Ignore This Stuff

Niharika Krishna Gottipati
Class 10/A3
Science Ch. 1 - Chemistry Ch. 1 :

Chemical Reactions And Equations

Keywords:
● Physical Change: A reaction in matter that occurs without a change in the chemical
composition of the matter
● Chemical Change: A reaction in matter, which changes the chemical composition of
the matter, making a new substance
● Chemical Reaction: A change in which one or more substance(s)/reactant(s), react to
form one or more new substance(s)/product(s), with different properties
○ Reactant(s): The substance(s) that undergo the chemical change in a chemical
reaction
○ Product(s): The substance(s) formed in a chemical reaction
● Chemical Equation: The symbolic representation of a chemical reaction
○ Balanced Chemical Equation: A chemical equation with an equal number of
atoms of each element on both sides of the equation
○ (Unbalanced) Skeletal Chemical Equation: A chemical equation without an
equal number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation
● Combination Reaction: A chemical reaction in which 2 or more reactants combine to
form a single product
● Decomposition Reaction: A chemical reaction in which a single reactant breaks down
to form 2 or more simpler products
○ Thermal Decomposition: The decomposition of a reactant, by the use of heat
energy
○ Electrolysis/Electrolytic Decomposition: The decomposition of a reactant, by
the use of electric energy
○ Photolysis/Photochemical Decomposition: The decomposition of a reactant,
by the use of light energy
● Single Displacement Reaction: A chemical reaction in which a more reactive element
displaces a less reactive element from its compound
● Double Displacement Reaction: A chemical reaction in which there is a mutual
exchange of ions
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● Oxidation/Reduction / Redox Reaction: A reaction in which one substance is oxidised

while the other is reduced.
○ Oxidation: The addition of oxygen (or) removal of hydrogen from a substance
(i.e. Substance loses electrons)
○ Reduction: The addition of hydrogen (or) removal of oxygen from a substance
(i.e. Substance gains electrons)
○ Oxidizing Agent: A substance that helps in the oxidation of a substance. (It is
the substance reduced in a redox reaction.)
○ Reducing Agent: A substance that helps in the reduction of a substance. (It is
the substance oxidized in a redox reaction.)
● Endothermic Reaction: Reaction which occurs by absorption of heat/energy
● Exothermic Reaction: Reaction in which heat/energy is released along with the
formation of products
● Corrosion: The eating away of the surface of metals by the action of air, water, and
chemicals present is the atmosphere.
● Rancidity: The oxidization of the oils and fats present in food materials, resulting in the
change of smell and/or taste.
● Catalyst: A substance speeding up a chemical reaction without undergoing chemical
change
● Aqueous (aq): A solution in/with water
● Precipitate (pt): An insoluble substance
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Chemical Reactions:
A chemical reaction is a change in which one or more substance(s)/reactant(s), react to form
one or more new substance(s)/product(s), with different properties.
- Identification Of A Chemical Reaction: The following observations indicate a
chemical reaction:
● Change in color
● Change in state
● Change in temperature
● Evolution of a g as
● Formation of a precipitate

Chemical Equations:
A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction.
Ex: H₂ + O₂ → H₂O
- Balanced Chemical Equations: A balanced chemical equation is one with an equal
number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation, and an (unbalanced)
skeletal equation is one without. Chemical equations must be balanced to satisfy the
Law of Conservation of Mass (‘Matter can neither be created nor destroyed’).
- Method For Balancing Chemical Equations:
● Hit and Trial Method:
1. Enclose the reactants and products in brackets. Don’t change anything inside them.
(Na) + (H₂O) → (NaOH) + (H₂)
2. List the number of atoms of each element on either side.
(Na) + (H₂O) → (NaOH) + (H₂)
Na = 1 Na = 1
H=2 H = 3
O=1 O = 1
3. Start balancing with the compound that contains the most atoms, with the atom with
the largest subscript. (Here, NaOH)
(Na) +2(H₂O) →2(NaOH) + (H₂)
Na = 1 Na = 2
H=4 H = 4
O=3 O = 2
4. Continue balancing, till the equation is balanced, double check when done.
2(Na) + 2(H₂O) → 2(NaOH) + (H₂)
Na = 2 Na = 2
H=4 H = 4
O=2 O = 2
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● Variable Coefficients Method:

1. Assign a letter as the coefficient of each element.
A(Na) + B(H₂O) → C(NaOH) + D(H₂)
2. Write equations for all of the elements, using the letters. (If the equations contradict
each other, then the chemical equation is wrong)
A = C
2B = C + 2D - (Take subscripts as coefficients in complex equations)
B = C
A(Na) + B(H₂O) → C(NaOH) + D(H₂)
3. Take the element that is the greatest in number. Assume that its coefficient is 1.
B = 1
C = 1
A = 1
2 = 1 + 2D
2D = 1
D = 21
1
(Na) +(H₂O) →(NaOH) + 2 (H₂)
4. If there are fractions, multiply the whole equation by the LCM of the denominators.
Double check when done.
2(Na) +2(H₂O) →2(NaOH) + (H₂)
Na = 2 Na = 2
H=4 H = 4
O=2 O = 2

- Making A Chemical Equation More Informative:
1.) Physical States Of Substances:
● Solid - (s)
● Liquid - (l)
● Gas - (g)
● Aqueous - (aq) [Present as a solution in water]
● Precipitate - (pt) [Precipitated from a solution]
- Evolution of a gas can be ↑ instead of (g)
- Formation of a precipitate can be ↓ instead of (s) or (pt)
- A substance in an aqueous solution can be (_) + H₂O(l) instead of (aq)
Eg.: Mg + H₂SO₄ → MgSO₄ + H₂
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2.) Reaction Conditions: The specific conditions of the reaction, like temperature,
pressure, catalyst(s), etc.are written above the arrow.
+ When ‘Δ’ is written above the arrow, it represents heat.
Eg.: 6CO₂ + 12H₂O --------------> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 6H₂O
(Write with pen/pencil) (Carbohydrate)
3.) Evolution/Absorption of Energy: Evolution or absorption of energy can be written on
either side of the reaction, in the form of +Energy. (Such as +Heat for heat energy)

Types Of Chemical Reactions:
There are 5 types of chemical reactions, and 2 subcategories.
● CombinationReaction
● DecompositionReaction
● Simple Displacement R eaction
● Double Displacement Reaction
● Oxidation/Reduction / R edoxReaction
+ EndothermicReaction
+ ExothermicReaction

● Combination Reaction: A reaction in which 2 or more reactants combine to form a
single product
Eg.:
➢ CaO (s) + H₂O (l) → Ca(OH)₂ (aq) + Heat [This reaction is highly exothermic]
(Quick Lime) (Slaked Lime)
➢ C (s) + O₂ (g) → CO₂ (g) [Burning of Coal]
(Carbon/Coal)
➢ H₂ (g) + O₂ (g) → H₂O (g) [Formation of Water]

● Decomposition Reaction: A reaction in which a single reactant breaks down to form 2
or more simpler products
Decomposition reactions are e ndothermic, as they absorb energy in some form.
Decomposition reactions are classified into 3 types, depending on the form of energy
used.
○ ThermalDecomposition Reaction: Decomposition reactions that use heat
energy for the decomposition of the reactant
Eg.:
➢ CaCO₃ (s) --------> CaO (s) + CO₂ (g)
(Limestone) (Write) (Quick Lime)
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➢ 2FeSO₄ (s) --------> Fe₂O₃ (s) + SO₂ (g) + SO₃ (g)

(Light Green) (Write) (Red-Brown (Smell of Sulphur)
Residue)
➢ 2Pb(NO₃)₂ (s) --------> 2PbO (s) + 4NO₂ (g) + O₂ (g)

( Colorless) (Write) (Yellow) (Brown Fumes:
Nitrogen Dioxide)
○ Electrolysis/ElectrolyticDecomposition Reaction: Decomposition reactions
that use electric energy for the decomposition of the reactant
Eg.:
➢ 2H₂O (l) ------------> 2H₂ (g) + O₂ (g)
(Write with pen/pencil)
➢ 2NaCl (l) ------------> 2Na (s) + Cl₂ (g)

(MoltenSodium- (Write)
Chloride)

○ Photolysis/PhotochemicalDecomposition Reaction: Decomposition
reactions that use light energy for the decomposition of the reactant
Eg.:
➢ 2AgCl (s) ------------> 2Ag (s) + Cl₂ (g)
(White) (Write with pen) (Grey-White)
➢ 2AgBr (s) ------------> 2Ag (s) + Br₂ (g)

(Pale Yellow) (Write with pen) (Grey-White) ( Brown)
[The above 2 reactions are important in black-and-white photography]

● Single Displacement Reaction: A reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a
less reactive element from its compound, and takes its place in the compound
Eg.:
➢ CuSO₄ (aq) + Fe (s) → FeSO₄ (aq) + Cu (s)
(Blue) (Grey) (Light Green) (Red-Brown)
(Iron is more reactive than copper)
➢ CuSO₄ (aq) + Zn (s) → ZnSO₄ (aq) + Cu (s)
(Zinc is more reactive than copper)
➢ CuCl₂ (aq) + Pb (s) → PbCl₂ (aq) + Cu (s)
(Lead is more reactive than copper)
➢ Ag + NaCl₂
(No Reaction - Silver is less reactive than Sodium)

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● Double Displacement Reaction: A reaction in which there is a mutual exchange of ions

between two compounds. (i.e. Two positive ions in the reactant molecules are
displaced by each other)
These reactions are mostly precipitation reactions (A reaction in which a precipitate is
formed), although another type of decomposition reactions are neutralization
reactions.
Eg.:
➢ Na₂SO₄ (aq) + BaCl₂ (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + BaSO₄ (s)
(Colorless) (Colorless) (Colorless) (White ppt.)
(Barium Sulphate precipitates from the solution)
➢ Pb(NO₃)₂ (aq) + KI (aq) → PbI ↓ + KNO₃ (aq)
(Colorless) (Colorless) (Yellow ppt.) (Colorless)
(Lead Iodide precipitates from the solution)
➔ Another type of Double Displacement reaction is a Neutralisation Reaction.
Eg.: 2NaOH + H₂SO₄ → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O

● Oxidation/Reduction / Redox Reaction: A reaction in which one substance is oxidised
while the other is reduced.
○ Oxidation: The addition of oxygen (or) removal of hydrogen from a substance
(i.e. Substance loses electrons)
○ Reduction: The addition of hydrogen (or) removal of oxygen from a substance
(i.e. Substance gains electrons)
○ Oxidizing Agent: A substance that helps in the oxidation of a substance. (It is
the substance reduced in a redox reaction.)
○ Reducing Agent: A substance that helps in the reduction of a substance. (It is
the substance oxidized in a redox reaction.)
Eg.:
➢ CuO(s) + H₂(g) → Cu(s) + H₂O
Substance Oxidized: H₂ is oxidized to H₂O
Substance Reduced: CuO is reduced to Cu
Oxidizing Agent: CuO
Reducing Agent: H₂
➢ MnO₂(s) + 4HCl(l) → MnCl(aq) + Cl₂
Substance Oxidized: HCl is oxidized to Cl₂
Substance Reduced: MnO₂ is reduced to MnCl
Oxidizing Agent: MnO₂
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Reducing Agent: HCl

