Tyres and wheels CHAPTER 10.
greater slip angles, and the latter result in smaller self-
aligning moments and a reduced caster offset. The ex-
planation for this fact is that, at low slip angles, only the
tyre profile is deformed at the area of contact. The point
of application of the lateral force can therefore move
further back, unlike large angles where, principally, the
carcass is deformed. High vertical wheel forces cause
the tyre to be severely compressed and therefore an in-
crease both in the area of tyre contact and also in the
caster offset occur.
10.1.10.3 Influences on the front wheels
The tyre self-aligning torque is one of the causes for the
steering forces during cornering; its level depends on
various factors.
10.1.10.3.1 Dry roads
The self-aligning torque is usually measured on a roller
test bench with the drum allowing a coefficient of fric-
tion of m0 ¼ 0.8–0.9 between its surface and the tyre. If
the resultant self-aligning torque on the open road is re-
quired, it is possible to approximate the value MZ,T,Y,m
using a correction factor:
km ¼ mY;W =m0 (10.1.21)
A cement block with mY,W ~ 1.05 (Fig. 10.1-43) and the
175/70 R 13 82 S radial tyre can be used as an example.
In accordance with Fig. 10.1-49,
MZ;T;Y ¼ 40 N m with FZ;W ¼ 3 kN and a ¼ 4
As a correction factor this gives
road mY;W 1:05
km ¼ m ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:31
roller m0 0:80
and thus
MZ;T;Y; m ¼ km  MZ;T;Y ¼ 1:31  40
¼ 52:4 N m
10.1.10.3.2 Wet roads
Provided that km is independent of tyre construction and
profile, the approximate value for a wet road can also be
determined. In accordance with Fig. 10.1-47, with 1 mm
of water on the surface and full profile depth the mY,W
value reduces from 0.86 to 0.55. Owing to the reduced
coefficient of friction, only a smaller value MZ,T,Y,m, can
be assumed; in other words,
wet 0:55
km ¼ mY;W ¼ ¼ 0:64; and
roller 0:86
MZ;T;Y;m ¼ 0:64  40 N m ¼ 25:6 N m
A greater water film thickness may cause the coefficient
of friction to reduce but the self-aligning moment in-
creases and the water turns the wheel back into the
straight position. Furthermore, the self-aligning maximum
shifts towards smaller slip angles when the road is wet.
10.1.10.3.3 Icy roads
Only with greater vertical forces and small slip angles is
the smoothness of the ice able to deform the area of tyre
contact and generate an extremely small moment, which
is nevertheless sufficient to align the tyre. Low front-axle
loads or greater angles a arising as a result of steering
corrections would result in a negative moment – MZ,T,Y
(in other words in a ‘further steering input’ of the tyres).
The wheel loads at the front, which were only low, were
already a problem on rear-engine passenger vehicles.
10.1.10.3.4 Longitudinal forces
Traction forces increase the self-aligning torque; the
equation for one wheel is
MZ;W;a ¼ FY;W ,rs;T þ FX;W;a ,rT
¼ Fz;W ðmY;W ,rs;T þ mX;W ,rT Þ (10.1.22)
During braking the moment fades and reduces to such an
extent that it even becomes negative and seeks to input
the wheels further. The formula for one wheel is
MZ;W;b ¼ FY;W ,rs;T  FX;W;b ,rT
(10.1.23)
¼ FZ;W ðmY;W ,rs;T  mX;W ,rT Þ
10.1.10.3.5 Tyre pressure
When the tyre pressure is increased the self-aligning
torque reduces by 6–8% per 0.1 bar, and increases ac-
cordingly when the pressure reduces, by 9–12% per
0.1 bar
A reduction in pressure of, for example, 0.5 bar could
thus result in over a 50% increase in the moment, a value
which the driver would actually be able to feel.
10.1.10.3.6 Further influences
The following have only a slight influence:
 positive camber values increase the torque slightly,
whereas negative ones reduce it;
 MZ,T,Y falls as speeds increase because the centrifugal
force tensions the steel belt which becomes more
difficult to deform (Fig. 10.1-16);
 widening the wheel rim width slightly reduces self-
alignment.
319
 CHAPTER 10.1 Tyres and wheels

Fig. 10.1-50 Caster offset of tyre rs,T calculated from Figs. 10.1-45 and 10.1-49 for 175/70 R 13 82 S steel radial tyres at pT ¼ 2.0 bar.
The higher the vertical force FZ,W (in kN) and the smaller the angle a, the longer is rs,T.

