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UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO -They are also known as longitudinal or

SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA repeated-measure studies. Experimental Designs,


often called true experimentation, use the
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN scientific method to establish cause-effect
Research Design is referring to the overall plan relationship among a group of variables in a
and scheme for conducting the study. Also, research study.
Quantitative research, is defined as the
systematic investigation of phenomena by TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
gathering quantifiable data and performing DESIGN
statistical, mathematical or computational  Pre-Experimental Research Design:
techniques. -This is the simplest form of experimental
research design. A group, or various groups, are
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH kept under observation after factors are
DESIGN considered for cause and effect. It is usually
1. Descriptive Research Design conducted to understand whether further
-Descriptive research aims to accurately and investigation needs to be carried out on the
systematically describe a population, situation or target group/s, due to which it is considered to
phenomenon. It can answer what, when, where and be cost-effective.
how questions, but not why questions. The pre-experimental research design is further
Three Methods of Descriptive Research Design bifurcated into three types:
o Observation: Observations allow you to  One-shot Case Study Research Design
gather data on behaviours and phenomena  One-group Pretest-posttest Research
without having to rely on the honesty and Design
accuracy of respondents.  Static-group Comparison
o Case Studies: A case study can be used to
describe the characteristics of a specific  True Experimental Research Design:
subject (such as a person, group, event or -True experimental research is the most
organization). Instead of gathering a large accurate form of experimental research design
volume of data to identify patterns across as it relies on statistical analysis to prove or
time or location, case studies gather detailed disprove a hypothesis.
data to identify the characteristics of a Control Group (Group of participants for
narrowly defined subject. research that are familiar to the Experimental
o Surveys: Likely the most familiar method of group but experimental research rules do not
descriptive research, surveys involve apply to them.) and Experimental Group (Research
interviews or discussions with larger participants on whom experimental research rules
audiences and are often conducted on more do apply.)
specific topics.  Variable which can be manipulated by the
researcher
 Random distribution
2. Experimental Research Design
o Quasi-Experimental Research Design: 1. Probability sampling - involves random
-The word “Quasi” indicates resemblanceThe selection, allowing you to make statistical
difference between the two the assignment of a inferences about the whole group.
control group. In this research design, an
independent variable is manipulated but the TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING
participants of a group are not randomly assigned
a) Simple random sampling
as per conditions. The independent variable is
In a simple random sample, every member of
manipulated before calculating the dependent
the population has an equal chance of being
variable and so, directionality problem is
selected. Your sampling frame should include the
eliminated. Quasi-research is used in field
whole population.
settings where random assignment is either
irrelevant or not required. b) Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random
3. Historical Research Design sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
-The purpose of this research is to collect, conduct. Every member of the population is listed
verify and synthesize evidence from the past to with a number, but instead of randomly
establish facts that defend or refute your generating numbers, individuals are chosen at
hypothesis. regular intervals.

DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE c) Stratified sampling


-In research terms a sample is a group of This sampling method is appropriate when the
people, objects, or items that are taken from a population has mixed characteristics, and you
larger population for measurement. The sample want to ensure that every characteristic is
should be representative of the population to proportionally represented in the sample.
ensure that we can generalize the findings from
d) Cluster sampling
the research sample to the population as a whole.
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the
Sampling frame population into subgroups, but each subgroup
-The sampling frame is the actual list of should have similar characteristics to the whole
individuals that the sample will be drawn from. sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
Ideally, it should include the entire target subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
population (and nobody who is not part of that
2. Non-probability sampling involves non-
population).
random selection based on convenience or
Sample size other criteria, allowing you to easily collect
-The number of individuals in your sample initial data.
depends on the size of the population, and on how
a) Convenience sampling
precisely you want the results to represent the
-A convenience sample simply includes the
population as a whole.
individuals who happen to be most accessible to
SAMPLING METHODS
the researcher. This is an easy and inexpensive
way to gather initial data, but there is no way to
tell if the sample is representative of the
population, so it cannot produce generalizable
results.
Validity - refers to the extent to which the
b) Voluntary response sampling
instrument measures what it intends to measure
-Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary
and performs as it is designed to perform.
response sample is mainly based on ease of
a) Content Validity – the extent to which a
access. Instead of the researcher choosing
research instrument accurately measures all
participants and directly contacting them, people
aspects of a construct.
volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a
b) Construct Validity – the extent to which a
public online survey). Voluntary response samples
research instrument or tool measures the
are always at least somewhat biased, as some
intended construct.
people will inherently be more likely to volunteer
c) Criterion Validity – the extent to which a
than others.
research instrument is related to other
c) Purposive sampling
instruments that measure the same variables.
-This type of sampling involves the researcher
using their judgement to select a sample that is
Reliability - relates to the extent to which the
most useful to the purposes of the research.
instrument is consistent. The instrument should
be able to obtain approximately the same
d) Snowball sampling
response when applied to respondents who are
If the population is hard to access, snowball
similarly situated.
sampling can be used to recruit participants via
Attributes of Reliability
other participants. The number of people you
a) Internal Consistency/Homogeneity – the
have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact
extent to which all the items on a scale measure
with more people.
one construct.
INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT
b) Stability or Test-Retest Correlation – the
Instruments
consistency of results using an instrument with
- The data gathering devices that will be
repeated testing.
used in the study. It is a testing device for
c) Equivalence – consistency among responses of
measuring a given phenomenon, such as a paper
multiple users of an instrument, or among
and pencil test, questionnaires, interviews,
alternate forms of an instrument.
research tools, or set of guidelines for
observation.
Sources of Data
1. Primary Sources – known as primary
data/raw data. These are data obtained from
CATEGORIES OF INSTRUMENT
your own researchers, surveys, observations
and interviews.
2. Secondary Sources – known as secondary
data. These are data obtained from secondary
sources such as reports, books, journals, d. Information – is the main body of the document
documents, magazines, internet and more. and is made up of the many questions and
response codes.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
e. Classification Data and Information –
1. Interviews Kinds of Interview: establish the important characteristics of the
respondent, particularly related to their
a. Structured Interview – the researcher asks
demographics which are sometimes at the front
a standard set of questions and nothing more. The
of questionnaire or sometimes at the end.
interview follows a specific format with the same
line of questioning. The aim of this approach is to Questionnaires Types of Questionnaires:
ensure that each interview is presented with
a. Paper-pencil Questionnaire – can be sent to a
exactly the same questions in the same order.
large number of people and saves the researcher
b. Face to Face Interview – most frequently time and money.
used. It can be conducted in the respondent’s
b. Web-based Questionnaire – is a new and
home or workplace, halls or even simply in the
inevitably growing methodology using the internet
street.
based research.
c. Telephone Interview – less consuming and less
c. Self-administered Questionnaire – are general
expensive. The researcher has ready access to
distributed through mail, filled out and
anyone who has a telephone.
administered by the respondent themselves
d. Computer – Assisted Personal Interviewing – which is returned via email to the researcher.
is a form of personal interview but instead of
Observations – is a way of gathering data by
completing a questionnaire, the interviewer
watching behavior, events, or noting physical
brings along a laptop or handheld computer to
characteristics in their natural setting.
enter the information directly into the database.
KINDS OF OBSERVATIONS
Questionnaires Five Sections:
a. Overt – when everyone knows they are being
a. Respondent’s Identification Data – include
observed.
respondent’s name, address, date of the interview
and name of the interviewer. b. Covert – when no one knows they are being
observed and the observes is concealed.
b. Introduction – is the interviewer’s request for
help. It is normally scripted and lays out the 4. Tests – provide a way to assess subject’s
credentials of the market research company, the knowledge and capacity to apply this knowledge to
purpose of the study and any aspects of new situations.
confidentiality.
Kinds of Tests:
c. Instruction – refers to the interviewer and the
a. Norm-referenced tests – provide information
respondent’s directions on how to move through
on how the target performs against a reference
the questionnaire such as which questions to skip
group or normative population.
and where to move to if certain answers are given.
b. Criterion-referenced tests – constructed to 4. Procedure – the detail of the research
determine whether the respondents/subjects procedures used in your research study should
have attained mastery of a skill or knowledge be properly explained. Explain what your
area. participants/respondents do, how you
collected the data, the order in which steps
c. Proficiency test – provides an assessment
occurred.
against a level of skill attainment, but includes
standards for performance at varying levels of TIPS IN WRITING METHODOLOGY
proficiency.
• Always write the method section in the past
Secondary Data – a type of quantitative data tense. (Use the future tense if it is a research
that has already been collected by someone else design.) • Provide enough details that another
for a purpose different from yours. researcher could replicate your experiment, but
focus on brevity. Avoid unnecessary detail that is
a. Paper-based sources – are those from books,
not relevant to the outcome of the experiment.
journals, periodicals, abstracts, indexes,
directories, research reports, conference • Remember to use proper APA format. • Take a
papers, market reports, annual reports, internal rough draft of your method section with your
records of organizations, newspapers and teacher or research adviser for additional
magazines. assistance.

b. Electronic sources – are those from CD-ROMs, • Proofread your paper for typos, grammar
on-line databases, internet, videos and problems, and spelling errors. Do not just rely on
broadcasts. computer spell checkers. Always read through
each section of your paper for agreement with
other sections. If you mention steps and
GUIDELINES IN WRITING METHODOLOGY procedures in the method section, these elements
should also be present in the results and
1. Participants – describe the participants in
discussion sections.
your research study, including who they are,
how many there are, and how they are
selected.
2. Materials – describe the materials, measures,
equipment, or stimuli used in your research
study. This may include testing instruments,
technical equipment, books, images or other
materials used in the course of your study.
3. Design – describe the research design used in
your research study. Specify the variables as
well as the levels and measurement of these
variables. Explain whether your research
study uses a within- groups or between-groups
design.

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