+ Endothermic Reaction: Reaction which occurs by absorption of heat/energy (in the
form of heat, light, or electricity).
All Decomposition Reactions are Endothermic.
Eg.:
➢ 12H₂O + 6CO₂ + Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 6H₂O
(Photosynthesis)

+ Exothermic Reaction: Reaction in which heat/energy is released along with the
formation of products
Eg.:
➢ CH₄ (g) + 2O₂ (g) → CO₂ (g) + 2H₂O (l) + Heat
(Methane)
(Burning of Natural Gas)
➢ Mg (s) + O₂(g) → MgO (s) + Heat
(Burning of Magnesium Ribbon)
➢ C₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂→ CO₂ (g) + H₂O (l) + Energy/Heat
(Glucose)
(Respiration/Digestion)
➢ CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂+ Heat
➢ Decomposition of Vegetable Matter into compost is an exothermic reaction.
Effects Of Oxidation On Everyday Life:

- Corrosion: The eating away of the surface of metals by the action of air, water, and
chemicals present in the atmosphere.
Metal: Reacts With: Forms: Color:
Iron (Fe) Oxygen (O₂) and Water Hydrated Ferric Oxide Red-Brow
(H₂O) (Fe₂O₃.xH₂O) n
Copper (Cu) Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Copper Carbonate (CuCO₃) Green
Silver (Ag) Hydrogen Sulphide (H₂S) Silver Sulphide (Ag₂S) Black
Aluminium (Al) Oxygen (O₂) Aluminum Oxide (Al₂O₃) White
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Class 10/A3
● Corrosion in most cases is a wasteful process, and causes damage to various metal
structures. Each year, tonnes of metals (especially iron) get wasted. Hence, corrosion is
a serious problem.
○ When iron gets corroded it gets coated with a reddish-brown prowder
(Fe₂O₃.xH₂O) [rust]. The corrosion of iron is known as rusting.
The corrosion of iron is a wasteful process, and a lot of money is spent every
year to repair damaged iron structures, making it a serious problem.
○ The corrosion of aluminum is useful, as when aluminium is corroded a
protective layer of aluminium oxide is formed, rendering the metal passive and
preventing further corrosion.

- Rancidity: The oxidization of the oils and fats present in food materials, resulting in the
change of smell and/or taste.
● Methods to Prevent Rancidity:
○ Keeping food in Air-Tight containers.
○ Refrigeration of cooked food at low temperatures.
○ Packaging of food items like potato chips, etc. in packages containing nitrogen
gas instead of air.
○ Avoiding keeping food materials and cooked food in direct sunlight.
○ Adding Antioxidants, eg. BHA(Butylated Hydroxy Anisole), BHY(Butylated
Hydroxy Toluene)
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Class 10/A3
Useful Charts/Diagrams:
- Solubility Of Various Compounds In Water:
These Compounds Are Soluble: Exceptions:
All compounds of Alkali Metal (Li⁺, Na⁺, (None)

K⁺, etc.),NH₄⁺ and H⁺
All compounds of NO₃⁻ (None)
Compounds of HCO₃⁻ (None)
Compounds of Halides (Except F⁻ ) (Cl⁻ , Ag⁺, Pb⁺, Hg⁺

Br⁻ , I⁻ , etc.)
Compounds of SO₄⁻² Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, Hg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, Sr²⁺

These Compounds Aren’t Soluble: Exceptions:
Compounds of (S⁻²), (CO₃⁻²) and (PO₄⁻³) All compounds of Alkali Metal (Li⁺, Na⁺,
K⁺, etc.),NH₄⁺ and H⁺
Compounds of (OH⁻ ) All compounds of Alkali Metal (Li⁺, Na⁺,

K⁺, etc.), NH₄⁺, H⁺, and Group 2 of the
Periodic Table (Ba²⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, etc.)

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Chapter 1 Activities:
➢ Pb(NO₃)₂ (aq) + KI (aq) → PbI ↓ + KNO₃ (aq)
(Colorless) (Colorless) (Yellow ppt.) (Colorless)
(Lead Iodide precipitates from the solution)
➢ Zn + HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂↑ + Heat
(or)
Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂↑ + Heat
[Both of these reactions are exothermic]
➢ 2Pb(NO₃)₂ (s) --------> 2PbO (s) + 4NO₂ (g) + O₂ (g)
( Colorless) (Write) (Yellow) (Brown Fumes:
Nitrogen Dioxide)

- Burning Of Magnesium Ribbon:
Mg + O₂ → MgO
➔ Before burning, the magnesium ribbon is cleaned with sandpaper, to remove
the layer of magnesium oxide and magnesium carbonate formed on its surface.
➔ The magnesium ribbon burns in air with a dazzling white flame, to form a white
ash (MgO).
➔ When water is added to the MgO formed, it forms basic Magnesium
Hydroxide.
MgO + H₂O → Mg(OH)₂

- Reaction Between Quick Lime And Water:
CaO (s) + H₂O (l) → Ca(OH)₂ (aq) + Heat [This reaction is highly exothermic]
➔ When CO₂ is passed over a solution of Slaked Lime for a short time, it turns
milky white due to the insoluble CaCO₃ (Limestone) formed, along with water.
Ca(OH)₂ (aq) + CO₂ (l) → CaCO₃ (s) + H₂O
(Slaked Lime) (Limestone)
After a long time it turns clear due to the formation of Calcium Bicarbonate
[Ca(HCO₃)₂], which is soluble in water.
CaCO₃ (s) + H₂O (l) + CO₂(g) → Ca(HCO₃)₂ (aq)
(Limestone)
+ A solution of slaked lime is used for white washing, as Ca(OH)₂ reacts with CO₂
to form a layer of CaCO₃ (Limestone) over walls.
➔ Upon heat, CaCO₃ becomes CaO and CO₂.
CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂
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Class 10/A3

- Electrolytic Decomposition Of Water:
2H₂O (l) ------------> 2H₂ (g) + O₂ (g)
(Write with pen/pencil)
[H₂ (at cathode -ve) and O₂ (at anode +ve)]

➔ The gas formed at the cathode (hydrogen) is double in amount to the one
formed at the anode (oxygen), as in H₂O, there are 2 atoms of hydrogen, for
every one atom of oxygen.

- Decomposition Of AgCl/AgBr In Presence Of Sunlight:
➢ 2AgCl (s) ------------> 2Ag (s) + Cl₂ (g)
(White) (Write with pen) (Grey-White)

➢ 2AgBr (s) ------------> 2Ag (s) + Br₂ (g)
(Pale Yellow) (Write with pen) (Grey-White) (Brown)
[The above 2 reactions are important in black-and-white photography]

- Heating Of Copper:
When Copper is heated over fire, it becomes black Copper Oxide.
2Cu + O₂ → 2CuO
(Black)
Passing hydrogen gas over it causes it to turn back into copper, along with water.
CuO + H₂ → Cu + H₂O
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Chapter 1 Practicals:
1. To perform and observe the following reactions, and classify them into:
○ Combination Reaction
○ Decomposition Reaction
○ Displacement Reaction
○ Double Displacement Reaction
a. Action of water on quicklime
b. Action of heat on ferrous sulphate crystals
c. Iron nails kept in copper sulphate solution
d. Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions

Procedure:
- Action Of Water On Quicklime:
1. Take CaO in an iron container, and add water to it slowly.
2. Observe what happens. Touch the container.
[Note : The container becomes hot, as the reaction is exothermic]

- Action Of Heat On Ferrous Sulphate Crystals:
1. Take 2g. Of FeSO₄ in a dry boiling tube.
[Note : The FeSO₄ crystals are green in color.]
2. Hold the boiling tube with the test tube holder, over the burner, so
that the mouth of the tube is not pointed towards yourself.

- Iron Nails Kept In Copper Sulphate Solution:
1. Take 3 iron nails, and clean them with sandpaper.
2. In 2 test tubes labeled (A) and (B), take about 10ml. CuSO₄
solution.
3. Tie 2 of the iron nails with a thread, and immerse them in test
tube B for about 20 minutes. Keep 1 nail aside for comparison.
4. After about 20 minutes, take out the iron nails from the CuSO₄
solution.
5. Compare the colors of the solutions in test tubes A and B, and the
colors of the iron nails dipped in, and not dipped in the solution.

- Reaction Between Sodium Sulphate And Barium Chloride Solutions:
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Take a NaSO₄ solution in a test tube A, and add it to a BaCl₂ solution taken in a test
tube B. Mix and shake the solution gently.

Observation Table:
S. No. Experiment Observation Inference
A. Take calcium oxide in a container, A hissing sound is produced, CaO (s) + H₂O (l) →
and slowly add water. and the solution becomes hot. (Quick Lime)
Ca(OH)₂ (aq) + Heat
(Slaked Lime)
[Combination Reaction]
B. Heat solid ferrous sulphate in a The fumes evolved smell of 2FeSO₄ (s) →
dry test tube. burning sulphur, and the (Light Green)
residue left by the crystals is Fe₂O₃ (s) + SO₂ (g) + SO₃ (g)
(Red-Brown (Smell of Sulphur)
reddish-brown Residue)
[Decomposition Reaction]
C. Take an aqueous solution of The color of the solution CuSO₄ (aq) + Fe (s) →
copper sulphate in a test tube, and changes from blue to pale (Blue) (Grey)
immerse an iron nail in it with the green, and the iron nail is FeSO₄ (aq) + Cu (s)
help of a thread. coated with reddish-brown (Light Green) (Red-Brown)
copper. [Displacement Reaction]
D. Take a NaSO₄ solution in a test A curdy white precipitate is Na₂SO₄ (aq) + BaCl₂ (aq) →
tube A, and add it to a BaCl₂ formed. (Colorless) (Colorless)
solution taken in a test tube B. 2NaCl (aq) + BaSO₄ (s)

(Colorless) (White ppt.)
Mix and shake the solution
[Double Displacement
gently. Reaction]

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Science Ch. 2 - Chemistry Ch. 2 :

