CHEMICAL ENGINEERING UNIT OPERATIONS,

SYNTHESIS AND BASIC DESIGN CALCULATIONS

VOLUME I

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 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING UNIT OPERATIONS,
SYNTHESIS AND BASIC DESIGN CALCULATIONS

VOLUME I

AWAJIOGAK A. UJILE

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Published by

© AWAJIOGAK A. UJILE

First Published

ISBN : 978-978-080-611-2

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Other than for reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise
without the permission of the copyright owner and the publishers.

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 Dedication

To My Wife Cecilia and our Four Children:

Ichechiek, Awajiokiche, Itong and Tonejit for their love and care

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 Preface

The science of unit operations of chemical engineering is the foundation on which various
problems associated with designs, fabrications, installation, operations and maintenance of
facilities of processes are solved. The development of high throughput from production
processes and optimum design of chemical engineering equipment determine not only the
economic stability of any venture, but also its efficiency. This book addresses these features.
Skills in solving practical engineering problems are obtained not only by theoretical
fundamentals but also by experience.
Design problems are characterized by the fact that they are often complex, ill-defined and
with no singular process model. Solving design problems requires system, procedural and
strategic knowledge that students and practicing engineers need to develop for contextual
thinking and decision making. The concept of the book came to my mind to present a pattern that
can meet this need.
This book tries to help students and practicing design engineers to develop skills to an
appropriate level, particularly in the discipline of solving chemical engineering design type
problems. A framework for teaching students/engineers skills for solving design problems is
developed and presented. The framework is presented in terms of elements/parameters
constructively aligned with the cognitive process required in problem solving.
The book shows the concept of the basic chemical engineering processes and approach to
solving design problems. The book is made up of seven chapters. Chapter one is on Applied
Hydraulics. This chapter considers basic engineering principles required to handle fluid in plant
operations. Detailed transfer phenomena are not presented here, but could be obtained in
literature cited and Perry chemical engineers handbook. Pipeline hydraulic design procedures are
presented. A typical design module for pressure vessel with the application of ASME CODES
and PVELITE Software is presented in this chapter. Chapter two is on Mass Transfer,
Absorption. The general subject of mass transfer may be divided into four broad areas of
particular interest and importance: molecular diffusion in stagnant media, molecular diffusion in
fluids in laminar flow, eddy diffusion or mixing in a free turbulent stream, and mass transfer
between two phases. The chemical engineer’s interest in mass transfer comes primarily from his
traditional role as a specialist in the design of separation processes. This chapter therefore
considers the fundamental principles required by the chemical engineers for design separation
processes. Chapter three is on Distillation. In this chapter the fundamental principles,
relationships, formulas and methods of distillation and calculation of the number of stages
required for both binary and multi-component systems are presented. Basic problems of design
associated with physical, chemical properties and hydraulic phenomenon inside the unit are
considered; incorporating the column internal configurations.
Chapter four of the book is on Adsorption. In this chapter the fundamentals of gas phase
and liquid phase adsorptions are considered. Gas phase adsorption is a condensation process
where the adsorption forces condense the molecules from the bulk p hase within the pores of the

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adsorbent. The driving force for adsorption is the ratio of the partial pressure and the vapour
pressure of the compound liquid phase adsorption is where the molecules move from the bulk
phase to the pores of the adsorbent in a semi- liquid state. The driving force here is the ratio of
the concentration to the solubility of the compound. Chapter five considers Extraction and
Leaching. This chapter considers processes involved in extraction and leaching, factors
influencing, the processes and parameters with graphical methods of solving problems associated
with the process. The sixth chapter of the book is on Heat Transfer. The various modes of heat
transfer and their applications to solving practical industrial problems are cons idered. The
application of ASME CODES and PVELITE Software is presented in this chapter. The seventh
chapter which is the last one for this volume one is on Separation Methods, Hydrodynamics of
Fluidized Beds, Dimensionless Group Model for Centrifugal Separation.
In addition every chapter contains minimum of three practical questions and solutions. This
is to provide basic procedures to give students of chemical engineering faculties in universities
the approach in solving practical industrial problems. Most times students and practicing
engineers are faced with challenges of finding solutions to problems of chemical engineering
processes mathematically. The book becomes a guide to such practitioners.
The subsequent volume of this book will consider the following unit operations processes:
Pumps, fans, Compressors; Drying; Evaporation, Crystallization; Refrigeration. This will form
volume two of the book.
Chemical engineering practitioners, undergraduate students of chemical engineering schools
will find this book very useful. Mechanical engineering practitioners and students alike who are
involved in heat transfer and mass transfer operations will also benefit from the book.