10.1.11 Tyre overturning moment plane of the wheel. Figure 10.1-51 shows the lateral
drift of the normal (wheel load) point of application
and displacement of point which is dependent on the size of the tyre, the lateral
of application of force force and the camber angle and to a large extent on
the construction of the tyre. Low section tyres with a
A tyre which runs subject to lateral forces on the tyre small height-to-width ratio and a high level of sidewall
contact patch is subject to deformation; there is a lateral rigidity exhibit greater lateral displacement. The roll-
displacement between the point of application of the over resistance of the vehicle is considerably reduced,
normal force (wheel load; Fig. 10.1-49) and the centre as there is a decrease in the distance between the point
Lateral displacement

Wheel load 8000 N

Wheel load 6700 N
Wheel load 5300 N

Degree
Slip angle

Fig. 10.1-51 Lateral displacement of normal (wheel load) point of application depending on slip angle and wheel load; measurements by
Continental on a tyre of type 205/65 R 15 94 V ContiEcoContact CP.

320
 Tyres and wheels CHAPTER 10.1

Wheel load 8000 N

Tyre overturning
Wheel load 6700 N
Wheel load 5300 N

Degree
Slip angle

Fig. 10.1-52 Tyre overturning moments MX,T,a on the wheel as a result of the buildup of lateral forces at different slip angles and wheel
loads FZ,W; measurements by Continental on a tyre of type 205/65 R 15 94 V ContiEcoContact CP.

of contact of the wheel and the centre of gravity of the
vehicle.
This displacement results in the emergence of tyre
overturning moments MX,T,a about the longitudinal axis
of the tyre (Fig. 10.1-52).
Both the lateral displacement of the point of application
of the normal force and the tyre overturning
moments must be taken into account when considering the
overturning behaviour of vehicles, as they can considerably
reduce rollover resistance, if, for example, a vehicle has
a high centre of gravity and a small track dimension.
10.1.12 Torque steer effects
Torque steer effects, i.e. changes in longitudinal forces
during cornering, are an important criterion for the def-
inition of transient handling characteristics. The torque

Fig. 10.1-53 The deformation of the tyre contact area during cornering results in aligning torque of the lateral forces which is further
intensified by tractive forces and produces an understeering yawing moment. If there is a change in load, the braking forces produce an
oversteering yawing moment.

321
 CHAPTER 10.1 Tyres and wheels

steer effects depend on the size of the change in the

longitudinal force, the adherence potential between the
tyres and the road, the tyres and the kinematic and
elastokinematic chassis design.