Acids, Bases, and Salts

Keywords:
● Acids: Substances which dissociate in water to give H⁺ ions
○ Strong Acid: Acids which are completely ionised in water to give a large number
of H⁺ ions.
○ Weak Acid: Acids which are partially ionised in water to give a small number of
H⁺ ions.
- Organic Acids: Acids which are obtained from plants and animals.
- Mineral Acids: Acids which are obtained from minerals.
● Bases: Substances which dissociate in water to give OH⁻ ions
○ Strong Base: Bases which are completely ionised in water to give a large number
of OH⁻ ions.
○ Weak Base: Bases which are partially ionised in water to give a small number of
OH⁻ ions.
● Alkalis: Water-soluble bases (i.e. Bases which are soluble in water)
● Effervescence: G as bubbles formed in a liquid(most often CO₂), by a chemical
reaction.
● Neutralisation Reaction: The reaction between an acid and a base to give a salt and
water.
● Indicators: Substances that change their color or odour when added to acidic or basic
solutions
○ Universal Indicator: A mixture of several indicators, which shows different
colors at different pH levels in a solution.
○ pH Paper: Paper impregnated with universal indicator, used for measuring pH.
○ Olfactory Indicators: Substances that change their odour when added to acidic
or basic solutions.
● Dilution Of Acids/Bases: Mixing of an acid or base with water, which results in the
decrease of ions(H₃O⁺/OH⁻) per unit volume
○ Dilute Acids: Acids in which the water content is large.
○ Concentrated Acids: Acids which either have no, or very little water content.
○ Dilute Bases: Bases in which the water content is large.
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○ Concentrated Bases: Bases which either have no, or very little water content.
● pH: pH is a measure of power of hydrogen ion concentration [H⁺].
● pH Scale: A scale used for measuring the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
● Antacids: Mild alkalis used to neutralize excess acid present in the stomach
● Salts: Ionic compounds formed by the neutralisation reaction of an acid and a base
● Family Of Salts: Salts having the same positive or negative radical
● Water Of Crystallisation: The fixed number of water molecules present in one formula
unit of a salt.
○ Anhydrous Salts: Salts that do not contain water of crystallisation
○ Hydrated Salts: Salts that contain water of crystallisation

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Acids & Bases:

Acids: An acid is a substance which dissociates in water to give H⁺ ions.
● Strong Acid: Acids which are completely ionised in water to give a large number of H⁺
ions.
There are 7 strong acids (any other acid is a weak acid):
- HCl - Hydrochloric Acid
- HNO₃ - Nitric Acid
- H₂SO₄ - Sulfuric Acid
- HBr - Hydrobromic Acid
- HI - Hydroiodic Acid
+ (HClO₄ - Perchloric Acid & HClO₃ - Chloric Acid)
E.g.:
HCl(aq) → H⁺ + Cl⁻
(Can be HCl → H₃O⁺ + Cl⁻)
H₂SO₄(aq) → 2H⁺ + SO₄⁻²
HNO₃(aq) → H⁺ + NO₃⁻
● Weak Acid: Acids which are partially ionised in water to give a small number of H⁺
ions.
E.g.: C H₃COOH (Acetic Acid/Ethanoic Acid)
CH₃COOH(aq) ⇌ H⁺ + C H₃COO⁻
➢ Organic Acid: Acids which are obtained from plants and animals.
E.g.:
○ Lactic Acid - Milk, Curd
○ Acetic Acid/Ethanoic Acid (CH₃COOH ) - Vinegar
○ Oxalic Acid - Spinach, Tomatoes
○ Tartaric Acid - Tamarind, Grapes
○ Malic Acid - Apples
○ Citric Acid - Citrus fruits
○ Tannic Acid - Tea
➢ Mineral Acid: Acids which are obtained from minerals.
E.g.:
○ Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
○ Sulphuric Acid (H₂SO₄)
○ Nitric Acid (HNO₃)

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Bases: A base is a substance which dissociates in water to give H⁺ ions.

● Strong Base: Bases which are completely ionised in water to give a large number of OH⁻
ions.
Strong bases are hydroxide compounds of elements from group 1 and group 2 of the
periodic table.
E.g.:
HCl(aq) → H⁺ + Cl⁻
● Weak Base: Bases which are partially ionised in water to give a small number of OH⁻
ions.
E.g.:
NH₃(aq) ⇌ NH₄⁺ + OH⁻
NH₄OH(aq) ⇌ NH₄⁺ + OH⁻

Physical Properties Of Acids & Bases:
Property: Acids: Bases:
Taste Acids are sour in taste. Bases are bitter in taste.
Effect On Color Of Acids turn blue litmus red. Bases turn red litmus blue.
Litmus
Texture Acids aren’t soapy to the Bases are soapy to the touch.
touch.
Electrical Conductivity Aqueous solutions of acids as well as bases are good

electrolytes(conductors of electricity)*.
* The electric current is carried through the solution by ions(charged particles).

Chemical Properties Of Acids & Bases:
Property: Acids: Bases:
Reaction With M
etal Acids react with metals to form a salt Bases react with amphoteric metals(Al,
and hydrogen gas.* Zn, etc.) to form a salt and hydrogen
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen Gas gas.
E.g. HCl + Zn → ZnCl₂ + H₂ Base + Amphoteric Metal → Salt +
Hydrogen Gas
E.g. NaOH + Zn → Na₂ZnO₂ + H₂
(Sodium Zincate)
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NaOH + Al → NaAlO₂ + H₂

(Sodium Aluminate)
Reaction With M
etal Carbonates Acids react with metal carbonates and Bases do not react with metal
/Metal Bicarbonates metal hydrogen carbonates, to form a carbonates and metal hydrogen
salt, CO₂**, and H₂O. carbonates.
Acid + Metal Carbonate/Bicarbonate
→ Salt + CO₂ + H₂O
E.g.: HCl + CaCO₃*** → CaCl₂ + CO₂
+ H₂O
Reaction B
etween Acids And Acids and bases react with each other to give salt and water. The acid neutralises
Bases the effect of a base and vice-versa. Hence, the reaction is called a neutralisation
reaction.
Base + Acid → Salt + Water
i.e. HX + MOH → MX + HOH
E.g.: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O
Reaction With O
xides Acids react with metal oxides to Bases react with non-metallic oxides to
produce salt and water. (Hence, metal produce salt and water. (Hence,
oxides are basic in nature) non-metallic oxides are basic in
Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water nature)
E.g.: HCl + ZnO → ZnCl₂ + H₂O Base + Non-Metallic Oxide → Salt +
Water
E.g.: Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ → CaCO₃ +
H₂O
*Test For H₂ Gas: When a flame is passed over it, hydrogen gas burns in air with a pop sound.
**Test For CO₂ Gas: When carbon dioxide gas is passed through lime water, it turns milky due
to the formation of the white precipitate CaCO₃.
Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ → CaCO₃ + H₂O
(Lime Water) (Lime Stone)
If CO₂ is passed in excess, milkiness disappears due to the formation of Ca(HCO₃)₂, which is
soluble in water.
CaCO₃ + H₂O + CO₂ → Ca(HCO₃)₂ (aq)
(Lime Stone)
➢ CO₂ also extinguishes the flame of a candle, match, etc.
*** Limestone(e.g. Egg Shells), Chalk, and Marble are all different forms of Calcium
Carbonate(CaCO₃)

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Indicators:
Indicators: Indicators are substances that change their color or odour when added to acidic or
basic solutions.
● Natural Indicators: Natural Indicators are indicators found in nature (i.e. in plants).
E.g. Litmus (a purple dye extracted from lichen), Red Cabbage Leaves, Turmeric,
Petals of flowers like: Hydrangea, Petunia, Germanium, China Rose, etc.
Colors Of Common Natural Indicators:
Indicator: Color In Acidic Color In Neutral Color In Basic
Medium: Medium: Medium:
Litmus Red Purple Blue
Turmeric Yellow Yellow Reddish-Brown
Red Cabbage Red Purple Green
Hydrangea Blue Purple Pink

● Synthetic Indicators: Synthetic Indicators are indicators made in the laboratory or
industry.
E.g. Methyl Orange, Phenolphthalein, Universal Indicator, etc.
Colors Of Common Synthetic Indicators:
Indicator: Color In Acidic Color In Neutral Color In Basic
Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Pink
Methyl Orange Red Orange Yellow

○ Universal Indicator: Universal indicator is a mixture of several indicators, which
shows different colors at different pH levels in a solution.
■ Strong Acid (pH 0-2): Red
■ Weak Acid (pH 3-6): Orange/Yellow
■ Neutral (pH 7): Green
■ Weak Base (pH 8-11): Blue
■ Strong Base (pH 12 -14): Purple
It is used to judge how strong a given acid or base is.
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+ pH Paper: pH paper is paper impregnated with universal indicator, used for

measuring pH.

● Olfactory Indicators: Olfactory Indicators are substances that change their odour when
added to acidic or basic solutions.
E.g. Onion, Vanilla Essence, Clove Oil, etc.
Odours Of Some Olfactory Indicators:
Indicator: Odour In Acidic Odour In Neutral Odour In Basic
Onion Characteristic Smell Retains Normal Smell Loses Smell
Vanilla Essence Retains Normal Smell Retains Normal Smell Loses Smell
Clove Oil Retains Normal Smell Retains Normal Smell Loses Smell

Acids And Bases In Water Solutions:
● Acids and bases produce H⁺ and OH⁻ ions respectively in the presence of water, which
are responsible for their acidic/basic properties.
E.g. Electric current is carried through acidic and basic solutions by ions(charged
particles), as acidic/basic solutions ionize in water.
○ Acids produce H⁺ ions in water, which can’t exist alone and hence exist after
combining with water molecules. Thus hydrogen ions must always be shown as
H⁺(aq) or hydronium ion(H₃O⁺).
Dilution Of Acids And Bases: Dilution is the mixing of an acid or base with water, which
results in the decrease of ions(H₃O⁺/OH⁻) per unit volume.
● Dilute Acids: Acids in which the water content is large.
● Concentrated Acids: Acids which either have no, or very little water content.
● Dilute Bases: Bases in which the water content is large.
● Concentrated Bases: Bases which either have no, or very little water content.
The dissolving of an acid or base in water is a highly exothermic reaction, hence care must be
taken while doing it. The acid must be added slowly to the water with constant stirring. Water
should not be added to concentrated acids, as the heat generated may cause the mixture to
splash out and cause burns, and the glass container may break.

pH:
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● pH: pH is a measure of power of hydrogen ion concentration [H⁺].

○ In aqueous solutions of neutral substances, the concentration of H⁺ ions is
equal to the concentration of OH⁻ ions:
[H⁺] = [OH⁻]
○ In aqueous solutions of acids:
[H⁺] > [OH⁻]
○ In aqueous solutions of bases:
[H⁺] < [OH⁻]

pH Scale:
● pH Scale: The pH scale is a scale used for measuring the hydrogen ion concentration of
a solution.
- The pH of a solution is inversely proportional to the hydrogen ion concentration.
pH ∝
1
[H⁺]
➢ Acidic solutions have a pH of less than 7.
➢ Neutral solutions have a pH of 7.
+ Pure water is neutral due to the absence of free ions.
➢ Basic solutions have a pH of greater than 7.