Awajiogak Anthony Ujile

June 2014

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 Foreword

The need for industrialization in the Nigerian economy cannot be over-emphasized. The country
Nigeria is blessed with natural resources such as tropical climate, water, agricultural land, solid
minerals, crude oil and natural gas.
Nigeria in the 1960s was the highest producers in the world of cocoa, oil palm and
groundnuts. In the 1970s and 1980s, the country became a major player in crude petroleum oil
and natural gas production. These resources can be converted into useful products that have high
local and global demand such as in food products; steel products; fuels for automotive engines,
industrial and aviation uses; industrial chemicals, petrochemical products and plastics.
Nigeria with estimated crude oil reserves of about 190 trillion cubic feet has enough local
resources to industrialize. What is required for the country to complete the value chain is
technology that would convert the basic raw materials and feed stocks into intermediate and
finished products with high local and global demand. The workhorse for this transformation in
chemical and process engineering field is known as the principles of Unit Operations. Unit
Operations can be viewed as the skeleton of the body of chemical processes.
In this book, Chemical Engineering Unit Operations, Synthesis and Basic Design
Calculations the Author has made effort to provide the reader with comprehensive information
on practical applications of the concepts in the areas of fluid flow (applied pipeline hydraulics);
mass transfer (absorption); distillation processes; extraction and leaching; heat transfer;
separation processes including filtration and fluidization. There is also a chapter on adsorption
(physical and chemical) processes.
It is known that many new chemical processes are discovered in the laboratory by an
empirical approach guided by chemical intuition based on practical experience. Our chemical
industry, our economy and our national security should be based on this type of industrial
experience.
Dr Awajiogak Anthony Ujile has served a useful function in assembling data on unit
operations processes. Chemical, petroleum and environmental engineers and industrial chemists
will have a ready source of information for the evaluation and design of their processing
equipment.
It is hoped that this first volume will prove valuable to lecturers in the universities and
polytechnic institutions and their students. Here is an eminently useful material, coming at the
right time when there is the need to encourage indigenous authorship of process engineering text
books and publications.
I congratulate the Author of Chemical Engineering Unit Operations Synthesis and Basic
Design Calculations and recommend the publication to students of Chemical Engineering,
Petroleum Engineering, Industrial Chemistry and practitioners in the chemical process industries.

Abiola John KEHINDE, PhD., FNSChE, FNSE, COREN Regd.

Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria

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 Acknowledgement
I am indebted to some contributors to the success of this book. Firstly, I thank Prof. Abiola John
Kehinde of Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Lagos, who proofread the
manuscript, edited it, wrote the Foreword and made useful contributions. I express my
appreciation to Prof. Emenike Nyeche Wami of Chemical/Petrochemical Engineering
Department, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt who taught me
Unit Operations at undergraduate levels and Prof. Esio Oboho, Dea n of Engineering, Akwa Ibom
State University of Science and Technology, who taught me Heat Transfer, Chemical Reaction
Engineering at the Post graduate level of my studies. I recognize the support I have obtained
from Prof. Millionaire Freeborn Nestor Abowei of Rivers State University of Science and
Technology who did not only teach me Chemical Engineering Process Design at the Post
Graduate level but also chaired the supervision of my PhD work on Mass transfer phenomenon.
My wife, Mrs. Cecilia A. Ujile deserves commendation during the preparation of the manuscript,
for her care. Our children; Dr. Ichechiek, and Awajiokiche, PhD student at the University of
Manchester, Electrical/Electronic Engineering Department, who formatted Chapter one before
the Publishers followed the pattern, Itong and Tonejit all students at various levels supported this
work morally. I appreciate Mrs. Joy Osaye, who typed the manuscripts.

Finally I thank God Almighty for the wisdom, direction and strength to be able to conclude this
first phase of the book. I praise His name.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
Preface v
Foreword vii
Acknowledgement viii

CHAPTER 1: APPLIED/PIPELINE HYDRAULICS 1

1.1 Commonly used terms 1
1.2 Fundamental equation of hydrostatics 3
1.3 To determine dynamic viscosity of a gas 5
1.4 Equation of rate of flow 7
1.4.1 Equation of the rate of flow in pipes 7
1.4.2 Buoyancy 8
1.5 Principal dimensionless Numbers 8
1.6 Velocity of a discharge of a fluid 12
1.7 Measurement of rate of flow of fluid 13
1.8 Rate of flow with Pitot- Prandtl tube 14
1.9 Mach Number 15
1.10 Venturi meters 15
1.11 Power consumed by the motor of a pump 16
1.12 Expenditure of pressure for creating velocity of flow 17
1.13 Loss of pressure for overcoming friction resistance 18
1.13.1- Isothermal flow 18
1.13.2 Formulas to determine resistance coefficient – laminar flow 22
1.13.3 Formulas to determine resistance coefficient – turbulent flow 23
1.13.4 Non – Isothermal flow 23
1.14 Loss of pressure because of friction in a bent pipe 25
1.15 Network consisting of piping having constant cross section 28
1.16 Hydraulic resistance of a bank of pipes 28
1.17 Hydraulic resistance of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger 29
1.18 Hydraulic resistance of a scrubber packings 30
1.19 Hydraulic resistance of plate column apparatuses 31
1.20 Pipeline hydraulics 34
1.20.1 Panhandle A Equation 34
1.20.2 Panhandle B Equation 35
1.20.3 Weymouth Equation 35
1.20.4 Liquid pipelines 36
1.20.5 Pressure drop calculations 36
1.20.6 Liquids Hydraulic Calculations 37
1.20.7 Pressure Drop Calculations for Rubber Hose 38
1.20.8 Typical Equations used for pressure drop and flow rates for pipelines 38
1.20.9 Equivalent stresses 39
1.20.10 Hoop Stress 39

