernoulli’s principle, any time a fluid is speeded up without losing
or gaining any energy from the outside, the pressure of the fluid decreases.
- This device determines the rate of flow of fluid through the tube by measuring
the difference in pressure between the throat section and the entrance section.

Venturi’s are used in carburetors and in many types of fluid control devices to produce a
pressure drop proportional to the speed of the fluid passing them.

By Incompressible Bernoulli Equation:

2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
--------- + ------------- = ----------- + ------------
ρ 2 ρ 2

ρ
2 2
P1 - P2 = ---------- ( V2 - V1 )
2

By Incompressible Continuity Equation:

Q = A1V1 = A2V2

Q 2 Q 2
V12 = (-----) , V22 = (--------)
A1 A2

Then,
ρ Q
2
Q
2

P1 - P2 = ---------- ( ---------- - ----------- )

2 A22 A12
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ρ 1 1
2
P1 - P2 = ---------- Q ( ---------- - ----------- )
2 2
2 A2 A1

ρ Q2 A2
2

P1 - P2 = ---------- . ---------- ( 1 - ----------- )

2 2
2 A2 A1

ρQ2 A2 2
2 (P1 - P2) = -------- 1 - ( -------- )
2
A2 A1

2 ( P1 - P2 )
Q = A2 --------------------------------------
A2 2
ρ 1 - ( -------)
A1

3
Where: Q = rate of flow in ft /s or m /s
2
A = area in ft
2
P = pressure in lb/ft or Pa
ρ = density in slugs/ft or kg/m
3 3

Problems:

1. The diameter at A (larger throat) is 12”; the diameter at B (smaller throat) is 6”. What is
the flow rate of water if the pressure difference between B and A is 5” Hg?

2. A Venturri tube narrows down from 4 “ in diameter to 2” in diameter. What is the rate of
flow of water if the pressure at the throat is 2 lb/in2 less than at the larger section?

3. A Venturri Tube is 6 in. in diameter at the entrance, where the pressure is 10 lb / in2
(gage). The throat is 4” in diameter; there the pressure is 6 lb/in2(gage). What is the flow
of water?

4. A 12 in. by 6 in.Venturri meter is located in a horizontal water line. If the pressure gages
read 30 lb/in2. and 16 lb/in2, what is the flow?

STAGNATION POINT

- A point on the solid body where the velocity is zero.

- The pressure at the stagnation point is called the stagnation pressure, impact pressure,
or dynamic pressure.
- If there are no eddies or burblings, Bernoulli’s equation may be used to calculate this
pressure.
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7.8 Flow about a circular cylinder

By Incompressible Bernoulli Equation

P V2 P∞ V∞2
---------- + ----------- = -------------- + -------------
ρ∞ 2 ρ∞ 2

ρ∞
2 2
P = P∞ + ------------ ( V∞ - V )
2

ρ∞
2 2
P = P∞ + ---------- V∞ - (2V∞sinθ)
2

ρ∞V∞
2

P = P∞ + ------------- (1 – 4sin θ)
2

where:

P = pressure at any point on the surface of a cylinder in a uniform flow.

P∞ = freestream pressure in psf or Pa

V = tangential velocity in ft/s or m/s

v∞ = freestream velocity in ft/s or m/s

θ = angle through the point of the surface of the cylinder with the main
direction of the airflow in deg.
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Example:

1. A uniform current of air with a speed of 100 ft/s flow around a circular cylinder.
At a distance from the cylinder the pressure is atmospheric. What is the pressure
at point on the surface of the cylinder so located that a radial line through the point
makes an angle of 15 with the direction of airflow?

2. For the flow in the above problem, what is the pressure on the cylinder surface
at a 90, 45, 135, 0 arc from the direction of airflow?

3. At what point on the surface of the cylinder is the pressure atmospheric?

7.9 Magnus Effect and Circulation (Kutta – Joukowski Theorem)

(Kutta – Joukowski Theorem)

- relation between force acting on a body and vortex circulation.

Vortex – is the steady, two dimentional, circular motion of a fluid about a central
axis.
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It generates lift!!!

Formula: (Kutta – Joukowski Theorem)

L = ρ∞ V∞ Γ

Where:

L = lift per unit length in lb/ft or N/m

ρ∞ = freestream pressure in slug/ft3 or kg/m3
v∞ = freestream velocity in ft/s or m/s
Γ = circulation ( = 2πrN)
r = radius of the cylinder in ft or m
N = rotational speed in rev/sec
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For total Lift

LT = ρ∞ V∞ Γ l

Where:

LT = total lift per unit length in lb or N

L = length of cylinder in ft or m

Example:

1. A cylinder 3 ft in diameter and 8 ft long is rotating at 150 rpm in an air stream of 50

mph. What is the total lift?

2. A rotor ship has a rotor 8 ft in diameter and 53 ft high, rotating at 120 rpm. What is the
force at right angles to a 10-mph wind?

3. a cylinder 2 meter in diameter and 4 meters long is rotating at 150 rev/min in an

airstream of 15 m/sec. What is the lifting force at standard sea level conditions?