Variation of pH with the change in concentration of H⁺(aq) and OH⁻(aq) ions:

Importance/Applications Of pH:
The following are examples showing the importance of pH in everyday life.
● Plants And Animals Are pH Sensitive:
- Living organisms can only survive in a narrow range of pH change. The human body
normally works within the pH range of 7.0-7.8.
- When the pH of rain goes below 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid rain flows into
rivers, it lowers the pH of the river water, making the survival of aquatic life difficult.
● pH Of The Soil:
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- Every plant requires a specific pH range for healthy growth. Therefore, the pH of the
soil is tested before crops are grown in it.
- The pH of the soil is also used to decide the fertilizer for a particular crop.
(E.g. choosing a basic fertilizer due to excess acidity in the soil)
● pH In Our Digestive System:
- HCl produced in the stomach helps in the digestion of food.
- During indigestion, the stomach produces too much acid, causing pain and irritation.
Antacids are used to get rid of the pain by neutralizing the excess acid.
E.g. Milk of Magnesia[Mg(OH)₂], Baking Soda(NaHCO₃), etc.
● pH Change Leads To Tooth Decay:
- Tooth enamel, the hardest substance in the body, starts to decay when the pH of the
mouth is below 5.5.
- Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by the degradation of sugar and food
particles remaining in the mouth after eating. The best way to prevent this is to clean
the mouth after eating food with toothpaste, which is basic, neutralising the excess acid
present in the mouth and preventing tooth decay.
● Self-Defense Of Animals/Plants Through Chemical Warfare:
- Bee stings inject a mild acid into the skin, which causes pain and irritation. A mild base,
such as baking soda, is used to give relief.
- Stinging hairs of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid into the skin, which causes burning
pain. The pain is relieved by rubbing the affected area with the basic dock plant, which
often grows beside the nettle plant.

Salts:
● Salts: Salts are ionic compounds formed by the neutralisation reaction of an acid and a
base.

Family Of Salts: Salts having the same cation or anion belong to a family.
E.g.:
● NaCl and Na₂SO₄ belong to the family of sodium salts.
● NaCl and KCl belong to the family of chloride salts.

pH Of Salts:
➢ Salts of a strong acid and strong base are neutral, with a pH value of 7.
➢ Salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic, with a pH value of less than 7.
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➢ Salts of a weak acid and strong base are acidic, with a pH value of greater than 7.
+ The nature of a salt can be determined by splitting it to find the acid and base used to
make it:
E.g.
● Na₂CO₃ is made of H₂CO₃ and NaOH, a weak acid and a strong base, hence it’s acidic.
● KCl is made of HCl and KOH, a strong acid and a strong base, hence it’s neutral.

Salts:
I. Common Salt [Sodium Chloride(NaCl)]:
- Preparation: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
- Common Salt is obtained from/manufactured by:
○ The evaporation of seawater.
○ Rock Salt(Deposits of solid salt). These large crystals are often brown, due to
impurities.
- Uses Of Common Salt:
● In cooking, it’s used to add flavor to food.
● It’s used as a preserving agent.
● It’s used to prepare Caustic Soda(NaOH), Baking Soda, Washing Soda, etc.

II. Caustic Soda [Sodium Hydroxide(NaOH)]:
- Preparation (Chloralkali Process):
NaOH is prepared by the electrolysis of Brine Solution(Aqueous solution of NaCl):
NaCl + H₂O → NaOH + H₂ + Cl₂
○ The products of this reaction are an Alkali and Chlorine (and hydrogen), hence
the name.
○ In this process, hydrogen is liberated at the cathode, and chlorine at the anode.
- Uses Of Caustic Soda:
● NaOH is used for degreasing metals.
● NaOH is used to make soaps, detergents, etc.
● NaOH is used in paper making.
● NaOH is used to make artificial fibres.
- Uses Of Hydrogen:
● Liquid Hydrogen can be used as fuel.
● Hydrogen is used to make margarine(a butter substitute).
● Hydrogen is used to make NH₃ and HCl.
- Uses Of Chlorine:
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● Chlorine is used as a disinfectant.

● Chlorine is used for water treatment (e.g. in swimming pools).
● Chlorine is used to prepare bleaching powder.
● Chlorine is used to make HCl.

III. Bleaching Powder [Calcium Oxychloride(CaOCl₂)]:
- Preparation:
CaOCl₂ is prepared by the action of chlorine on dry Slaked Lime[Ca(OH)₂]:
Ca(OH)₂ + Cl₂ → CaOCl₂ + H₂O
- Uses Of Bleaching Powder:
● Bleaching Powder is used for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry.
● Bleaching Powder is used for bleaching wood pulp in the paper industry.
● Bleaching Powder is used for bleaching washed clothes in laundry.
● Bleaching Powder is used as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries.
● Bleaching Powder is used to make drinking water free from germs.
●
IV. Baking Soda [Sodium Bicarbonate(NaHCO₃)]:
- Preparation:
Baking Soda is prepared by the action of Ammonia(NH₃) and CO₂ on Brine Solution.
NaCl + H₂O + NH₃ + CO₂ → NaHCO₃ + NH₄Cl
- Uses Of Baking Soda:
● Baking Soda is used as an ingredient in antacids.
● Baking Soda is used for making cakes soft and spongy:
NaHCO₃ -----> Na₂CO₃ + CO₂+ H₂O
● Baking Soda is for making Baking Powder - A mixture of baking soda and a mild edible
acid, such as tartaric acid. When baking soda is heated, it forms Na₂CO₃, giving cakes a
bitter taste. The acid in baking powder neutralizes the Na₂CO₃, removing the bitter
taste.
When Baking Powder is mixed in water/heated:
NaHCO₃ + H⁺ -----> CO₂+ H₂O + [Sodium Salt of acid]
(From Any Acid)
● Baking Soda is used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.

V. Washing Soda [Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate(Na₂CO₃.10H₂O)]:
- Preparation:
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○ Sodium Bicarbonate is prepared by the action of Ammonia(NH₃) and CO₂ on

Brine Solution.
NaCl + H₂O + NH₃ + CO₂ → NaHCO₃ + NH₄Cl

○ Sodium Bicarbonate is heated to form Sodium Carbonate.
NaHCO₃ -----> Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O
● Washing Soda(Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate) is produced by the recrystallisation of
Na₂CO₃.
Na₂CO₃ + 10H₂O → Na₂CO₃.10H₂O
- Uses Of Washing Soda:
● Washing Soda is used in glass, soap, and paper industries.
● Washing Soda is used to manufacture sodium compounds, such as borax.
● Washing Soda is used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
● Washing Soda is used to remove the permanent hardness of water.

VI. Plaster Of Paris [Calcium Sulphate Demi/Hemihydrate(CaSO₄. 21 H₂O)]:
- Preparation:
Plaster Of Paris(POP) is prepared by heating Gypsum(CaSO₄.2H₂O) at 373°K/100°C.
CaSO₄.2H₂O --------> CaSO₄. 21 H₂O + 1 21 H₂O
(Gypsum) (Plaster Of Paris)
+ If gypsum is heated at above 400°K, it loses all of its water molecules, and
becomes dead burnt plaster(CaSO₄), which doesn’t have the property of
hardening.
- Plaster Of Paris is a white powder, and on mixing with water gives a hard solid
mass(gypsum). [That is why Plaster Of Paris is stored in moisture-proof containers.]
CaSO₄. 21 H₂O + 1 21 H₂O → CaSO₄.2H₂O
(Plaster Of Paris) (Gypsum)
- Uses Of Plaster Of Paris:
● Doctors use Plaster Of Paris for supporting fractured bones in the right position.
● Plaster Of Paris is used for making toys, and materials for decoration.

Water Of Crystallisation:
● Water Of Crystallisation: Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water
molecules present in one formula unit of a salt.
● Anhydrous Salts: Salts that do not contain water of crystallisation
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● Hydrated Salts: Salts that contain water of crystallisation

E.g.
➢ Na₂CO₃.10H₂O [Washing Soda]
➢ FeSO₄.7H₂O [Ferrous Sulphate Heptahydrate] (Green)
➢ CuSO₄.5H₂O [Copper Sulphate Pentahydrate]* (Blue)
➢ CaSO₄.2H₂O [Gypsum]
➢ CaSO₄. 21 H₂O [Plaster Of Paris]
*Copper Sulphate Pentahydrate is a blue salt, which on heating loses water of crystallisation
and becomes white. Adding water to the white crystals of Anhydrous Copper Sulphate turns it
blue again.
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- Proof That Acids And Metals React To Evolve Hydrogen Gas:
1. Take about 5ml. Of Dilute H₂SO₄ in a test tube, and add a few pieces of zinc granules
to it.
➔ A gas is evolved in the test tube.
2. Put a cork on the test tube, with a delivery tube through it, leading to a soap solution.
The gas evolved goes through the delivery tube, into the soap solution.
➔ Bubbles are formed in the soap solution.
3. Take a burning candle near a gas filled bubble.
➔ The bubbles burn with a popping sound, due to the hydrogen gas present.
4. Repeat this activity with more acids, like HCl, HNO₃, and CH₃COOH.
➔ The observations are the same.
This shows that metals react with acid to evolve hydrogen gas.
Diagram:

- Proof That Acids And Metal Carbonates/Hydrogencarbonates React To Evolve
Carbon Dioxide:
1. Take 2 test tubes, label then as A and B.
2. Take about 0.5g. of Sodium Carbonate(Na₂CO₃) in test tube A, and about 0.5g. of
Sodium Hydrogencarbonate(NaHCO₃) in test tube B.
3. Put a cork on the test tube, with a both a thistle funnel and delivery tube through it, the
delivery tube leading to a solution of Ca(OH)₂.
4. Add about 2ml. of dilute HCl to both test tubes through the thistle tubes.
➔ A gas is evolved in both test tubes. It goes through the delivery tube, into the solution.
➔ The solution turns milky white. This is because the gas evolved in the test tube, CO₂
reacts with Ca(OH)₂(aq) to form the precipitate CaCO₃.
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This shows that metal carbonates/bicarbonates react with acid to evolve carbon
dioxide.
Diagram:

- Proof That Acids Conduct Electricity (or) Not All Compound That Contain
Hydrogen Are Acids:
1. Take solutions of glucose, Alcohol, HCl and H₂SO₄.
2. Fix 2 nails in a rubber cork, and fix the cork in a 100 ml. beaker.
3. Connect the nails to the two terminals of a 6V. battery through a switch and a bulb.
4. Turn the switch on. Observe.
5. Repeat this process for the other solutions.
➔ The bulb glows in the case of the acids(HCl and H₂SO₄), as the electric current is
carried by the ions formed upon dissociation, however it doesn’t glow in the case of
glucose and alcohol, as they aren’t acids.
Diagram:

- Proof That Acids Only Show Their Acidic Properties In Water:
1. Take about 1g. of solid NaCl in a dry test tube, and add some concentrated H₂SO₄ to
it.
2. Put a cork on the test tube, with a delivery tube through it. The HCl gas evolved goes
into the delivery tube.
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3. Test the gas with both moist and dry litmus paper.
➔ The moist litmus paper changes color whereas the dry one doesn’t, as hydrogen ions in
acids are only produced in the presence of water.
Diagram:

- Proof That Hydrated CuSO₄ And Anhydrous CuSO₄ Are Interconvertible:
1. Heat a few crystals of crystals of blue CuSO₄ in a dry boiling tube.
➔ After heating, the water of crystallization is removed, and the salt turns white.
2. Add 2-3 drops of water on the sample of CuSO₄ obtained after heating.
➔ After the CuSO₄ crystals are moistened with water, they regain water of crystallisation
and turn blue.