10.1.12.1 Torque steer effects as a result

of changes in normal force
Torque steer effects usually occur during cornering when
a driver has to slow down on a wrongly assessed bend by
reducing the amount of acceleration or applying the
brake.
The reaction force acting at the centre of gravity of the
vehicle causes an increase in front axle load with a
simultaneous reduction in the load on the rear axle. At
an initially unchanged slip angle, the distribution of
lateral forces changes as a result. If the force coefficient
relating to the simultaneous transfer of longitudinal and
transverse forces is sufficient, e.g. in the case of torque
steer effects owing to reduction in acceleration or gentle
braking (cf. Fig. 10.1-48), the increased lateral force
corresponding to the increase in normal force on
the front axle results in a yawing moment which allows
the vehicle to turn into the bend.
If the adhesion potential is exceeded as a result of
fierce braking or a low force coefficient, the tyres are no
longer able to build up the necessary lateral forces. This
results in an over- or understeering vehicle response
depending on the specific case, be it a loss of lateral force
on the front axle or rear axle or both.
10.1.12.2 Torque steer effects resulting
from tyre aligning torque
The lateral displacement of the tyre contact area as
a result of lateral forces leads to longitudinal forces
being applied outside the centre plane of the wheel
(Fig. 10.1-53).
This effect causes an increase in tyre aligning torque in
driven wheels. In rear-wheel drive vehicles, this torque
has an understeering effect with tractive forces, whereas
it has an oversteering effect where there is a change in
braking power.
In front-wheel drive vehicles, the resultant tractive
force vector applies about lever arm lf  sin df offset from
the centre of gravity of the vehicle (Fig. 10.1-54), so that
an oversteering yawing moment is produced during
driving which alters with application of a braking force to
a (small) understeering yawing moment.
Fig. 10.1-54 With front-wheel drive, an oversteering yawing
moment is produced, because the resultant tractive force vector is
applied about lever arm lf X sin df displaced to the centre of gravity
of the vehicle.
10.1.12.3 Effect of kinematics
and elastokinematics
An attempt is made to keep the torque steer effects of
a vehicle low by means of specific chassis design. The
above-mentioned changes in forces produce bump and
rebound travel movements on the axles. The results,
depending on the design of the chassis, in kinematic and
elastokinematic toe-in and camber changes which can be
used to compensate for unwanted changes in lateral
forces, particularly in the case of multi-link suspensions.
With unfavourable axle design and construction, there is,
however, also the possibility of an increase in the torque
steer effects.
LI ¼ 101 corresponds to 825 kg,
LI ¼ 102 corresponds to 850 kg etc. to
LI ¼ 108 corresponds to 1000 kg.
 rim horns, which form the lateral seat for the tyre
bead (the distance between the two rims is the jaw
width a);
 rim shoulders, the seat of the beads, generally inclined
at 5  1 to the centre where the force transfer
occurs around the circumference (Fig. 10.1-5);
 well base (also known as the inner base), designed as
a drop rim to allow tyre fitting, and mostly shifted to
the outside (diagram: Hayes Lemmerz).

322
Section Eleven Section Eleven Section Eleven Section Eleven

Section Eleven
Handling

323
This page is left intentionally left blank
Chapter 11.1
11.1
Tyre characteristics and vehicle
handling and stability
Hans Pacejka

11.1.1 Introduction
This chapter is meant to serve as an introduction to ve-
hicle dynamics with emphasis on the influence of tyre
properties. Steady-state cornering behaviour of simple
automobile models and the transient motion after small
and large steering inputs and other disturbances will be
discussed. The effects of various shape factors of tyre
characteristics (cf. Fig. 11.1-1) on vehicle handling
properties will be analysed. The slope of the side force Fy
vs slip angle a near the origin (the cornering or side slip
stiffness) is the determining parameter for the basic
linear handling and stability behaviour of automobiles.
The possible offset of the tyre characteristics with re-
spect to their origins may be responsible for the occur-
rence of the so-called tyre-pull phenomenon. The further
non-linear shape of the side (or cornering) force charac-
teristic governs the handling and stability properties of
the vehicle at higher lateral accelerations. The load de-
pendency of the curves, notably the non-linear relation-
ship of cornering stiffness with tyre normal load has
a considerable effect on the handling characteristic of the
car. For the (quasi) steady-state handling analysis simple
single-track (two-wheel) vehicle models will be used.
Front- and rear-axle effective side force characteristics
are introduced to represent effects that result from
suspension and steering system design factors such as
steering compliance, roll steer and lateral load transfer.
Also the effect of possibly applied (moderate) braking
and driving forces may be incorporated in the effective
characteristics. Large braking forces may result in wheel
lock and possibly large deviations from the undisturbed
path. The application of the handling and stability theory
to the dynamics of heavy trucks will also be briefly dealt
with in the present chapter. Special attention will be

Fig. 11.1-1 Characteristic shape factors (indicated by points and shaded areas) of tyre or axle characteristics that may influence vehicle
handling and stability properties. Slip angle and force and moment positive directions.

Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics; ISBN: 9780750669184

Copyright Ó 2005 Hans Pacejka. All rights of reproduction, in any form, reserved.
 CHAPTER 11.1 Tyre characteristics and vehicle handling and stability
given to the phenomenon of oscillatory instability that
may show up with the car trailer combination.
When the wavelength of an oscillatory motion of the
vehicle that may arise from road unevenness, brake
torque fluctuations, wheel unbalance or instability
(shimmy), is smaller than say 5 m, a non-steady-state or
transient description of tyre response is needed to
properly analyse the phenomenon. Applications demon-
strate the use of transient and oscillatory tyre models and
provide insight into the vehicle dynamics involved.
11.1.2 Tyre and axle characteristics
Tyre characteristics are of crucial importance for the
dynamic behaviour of the road vehicle. In this section an
introduction is given to the basic aspects of the force
and moment generating properties of the pneumatic
tyre. Both the pure and combined slip characteristics of
the tyre are discussed and typical features presented.
Finally, the so-called effective axle characteristics are
derived from the individual tyre characteristics and the
relevant properties of the suspension and steering
system.
11.1.2.1 Introduction to tyre
characteristics
The upright wheel rolling freely, that is without applying
a driving torque, over a flat level road surface along
a straight line at zero side slip, may be defined as the
starting situation with all components of slip equal to zero.
A relatively small pulling force is needed to overcome the
tyre rolling resistance and a side force and (self) aligning
torque may occur as a result of the not completely sym-
metric structure of the tyre. When the wheel motion
deviates from this by definition zero-slip condition, wheel
slip occurs that is accompanied by a build-up of additional
tyre deformation and possibly partial sliding in the contact
patch. As a result, (additional) horizontal forces and the
aligning torque are generated. The mechanism responsible
for this is treated in detail in the subsequent chapters. For
now, we will suffice with some important experimental
observations and define the various slip quantities that
serve as inputs into the tyre system and the moment and
forces that are the output quantities (positive directions
according to Fig. 11.1-1). Several alternative definitions
are in use as well.
For the freely rolling wheel the forward speed Vx
(longitudinal component of the total velocity vector V of
the wheel centre) and the angular speed of revolution Uo
can be taken from measurements. By dividing these two
quantities the so-called effective rolling radius re is
obtained:
326
Vx
re ¼ (11.1.1)
Uo
Although the effective radius may be defined also for
a braked or driven wheel, we restrict the definition to the
case of free rolling. When a torque is applied about the
wheel spin axis a longitudinal slip arises that is defined as
follows:
Vx  re U Uo  U
k ¼  ¼  (11.1.2)
Vx Uo
The sign is taken such that for a positive k a positive
longitudinal force Fx arises, that is: a driving force. In that
case, the wheel angular velocity U is increased with
respect to Uo and consequently U > Uo ¼ Vx/re. During
braking, the fore and aft slip becomes negative. At wheel
lock, obviously, k ¼ 1. At driving on slippery roads,
k may attain very large values. To limit the slip to
a maximum equal to one, in some texts the longitudinal
slip is defined differently in the driving range of slip: in
the denominator of (11.1.2) Uo is replaced by U. This will
not be done in the present text.
Lateral wheel slip is defined as the ratio of the lateral
and the forward velocity of the wheel. This corresponds
to minus the tangent of the slip angle a (Fig. 11.1-1).
Again, the sign of a has been chosen such that the side
force becomes positive at positive slip angle:
Vy
tan a ¼  (11.1.3)
Vx
The third and last slip quantity is the so-called spin
which is due to rotation of the wheel about an axis normal
to the road. Both the yaw rate resulting in path curvature
when a remains zero, and the wheel camber or inclination
angle g of the wheel plane about the x axis contribute to
the spin. The camber angle is defined positive when
looking from behind the wheel is tilted to the right. The
forces Fx and Fy and the aligning torque Mz are results of
the input slip. They are functions of the slip components
and the wheel load. For steady-state rectilinear motions
we have in general:
Fx ¼ Fx ðk; a; g; Fz Þ; Fy ¼ Fy ðk; a; g; Fz Þ;
(11.1.4)
Mz ¼ Mz ðk; a; g; Fz Þ
The vertical load Fz may be considered as a given
quantity that results from the normal deflection of the
tyre. The functions can be obtained from measurements
for a given speed of travel and road and environmental
conditions.
Fig. 11.1-1 shows the adopted system of axes (x, y, z)
with associated positive directions of velocities and
forces and moments. The exception is the vertical force
Fz acting from road to tyre. For practical reasons, this