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1.20.11 Temperature profile 40
1.20.12 Flow efficiency 43

1.21 Software – PV ELITE Pressure Vessel Analysis Program 44

Examples 54
References 59

CHAPTER 2: MASS TRANSFER, ABSORPTION 61

2.1 Ways of expressing composition of phases 62
2.2 Equations for conversion of concentration 64
2.2.1 Henry’s law 65
2.2.2 Raoult’s law 67
2.3 Equation of mass transfer 68
2.4 Leaching process from landfill 70
2.5 Atomic volumes of selected elements 73
2.6 Coefficient of diffusion in liquid 74
2.7 Diffusion coefficient of some gases in water 75
2.8 Coefficient of diffusion of a gas in a liquid 76
2.9 Material balance of an absorber 77
2.9.1 Mean driving force 79
2.9.2 Determination of diameter 80
2.9 .3a Determination of height: -Height of Transfer Unit (HTU) 82
2.9.3b Height Equivalent of Theoretical Plate (HETP) 84
2.10 Dimensionless formulas for calculating individual mass transfer
coefficient in packed absorbers 85
Examples 87
References 92

CHAPTER 3: DISTILLATION PROCESSES 95

3.1 Equation of a simple distillation 95
3.2 Methods of distillation 97
3.2.1 Differential 97
3.2.2 Flash or Equilibrium 98
3.2.3 Rectification 99
3.3 Minimum reflux Ratio, Rmin 104
3.4 Diameter of a plate rectification column 105
3.5 Height of plate rectification column 107
3.6 Number of theoretical plates-stages of concentration change 107
3.7 Determination of plate efficiency 110
3.8 Murphree Efficiency 111
Examples 113
References 121

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CHAPTER 4: ADSORPTION 121
4.1 Adsorption Isotherm 121
4.1.1 Langmuir isotherm model 123
4.1.2 Freundlich isotherm model 123
4.1.3 Temkin isotherm model 123
4.2 Reaction of molecules in adsorption layer 124
4.3 Rate of adsorption 126
4.4 Sorption and desorption 129
4.5 Duration of adsorption in a batch process 131
4.6 Kinetic parameters 133
4.6.1 Pseudo-First order model 133
4.6.2 Pseudo-Second order model 134
4.7 Thermodynamic parameters of adsorption 135
4.8 Continuous adsorption processes 136
4.9 Depth of adsorbent bed through the number of transfer unit 137
4.10 Determination of the depth of the bed for the straight portion of the isotherm 139
Examples 140
References 142

CHAPTER 5 : EXTRACTION AND LEACHING PROCESSES 145

5.1 Mass transfer in leaching process 145
5.2 Equilibrium Relations 146
5.3 The Lever rule 148
5.4 Graphical Calculations with rectangular diagrams 150
5.5 Cross Current (simple stage) liquid extraction 154
5.6 Counter current liquid extraction 156
5.7 Countercurrent Liquid Extraction Using Reflux 158
5.8 Multistage Concurrent (Parallel) Leaching 160
5.9 Countercurrent Leaching 161
5.10 Numerical Calculation of Multi-Component Extraction 162
5.11 UNIQUA 164
Examples 165
References 170

CHAPTER 6: HEAT TRANSFER PROCESSES 171

6.1 Heat conduction 171
6.1.1 Fourier’s law 173
6.1.2 Conduction through a plane wall 173
6.1.3 Conduction through a composite wall 174
6.2 Transient systems 175
6.3 Finite Difference Analysis of conduction 177

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6.4 Convective heat transfer 179
6.4.1 Natural (Free) Convection 181
6.4.2 Heat transfer:
6.4.2 in developed turbulent flow in pipes, tubes, channels 183
6.4.3 in transition region 184
6.4.4 in laminar flow 185
6.4.5 in film condensation of a saturated vapour 186
6.4.6 in the Boiling of Liquids 190
6.5 Thermal radiation 192
6.5.1 in thermal radiation of solids 192
6.5.2 Radiation shields 193
6.5.3 Reradiating surface 194
6.6 Heat Transfer in the Thermal radiation of Solids 195
6.7 Methods for the determination of heat transfer and pressure drop on shell side
of heat exchanger 198

6.8 PV ELITE AND PV CODECALC software for heat exchanger design 200
Examples 210
References 214

CHAPTER 7: SEPERATION, FILTRATION, & FLUIDIZATION PROCESSES 217

7.1 Gravity settling 217
7.2 Settling under the action of a centrifugal force 221
7.3 Cyclone 223
7.4 Filtration 225
7.5 Centrifugal separation 229
7.6 Hydrodynamics of fluidized bed 233
7.7 Dimensionless Group Model for Centrifugal Separation 235
Examples 236

References 239

Index 241

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