1. To study the properties of acids and bases (HCl and NaOH), by their reaction with:
○ Litmus Solution (blue/red)
○ Zinc Metal
○ Solid Sodium Carbonate

Procedure:
1. Take dilute HCl in 2 test tubes, and label them
as A and B respectively. Add a few drops of red
and blue litmus solution to A and B respectively.
2. Take some granules of zinc in a boiling tube.
Add a few drops of HCl. Place a cork with a fine
jet on the mouth of the boiling tube. Bring a
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matchstick near the mouth of the fine jet. Observe.

3. Take a small amount of Na₂CO₃ in a flask. Add dilute
HCl to it with the help of a thistle funnel. Pass the gas
evolved through lime water. Observe.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 using NaOH instead of HCl.

Observation Table For HCl:
Experiment: Observation: Inference:
Litmus Test The blue litmus turns red, while HCl has acidic properties, and
there is no change in the color of turns blue litmus red.
the red litmus.
Reaction with Zn metal A colorless, odorless gas Zn reacts with dilute HCl to
(hydrogen) is evolved. It burns liberate hydrogen gas.
with a pop sound. HCl + Zn → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Na₂CO₃ Test A colorless, odorless gas (carbon Na₂CO₃ reacts with dilute HCl
dioxide) is evolved. The gas turns to liberate carbon dioxide.
lime water[Ca(OH)₂] milky.

Observation Table For NaOH:
Experiment: Observation: Inference:
Litmus Test The red litmus turns blue, while NaOH has basic properties, and
there is no change in the color turns red litmus blue.
of the blue litmus.
Reaction with Zn metal A colorless, odorless gas Zn reacts with dilute NaOH to
(hydrogen) is evolved. It burns liberate hydrogen gas.
with a pop sound. NaOH + ZnO → Na₂ZnO₂ + H₂
Na₂CO₃ Test No change is observed. NaOh and Na₂CO₃ do not react.

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2. To find the pH of the following, using pH paper/universal indicator:
○ Dilute HCl
○ Dilute NaOH
○ Dilute Ethanoic Acid(CH₃COOH)
○ Lemon Juice
○ Water
○ Dilute Sodium Bicarbonate(NaHCO₃) (Baking Soda Solution)

Observation Table:
Sample: pH Color pH Value: Nature Of Sample:
Dilute HCl Red 1 Strong Acid
Dilute NaOH Violet 13 Strong Base
Dilute CH₃COOH Orange 3 Weak Acid
Lemon Juice Orange 2.2 (approx. 2) Weak Acid
Water Green 7 Neutral
Dilute NaHCO₃ Blue 8.5 (approx. 9) Weak Base

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Science Ch. 3 - Chemistry Ch . 3 :

Metals and Non-Metals

Keywords:
● Element: An element is a pure substance made of one kind of atom; it can’t be broken
down further by physical or chemical methods.
○ Metals: Metals are elements that form Cations by losing electrons.
○ Non-Metals: Non-Metals are elements that form Anions by gaining electrons.
● Metallic Lustre: The property of metals to have a shining surface
● Ductility: The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires
● Malleability: The ability of metals to be beaten into thin sheets
● Sonority: The ability of metals to produce a sound on striking a hard surface.
● Reactivity Series: The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in order of decreasing
reactivity.
● Alkali Metals: Metals whose oxides dissolve in water to form alkalis.
● Amphoteric Oxides: Oxides which have both acidic and basic properties i.e.react with
both acids and bases to form a salt and water
● Aqua Regia: It is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated HNO₃ and concentrated
HCl in the ratio 1:3. It is a highly corrosive liquid, and can dissolve Gold and Platinum.
● Chemical Bond: The force of attraction that holds atoms together in a compound
○ Ionic/Electrovalent Bond: A chemical bond formed by the complete transfer of
electrons from one atom to another (It is formed between metals and
non-metals.)
○ Covalent Bond: A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between
two or more atoms (It is formed between non-metals.)
● Ionic/Electrovalent Compound: A compound formed by ionic/electrovalent bonds
● Covalent Compound: A compound formed by covalent bonds
● Minerals: The elements or compounds which occur naturally in the earth’s crust
● Ores: Minerals from which metal can be extracted profitably
● Metallurgy: Extracting metals from their ores, and then refining them for use.
● Enrichment/Concentration Of Ore: Removal of gangue present in ore
○ Gangue: Impurities(soil, sand, etc.) found in ore
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● Roasting: The process of conversion of a Sulphide ore into an Oxide ore, by heating it
in the presence of oxygen.
● Calcination: The process of conversion of a Carbonate ore into an Oxide ore, by
heating it in the absence of oxygen.
● Reduction Of Oxide Ore: The process of conversion of metal oxide ores into metal.
● Thermite Reaction: The highly exothermic reaction of a metal oxide(most often Fe₂O₃)
with aluminum to form the metal.
● Refining Of Metals: The process of purifying impure metals (obtained after
reduction).
● Galvanisation: The process of protecting steel and iron from rusting by coating them
with a thin layer of zinc.
● Alloy: It is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal.
○ Alloying: It is a method of improving the properties of a metal by mixing the
metal with another metal or non-metal.
● Amalgam: An alloy containing mercury as one of its components

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Physical Properties Of Metals And Non-Metals:

Metals Non-Metals
Metallic Lustre Metals are lustrous Non-Metals are not lustrous

(Exception: Iodine)
Hardness Metals are hard Non-Metals are not very hard

(Exceptions: Alkali Metals¹) (Exception: Dimond²)
Ductility Metals are ductile (Gold {the most} Non-Metals are not ductile
and silver are most ductile metals.)
Malleability Metals are malleable (Gold {the Non-Metals are not malleable
most} and silver are the most (they are brittle)
malleable metals.)
Electrical Metals are good conductors of Non-Metals aren’t good

Conductivity electricity (as they have free conductors of electricity
electrons{charged particles}) ⁴ (Exception: Graphite³)
Heat Conduction Metals are good conductors of heat ⁴ Non-Metals are poor
conductors of heat.
Melting And Metals generally have high melting Non-Metals have low melting
Boiling Points and boiling points. (Exceptions: and boiling points.
Gallium and Caesium⁵) (Exception: Dimond²)
Sonority Metals are sonorous Non-metals aren’t sonorous
Physical State Metals are solid (at room Non-Metals are solids, liquids,
temperature) and gasses.
(Exception: Mercury is liquid at
room temperature)
Tensile Strength Metals have a high tensile Non-Metals have a low tensile
strength(resistance to breaking strength.
under tension)
Density Metals have a high density Non-Metals have lower

(Exception: Alkali Metals¹) densities
Color Metals are grey and black Non-Metals are of different

(Exceptions: Copper, Gold, etc.) colors.
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¹Alkali Metals are so soft that they can be cut with a knife. They also have low densities and
low melting points.
²Dimond, an allotrope of carbon is the hardest natural substance known, and has a very high
melting and boiling point.
³Graphite, an allotrope of carbon, is a conductor of electricity.
⁴Silver {the best} and Copper are good conductors, while Lead and Mercury are poor
conductors.
⁵Gallium and Caesium have very low melting points, and melt if kept on the palm.

Chemical Properties Of Metals And Non-Metals:
Reaction with... Metals Non Metals
Oxygen Metals react with oxygen to Non-Metals react with oxygen to
form their respective oxides. form their respective oxides.
(Metal oxides are basic in (Non-Metal oxides are acidic in
nature) nature)
Water Metals react with water to form Non-Metals do not react with water.
their respective hydroxides, and
liberate hydrogen gas.
Dilute Acids Metals react with dilute acids to Non-Metals do not react with dilute
form their respective metal salts, acids.
and liberate hydrogen gas.
Solutions Of Metals displace less reactive Non-Metals displace less reactive
Metal Salts metals from their metal salts, in non-metals from metal salts in
solution or molten form. solution or molten form.
Ex: NaBr + Cl₂ → NaCl + Br₂

Chemical Properties Of Metals:
- Reactivity Series Of Metals: The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in order of
decreasing reactivity.
K - Potassium
Na - Sodium
Ca - Calcium
Mg - Magnesium
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Al - Aluminium
Zn - Zinc
Fe - Iron
Sn - Tin
Pb - Lead
[H] - Hydrogen
Cu - Copper
Hg - Mercury
Ag - Silver
Au - Gold
Pt - Platinum

1. Reaction Of Metals With Oxygen: Metals react with oxygen to form their respective
metal oxides.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
+ Metallic oxides are basic in nature (except for Aluminum Oxide and Zinc Oxide, which
are amphoteric).
● Reaction Of Potassium(K) And Sodium(Na) With Oxygen:
➢ Potassium (K) and Sodium (Na) are highly reactive metals, which react
vigorously with oxygen and catch fire, hence they are stored in kerosene oil.
+ These metals are called alkali metals, because when their oxides are dissolved in
water, they form alkalis.
K₂O + H₂O → KOH(aq)
(Alkali)
Na₂O + H₂O → NaOH(aq)
( Alkali)
○ Reaction Of Potassium With Oxygen:
K + O₂ → K₂O
○ Reaction Of Sodium With Oxygen:
Na + O₂ → Na₂O
● Reaction Of Calcium(Ca), Magnesium(Mg), Aluminum(Al) And Zinc(Zn)
With Oxygen:
➢ Calcium(Ca), Magnesium(Mg), Aluminum(Al) and Zinc(Zn) burn in air upon
heating to form their respective oxides.
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➢ At room temperature, the surfaces of Calcium Magnesium, Aluminum and

Zinc (and lead) are covered with a thin layer of oxide, preventing further
oxidation.
○ Reaction Of Calcium With Oxygen:
Ca + O₂ → CaO
○ Reaction Of Magnesium With Oxygen:
Mg + O₂ → MgO

➢ Aluminum and Zinc Oxides are Amphoteric in nature.
E.g.
- Al₂O₃ + HCl → AlCl₃ + H₂O
Al₂O₃ + NaOH → NaAlO₂ + H₂O
(Sodium Aluminate)
- ZnO + HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂O
ZnO + NaOH → Na₂ZnO₂ + H₂O
(Sodium Zincate)
○ Reaction Of Aluminum With Oxygen:
Al + O₂ → Al₂O₃
○ Reaction Of Zinc With Oxygen:
Zn + O₂ → ZnO
● Reaction Of Iron(Fe) And Copper(Cu) With Oxygen: Iron(Fe) and
Copper(Cu) do not burn in air upon heating, but:
➢ Iron filings burn vigorously when sprinkled in flame to produce Iron(II, III)
Oxide [Fe₃O₄].
➢ Copper does not burn, but on prolonged heating reacts with oxygen to form
Copper(II) Oxide.
○ Reaction Of Iron With Oxygen:
Fe + O₂ → Fe₃O₄
○ Reaction Of Copper With Oxygen:
Cu + O₂ → CuO
● Silver(Ag) and Gold(Au) do not react with oxygen.

2. Reaction Of Metals With Water: Metals react with water to form their respective metal
hydroxides, and liberate hydrogen gas.
Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen Gas
● Reaction Of Potassium(K) And Sodium(Na) With Water:
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➢ Potassium(K) And Sodium(Na) react violently with cold water to form their respective
hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
➢ This reaction is so violent and exothermic that the hydrogen immediately catches fire.
Both these metals are kept in kerosene oil to avoid contact with both air and moisture.
○ Reaction Of Potassium With Water:
K + H₂O → KOH + H₂↑
○ Reaction Of Sodium With Water:
Na + H₂O → NaOH + H₂↑
● Reaction Of Calcium (Ca) With Water:
➢ Calcium (Ca) reacts less violently with cold water to form its hydroxide and hydrogen
gas. The heat evolved isn’t sufficient for the hydrogen to catch fire.
➢ The calcium floats as the bubbles of hydrogen gas formed stick on the surface of the
metal.
Ca + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + H₂↑
● Reaction Of Magnesium (Mg) With Water:
➢ Magnesium (Mg) doesn’t react with cold water, but reacts with hot water to form its
hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
➢ The magnesium floats as the bubbles of hydrogen gas formed stick on the surface of the
metal.
Mg + H₂O → Mg(OH)₃ + H₂↑
● Reaction Of Aluminum (Al), Zinc(Zn) And Iron(Fe) With Water:
➢ Aluminum (Al), Zinc(Zn) And Iron(Fe) do not react with hot water, but react with
steam to form their respective oxides and hydrogen gas.
○ Reaction Of Aluminium With Steam:
Al + H₂O(g) → Al₂O₃ + H₂↑
○ Reaction Of Zinc With Steam:
Zn + H₂O(g) → ZnO + H₂↑
○ Reaction Of Iron With Steam:
Fe + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂↑
● Lead, Copper, Silver, and Gold do not react with water.

3. Reaction Of Metals With (Dilute) Acids: Metals react with dilute acids to form their
respective metal salts, and liberate hydrogen gas. (Exception: HNO₃)
Metal + Dilute Acid → Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas
➔ Reaction Of Metals With (Dilute) Hydrochloric Acid(HCl)/Sulphuric Acid(H₂SO₄) :
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➢ Copper and less reactive metals(Cu, Hg, Ag, Au, Pt) do not react with Hydrochloric
Acid(HCl) and Sulphuric Acid(H₂SO₄) (and HNO₃).
E.g. Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂↑
➔ Reaction Of Metals With (Dilute) Nitric Acid(HNO₃): Metals do not react with
HNO₃ to evolve hydrogen gas (Exceptions: Mg and Mn), as HNO₃ is a strong
oxidizing agent, which oxidizes the hydrogen formed into water, and itself gets reduced
to a nitrogen oxide(N₂O, NO, NO₂, etc.).
Metal + HNO₃ → Salt + N₂O/NO/NO₂↑ + H₂O
● (Exception:) Reaction Of Magnesium And Manganese With Very Dilute HNO₃:
Magnesium and Manganese react with very dilute HNO₃ to evolve hydrogen gas, as
very dilute HNO₃ is a weak oxidising agent.
○ Reaction Of Magnesium With Very Dilute HNO₃:
Mg + HNO₃ → Mg(NO₃)₂ + H₂↑
○ Reaction Of Manganese With Very Dilute HNO₃:
Mn + HNO₃ → Mn(NO₃)₂ + H₂↑
➔ Aqua Regia: It is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated HNO₃ and concentrated
HCl in the ratio 1:3. It is a highly corrosive liquid, and can dissolve Gold and Platinum.

4. Reaction Of Metals With Solutions Of Metal Salts: Metals displace less reactive metals
from their metal salts in solution or molten form.
(Given A is more reactive than B)
Metal A + Salt Solution of B → Salt Solution of A + Metal B
➢ This reaction is a Displacement Reaction.
E.g. CuSO₄ + Fe → FeSO₄ + Cu

Types Of Chemical Bonds:
Ionic/Electrovalent Bonds & Compounds (Reaction Between Metals And Non-Metals):
● Ionic/Electrovalent Bond: A chemical bond formed by the complete transfer of
electrons from one atom to another (It is formed between metals and non-metals.)
● Ionic/Electrovalent Compound: A compound formed by ionic/electrovalent bonds.
➢ Formation Of Ionic Compounds:
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Covalent Bonds & Compounds (Reaction Between Non-Metals):
● Covalent Bond: A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two or
more atoms (It is formed between non-metals.)
● Covalent Compound: A compound formed by covalent bonds.
➢ Covalent Compound Diagram:
Single Covalent Bond: (NH₃) | Double Covalent Bond: (O₂) | Triple Covalent Bond: (N₂)

Properties Of Ionic/Electrovant And Covalent Compounds:
Ionic/Electrovalent Compounds Covalent Compounds
Physical State Ionic compounds are hard crystalline Covalent compounds can be
solids, due to the strong force of solid, liquid, or gas.
attraction between the positive and
negative ions. These compounds are
generally brittle, and break into pieces
when pressure is applied.
Melting And Ionic compounds have high melting Covalent compounds have low
Boiling Points and boiling points as a large amount melting and boiling points.
of heat energy is required to break the
strong inter ionic attraction.
Solubility Electrovalent compounds are usually Covalent compounds are

soluble in water, but insoluble in usually insoluble in water, but
organic solvents(liquids containing soluble in organic solvents,
hydrogen bonded to carbon), such as such as alcohol, kerosene,
alcohol, kerosene, petrol, etc. petrol, etc.
Electrical *Ionic compounds conduct electricity Covalent compounds are poor

Conductivity when in an aqueous solution or in conductors of electricity.
molten form, as the crystal structure is
broken down**, and ions are free to
move around and conduct electricity.
*The conduction of electricity through a solution involves the movement of charged particles.
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**Electrovalent compounds do not conduct electricity in solid form as the movement of ions is
not possible due to their rigid structure.

Occurrence Of Metals:
● Minerals: The elements or compounds which occur naturally in the earth’s crust
● Ores: Minerals from which metal can be extracted profitably
- Names Of Ores And Metals:
Ore Metal
Rock Salt (NaCl) Sodium (Na)
Bauxite (Al₂O₃) Aluminum (Al)
Pyrolusite (MnO₂) Manganese (Mn)
Calamine (ZnCO₃) Zinc (Zn)

Zinc Blende (ZnS)
Hematite (Fe₂O₃) Iron (Fe)
Cuprite (Cu₂O) Copper (Cu)

Copper Glance (Cu₂S)
Cinnabar (Hg₂S) Mercury (Hg)

Metallurgy:
● Metallurgy: Extracting metals from their ores, and then refining them for use.
There are three steps:
1. Enrichment/Concentration of the ore
2. Extraction of the metal from the concentrated ore
3. Refining of the metal
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Enrichment/Concentration Of Ore: Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with
large amounts of impurities(soil, sand, etc.) called gangue, which must be removed from the
ore prior to the extraction of the metal. Removal of gangue present in ore is called extraction
or concentration of ore.

Extraction Of Metals:
+ Metals in the bottom of the reactivity series [Platinum(Pt), Gold(Au), and Silver(Ag)],
can be found in their native state.
1. Extracting Metals Low In The Reactivity Series: (Hg & Cu): The sulphides of these
metals are roasted to oxides, which can be reduced to metals by heating alone.
○ Extraction Of Mercury(Hg):
- Cinnabar is roasted* to form Mercuric Oxide(HgO).
2HgS + 3O₂ ————> 2HgO + 2SO₂
(Cinnabar)
- The Mercuric Oxide formed is heated at 300°C, when it decomposes to give
Mercury(Hg).
2HgO ———> 2Hg + O₂
○ Extraction Of Copper(Cu):
- Copper Glance is roasted to form Cuprous Oxide(Cu₂O).
2Cu₂O + 3O₂ ————> 2Cu₂O + 2SO₂
(Cinnabar)
- When a sufficient amount of Cuprous Oxide is formed, the supply of oxygen is
cut off. Cupric Oxide/Cuprite reacts with the unreacted Cu₂S to give Cu
metal.
2Cu₂O + Cu₂S ———> 6Cu + SO₂
(Cuprite)

2. Extracting Metals In The Middle Of The Reactivity Series: (Fe, Zn & Mn): These
metals are usually present as sulphides and carbonates in nature. By roasting and
calcination respectively, they are reduced to oxide ores as it is easier to obtain metals
from their oxides than from their carbonates and sulphides.
+ Roasting: The process of conversion of a Sulphide ore into an Oxide ore, by
heating it in the presence of oxygen.
+ Calcination: The process of conversion of a Carbonate ore into an Oxide ore,
by heating it in the absence of oxygen.
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+ Reduction Of Oxide Ore: The process of conversion of metal oxide ores into
metal.
○ Extraction Of Iron(Fe):
- Hematite (Fe₂O₃) is reduced by using Aluminum(Al) as the reducing agent.
Fe₂O₃(s) + 2Al(s) → 2Fe(l) + Al₂O₃(s) + Heat
(Hematite)
➢ This reaction is highly exothermic, and iron is obtained in the molten state. It is
a Thermite reaction.
➢ Thermite Welding: The Thermite reaction is used to join railway tracks or
cracked machine parts, by pouring molten iron in between cracks.
○ Extraction Of Zinc(Zn):
- Zinc has two ores: Zinc Blende(ZnS) and Calamine(ZnCO₃).
Zinc Blende is roasted to form Zinc(II) Oxide (ZnO).
2ZnS + 3O₂ ————> 2ZnO + 2SO₂
(Zinc Blende)
Calamine is calcinated to form Zinc(II) Oxide (ZnO).
ZnCO₃ ————> ZnO + CO₂
(Calamine)
- The Zinc Oxide is then reduced by heating it with carbon(in the form of coke).
ZnO + C → Zn + CO
○ Extraction Of Manganese(Mn):
- Pyrolusite (MnO₂) is reduced by using Aluminum(Al) as the reducing agent.
MnO₂(s) + 2Al(s) → Mn(l) + Al₂O₃(s) + Heat
(Pyrolusite)
➢ This reaction is highly exothermic

3. Extracting Metals Towards The Top Of The Reactivity Series: (Al, Mg & Na): These
metals are obtained by the electrolysis of their molten ores. The metal(cation) is
deposited at the cathode(negatively charged electrode), and the anion is deposited at the
anode(positively charged electrode).
○ Extraction Of Aluminium(Al): Aluminium is extracted from Bauxite(Al₂O₃):
At Cathode: Al³⁺ + 3e- → Al
( From Cathode)
At Anode: O²⁻ - 2e- → O
○ Extraction Of Sodium(Na): Sodium is extracted from Rock Salt(NaCl):
At Cathode: Na⁺ + 1e- → Na
At Anode: Cl⁻ - 1e- → Cl
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+ Magnesium is extracted in a similar way from its ore MgCl₂.

Refining Of Metals: Refining of metals is the process of purifying impure metals obtained
after reduction. The most common method is electrolytic refining.
- Electrolytic Refining:
➢ Many metals, such as Nickel(Ni), Tin(Sn), Copper(Cu), Silver(Ag), Gold(Au), etc. are
refined electrolytically.
● Process:
1. A thick block of impure metal is made the anode (connected to the +ve terminal of the
battery).
2. A thin strip of pure metal is made the cathode (connected to the -ve terminal of the
battery).
3. A solution of a water soluble salt of the metal-to-be-refined is taken as the electrolyte.
4. On passing an electric current through the electrolyte, pure metal from the anode
dissolves into the electrolyte, and an equivalent amount of pure metal from the
electrolyte is deposited on the cathode. The soluble impurities go into the solution,
whereas the insoluble impurities settle at the bottom of the anode and are known as
anode mud.

➔ Electrolytic Refining Of Copper:
1. A thick block of impure copper is made the anode.
2. A thin strip of pure copper is made the cathode.
3. A solution of acidified CuSO₄ is taken as the electrolyte.
4. On passing an electric current through the electrolyte, pure Cu from the anode
dissolves into the electrolyte, and an equivalent amount of pure Cu from the electrolyte
is deposited on the cathode.
➢ At Anode: Cu - 2e- → Cu²⁺
Pure copper atoms lose 2 electrons each to the anode, forming copper ions(Cu²⁺)
which go into the electrolyte solution.
➢ At Cathode: Cu²⁺ + 2e- → Cu
The +ve charged copper ions(Cu²⁺) from the CuSO₄ solution go to the cathode, and
by taking electrons from the cathode, get reduced to copper atoms.
➢ As the process goes on, the anode becomes thinner and thinner, whereas the cathode
becomes thicker and thicker.
➢ The soluble impurities in the anode go into the solution, whereas the insoluble
impurities settle at the bottom of the anode and are known as anode mud.
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Electrolytic Refining Of Copper:

Corrosion:

Prevention Of Corrosion:
The rusting of iron can be prevented by galvanising, making alloys, painting, tin plating and
chrome plating(chromium plating), and greasing/oiling.
● Galvanisation: The process of protecting steel and iron from rusting by coating them
with a thin layer of zinc. The galvanised article is prevented from rusting even if the
zinc coating is broken.
● Alloying*: It is a method of improving the properties of a metal by mixing the metal
with another metal or non-metal.
○ Alloying Of Gold: Pure gold(24 carat gold) is very soft, and unsuitable for
making jewellery. It is alloyed with either copper or silver to make it hard.
E.g. 22 carat gold is 22 parts of pure gold, alloyed with 2 parts of Cu or Ag. 22
carat gold is used for making ornaments in India.
○ Alloying Of Iron: Pure iron is very soft, and stretches easily when hot.
➢ When iron is alloyed with a small amount of carbon(about 0.05%), it becomes
hard and strong.
➢ When iron is alloyed with nickel and chromium, it becomes Stainless Steel
which is hard and doesn’t rust.
● Painting: Painting protects the surface of iron from contact with air and moisture.
● Greasing/Oiling: Greasing and oiling protects the surface of iron from contact with air
and moisture.
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● Tin Plating And Chrome Plating: Tin and chromium are resistant to corrosion. Hence,
when a thin layer of tin/chromium metal is deposited on an iron/steel object, it is
prevented from rusting.

*Alloy: An Alloy is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal.
The electrical conductivity and melting point of an alloy is less than that of a pure metal.
E.g.
➢ Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc(Cu and Zn), and Bronze, an alloy of copper and
tin(Cu and Sn) aren’t good conductors of electricity, whereas copper is.
➢ Solder, an alloy of lead and tin(Pb and Sn) has a low melting point, and is used for
welding electrical wires together.
+ An alloy containing mercury(Hg) as one of its components is called amalgam.

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Useful Charts/Diagrams:
- Electron-Dot Structure:
● Single Atom:
● Ionic Bond:
● Covalent Bond:

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- Proof That Iron Rusts Only In The Presence Of Both Air And Moisture:
1. Take 3 test tubes A, B, and C, and place clean iron nails in each one of them.
2. Pour some water in test tube A, and close it.
3. Pour boiled distilled water in test tube B, add about 1 mL of oil to prevent air from
dissolving in the water, and close it.
4. Put some anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube C to absorb any moisture in the air,
and close it.
5. Leave the test tubes for a few days and observe.
- The iron rusts only in A, as iron rusts only in the presence of both air and moisture.

1. To observe the action of Zn, Fe, Cu, and Al metals on the following salt solutions:
○ ZnSO₄ (aq)
○ FeSO₄ (aq)
○ CuSO₄ (aq)
○ Al₂(SO₄)₃ (aq)
Arrange them in order of decreasing reactivity based on the above result.

Observations:
● ZnSO₄ solution is colorless
● FeSO₄ solution is pale green in color
● CuSO₄ solution is blue in color
● Al₂(SO₄)₃ solution is colorless
- When Zn metal is displaced, it forms greyish deposits.
- When Fe metal is displaced, it forms greyish black deposits.
- When Cu metal is displaced, it forms reddish brown deposits.

Results:
- Al is able to displace Zn, Fe and Cu from their respective salt solutions. (A metal can’t
displace itself from its salt solution.)
- Zn is able to displace Fe and Cu from their respective salt solutions, but not Al.
- Fe is able to displace Cu from its salt solution, but not Al and Zn.
- Cu isn’t able to displace neither Zn, Fe nor Cu from their respective salt solutions.
➔ Therefore, by reactivity: Al > Zn > Fe > Cu
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Science Ch. 6 - Biology Ch. 1 :

Life Processes

Life Processes: Life Processes are the processes performed by living organisms, allowing them
to repair and maintain their structures.
The basic life processes, common to all living organisms are:
● Nutrition: Nutrition is the process by which an organism obtains nutrients from
food, and utilizes them to obtain energy to maintain their structures.
○ Nutrition is used to transfer a source of energy from outside the body of an
organism, to the inside; energy is required for carrying out life processes.
● Respiration: Respiration is the process by which food(taken in through nutrition) is
oxidized to release energy.
○ Respiration is used to convert outside sources of energy into a uniform source
of energy used for life processes.
● Transportation: Transportation is the movement of biologically important
substances from one part of the body to another.
○ Transportation is used in multicellular organisms to take materials taken up by
specialised tissues (food, oxygen, etc.), to all body parts that need them.
● Excretion: Excretion is the process by which an organism removes harmful metabolic
wastes from the body.
+ In the case of single-celled organisms, no specific organs are required for life processes,
as the entire surface of the organism is in contact with the environment. In
multicellular organisms, all the cells may not be in contact with the environment. Thus,
simple diffusion will not meet the requirements of all the cells.

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i. Nutrition
Keywords:
● Nutrition: The process by which an organism obtains nutrients from food, and utilizes
them to obtain energy to maintain their structures.
● Metabolism: The sum of/the total chemical reactions that occur in an organism, due to
interaction amongst its molecules. It has 2 parts: Anabolism(build-up reactions) and
Catabolism(break-down reactions).
● Biocatalysts: Substances which speed up a chemical reaction without undergoing
chemical change, which are biotic in origin.
● Autotrophic Nutrition: Nutrition in which organisms use simple food materials
obtained from inorganic sources, in the form of carbon dioxide and water
● Photosynthesis: The synthesis of organic food from inorganic food material, in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
● Stomata: Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of leaves.
● Heterotrophic Nutrition: Nutrition in which organisms use complex food materials
obtained from organic sources, which have to be broken down into simpler ones
○ Holozoic Nutrition: Nutrition in which complex food substances are taken in,
and broken down into simpler, soluble substances.
○ Saprotrophic/Saprophytic Nutrition: Nutrition in which complex food
substances are broken down outside the body, and then absorbed.
○ Parasitic Nutrition: Nutrition in which an organism lives either on or inside the
body of another organism(host), to obtain their nutrition without killing them.
● Alimentary Canal: A long tube extending from the mouth to the anus, where the entire
process of digestion takes place.
○ Peristaltic Movements: The rhythmic contraction of muscles in the Alimentary
Canal, in order to move food forward.
○ Emulsification: The breaking down of large globules of fat into smaller
globules, increasing the efficiency of the pancreatic enzymes acting on them
● Ingestion: The process of intake of food
● Digestion: A (catabolic) process, in which complex organic food substances are broken
down into simpler soluble forms, with the help of various enzymes.
● Absorption: Absorption is the process by which digested food is transported into the
rest of the body.
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● Assimilation: Assimilation the process by which absorbed food is distributed to various

parts of the body, and used to obtain energy.
● Egestion: Egestion is the process by which undigested food is removed from the body.

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Nutrition:
● Nutrition: Nutrition is the process by which an organism obtains nutrients from food,
and utilizes them to obtain energy to maintain their structures.

Modes Of Nutrition:
- Autotrophic Nutrition: Nutrition in which organisms use simple food materials
obtained from inorganic sources, in the form of carbon dioxide and water (Such
organisms are called Autotrophs)
E.g. Green Plants and some Bacteria(blue-green algae, cyanobacteria, etc.)
- Heterotrophic Nutrition: Nutrition in which organisms use complex food materials
obtained from organic sources, which have to be broken down into simpler ones (Such
organisms are called Heterotrophs)
E.g. Animals and Fungi

Differences Between Autotrophic And Heterotrophic Nutrition:
Autotrophic Nutrition: Heterotrophic Nutrition:
Simple food materials are used. Complex food materials are used, which have
to be broken down into simpler ones.
Food materials are obtained from inorganic Food materials are obtained from organic
sources. sources.
Chlorophyll is necessary for trapping solar Chlorophyll is absent, hence organisms don’t
energy. trap solar energy.
Food is self-manufactured by the organisms. Food is obtained directly or indirectly from

autotrophs.
Digestion of food does not occur. Digestion is required to convert complex

organic substances present in food into
simpler and soluble forms.
They are placed at the bottom of the food chain They are placed above autotrophs in the food
as producers. chain, as consumers.
It occurs in green plants and some bacteria. It occurs in animals and fungi.
E.g. Trees, Blue-green Algae, Cyanobacteria, etc. E.g. Amoeba, Humans, Yeast etc.
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Autotrophic Nutrition:
● Autotrophic Nutrition: Nutrition in which organisms use simple food materials
obtained from inorganic sources, in the form of carbon dioxide and water (Such
organisms are called Autotrophs)

Photosynthesis:
● Photosynthesis: The synthesis of organic food from inorganic food material, in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
The carbon and energy requirements of autotrophic organisms are fulfilled by photosynthesis.
The chemical equation is:
12H₂O + 6CO₂ -----------------> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 6H₂O
(Glucose)
➔ Conditions required for photosynthesis are the presence of Sunlight and Chlorophyll.
➔ The raw materials taken in for photosynthesis are Water and Carbon Dioxide.
➔ The products of photosynthesis are Carbohydrate(Glucose) and Oxygen.
Carbohydrates are used for providing energy to the plant.
The remaining carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored as starch, the
internal energy reserve or the plant. [The internal energy reserve in animals is Glycogen]

- Events In Photosynthesis:
1. Absorptionof light energy by chlorophyll.
2. Conversionof light energy into chemical energy by splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
3. Reductionof carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
These steps need not take place one after the other immediately.
E.g. Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate which is
acted upon by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll the next day.

- Parts Of Cross Section Of Leaf *:
* Leaves are the major photosynthetic organs of a plant.
● Chloroplasts: Leaves contain green-colored cell organelles called chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis as they contain chlorophyll.
● Stomata: Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of leaves. Massive amounts of
gaseous exchange takes place through these pores for the purpose of photosynthesis.
Since large amounts of water can be lost through the stomata, the plant closes them
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whenever it doesn’t need Carbon Dioxide for photosynthesis. The guard cells swell
whenever water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open. Similarly, the
guard cells shrink when they lose water, causing the stomatal pore to close.
+ Guard Cells: These are “kidney-bean-shaped” cells that frame the stomatal openings.
The opening and the closing of the stomatal pore is a function of the guard cells.
+ Epidermis: The epidermis is the outermost, one-cell-thick layer of the leaf. It consists of
2 distinct parts: the Upper Epidermis which doesn’t contain many stomata, preventing
excessive water loss, and the Lower Epidermis which contains many stomata, helping in
gaseous exchange.

Diagram Of (a)Open And (b)Closed Stomatal Pore:

Diagram Of Cross-section Of Leaf:

- Raw Materials Required For Photosynthesis:
● Carbon Dioxide:
➢ Terrestrial Plants obtain CO₂ from the atmosphere.
➢ Aquatic Plants obtain the CO₂ that is dissolved in water.
● Water:
➢ Terrestrial Plants obtain water from the soil by roots.
➢ Aquatic Plants obtain water from the parts of the plant submerged underwater.
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+ Other Raw Materials Required By Plants: Mineral nutrients such as iron, magnesium,
phosphorus and nitrogen are taken up by the soil.
○ Nitrogen is used in the synthesis of proteins and other compounds. It is either
taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates/nitrites, or organic compounds
which have been prepared by bacteria(like rhizobium), from atmospheric
nitrogen.

Heterotrophic Nutrition:
● Heterotrophic Nutrition: Nutrition in which organisms use complex food materials
obtained from organic sources, which have to be broken down into simpler ones (Such
organisms are called Heterotrophs)
To break down complex food materials, heterotrophs use biocatalysts called enzymes.

Types Of Heterotrophic Nutrition:
● Holozoic Nutrition: Nutrition in which complex food substances are taken in, and
broken down into simpler, soluble substances.
E.g. Amoeba, Human, Dog, etc.
● Saprotrophic/Saprophytic Nutrition: Nutrition in which complex food substances are
broken down outside the body, and then absorbed. (Such organisms are called
Saprotrophs)
E.g. Bread Mould, Yeast, Mushrooms, etc.
● Parasitic Nutrition: Nutrition in which an organism lives either on or inside the body
of another organism(host), to obtain their nutrition without killing them.
E.g. Leech, Tape-worm, Liver Fluke, Ticks, Lice, Cuscuta(Amar-bel), etc.

Heterotrophic Nutrition In Different Organisms:
- Protists:
● Amoeba:
➢ Pseudopodia(temporary finger-like extensions) fuse over the food particle to make a
food vacuole. (Ingestion)
➢ In the food vacuole, complex food substances break down into simpler
ones.(Digestion)
➢ These particles diffuse into the cytoplasm. (Absorption)
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➢ The remaining undigested substances are moved to the surface of the cell, and thrown
out. (Egestion)

Diagram Of Nutrition In Amoeba:

● Paramoecium: Paramoecium has a definite shape, and food is taken in at a specific spot.
Food reaches this spot by the movement of cilia, which cover the entire surface of the
cell.

- Human Beings: Digestion in humans takes place in the Alimentary Canal, a long tube
extending from the mouth to the anus. Peristaltic Movements: the rhythmic
contraction of muscles in the alimentary canal in order to move food forward, occur all
along the gut.
There are several parts in the Alimentary Canal/Digestion Process:
1. Mouth:
a. Teeth: The teeth crushes the food to generate particles which are small and of
the same texture.
b. Saliva: Saliva, formed in the mouth, wets food in order to make its passage
through the alimentary canal smooth. The saliva also contains an enzyme called
salivary amylase, which breaks down complex starch to form simple sugar.
c. Tongue: The food is mixed thoroughly with the saliva and moved around while
chewing, by the muscular tongue.
➔ From the mouth, the food is taken to the stomach through the oesophagus.
2. Stomach: The stomach is a large organ, which expands when food enters it. The
muscular walls of the stomach help to mix the food thoroughly with gastric juices.
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a. Gastric Glands: Present in the stomach wall, they release gastric juice, consisting
of: Hydrochloric acid, Pepsin(A protein digesting enzyme), and mucus. The
Hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium, which facilitates the action of
pepsin. The mucus protects the inner stomach lining from the action of the acid
under normal conditions. (The problem of acidity is caused by HCl)
➔ The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle, which
releases it in small amounts to the small intestine.
3. Small Intestine: This is the longest part of the alimentary canal, which is fit into a
compact space due to extensive coiling. The small intestine is the site of complete
digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
+ Herbivores need a long small intestine for digesting cellulose. Meat is easier to digest,
hence carnivores have shorter small intestines.
a. Liver: Bile juice from the liver makes the acidic food from the stomach alkaline,
so that pancreatic enzymes can act on it. Bile juice also emulsifies* fats.
* Emulsification is the breaking down of large globules of fat into smaller
globules, increasing the efficiency of the pancreatic enzymes acting on them.
b. Pancreas: The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, containing pancreatic enzymes:
○ Trypsin, for digesting proteins
○ Lipase for breaking down emulsified fats
c. Intestinal Glands: The walls of the small intestine contain intestinal glands
which secrete intestinal juice. The enzymes present finally convert:
○ Proteins into Amino Acids
○ Carbohydrates into Glucose
○ Fats into Fatty Acids and Glycerol
d. Intestinal Walls/Villi: Digested food is taken up by the intestinal walls:
The inner lining of the small intestine contain numerous finger-like projections
called villi, which increase the surface area for absorption. The villi are richly
supplied with blood vessels, which take the absorbed food to every cell of the
body.
4. Large Intestine: The unabsorbed food is sent to the large intestine, where its wall
absorbs more water from the material.
The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus. the exit of this material
is regulated by the anal sphincter.

+ Dental Caries(Tooth Decay): Dental Caries is a condition which causes the gradual
softening of enamel and dentine(bone beneath enamel). It begins when bacteria acting
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on sugars produce acids which soften the enamel. As masses of bacterial cells along with
food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque, saliva fails to reach the teeth to
neutralize the acid. Brushing teeth after eating removes plaque before the bacteria
produce acids.

Diagram Of Human Alimentary Canal/Digestive System:

Mechanism Of Heterotrophic Nutrition:
1. Ingestion: Ingestion is the process by which food is taken into the body.
➢ In Amoeba: Amoeba ingests food by forming Pseudopodia(temporary finger-like
extensions), which fuse over the food particle to make a food vacuole.
➢ In Humans: Humans intake food with the mouth. The food is moistened by saliva and
chewed by the teeth before swallowing.
2. Digestion: Digestion is the process in which complex organic food substances are
broken down into simpler soluble forms, with the help of various enzymes.
➢ In Amoeba: In Amoeba, food is digested in the food vacuole by the action of digestive
enzymes.
➢ In Humans: Digestion is completed in the following main steps:
I. Carbohydrate digestion initiates inside the mouth, as starch is converted into
simple sugar by salivary amylase.
II. In the stomach, proteins are broken down by pepsin.
III. In the small intestine, fats are emulsified by bile juices.
IV. Emulsified fats are broken down by lipase.
V. Formation of amino acid, glucose and fatty acids
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3. Absorption: Absorption is the process by which digested food is transported into the
rest of the body.
➢ In Amoeba: In Amoeba, the digested food particles diffuse into the cytoplasm.
➢ In Humans: In Humans, digested food passes from the alimentary canal into the blood,
via the villi in the wall of the small intestine.
4. Assimilation: Assimilation the process by which absorbed food is distributed to various
parts of the body, and used to obtain energy.
➢ In Amoeba: In Amoeba, the absorbed food materials are used to obtain energy through
respiration, and to make parts of the Amoeba cell which leads to the growth of the
Amoeba.
➢ In Humans: In Humans, absorbed food products are distributed to various cells of the
body, where it is used to obtain energy, build up new tissues, and repair old ones.
5. Egestion: Egestion is the process by which undigested food is removed from the body.
➢ In Amoeba: In Amoeba, the remaining undigested substances are moved to the surface
of the cell, and thrown out.
➢ In Humans: In Humans, undigested food is eliminated through the anus.

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ii. Respiration

Keywords:
● Respiration: The process by which food(taken in through nutrition) is oxidized to
release energy.
○ Aerobic Respiration: The complete breakdown of pyruvate, in the presence of
oxygen.
○ Anaerobic Respiration: The incomplete breakdown of pyruvate, in the absence
of oxygen.
■ Alcoholic Fermentation: It is the incomplete breakdown of pyruvate
into Ethanol and Carbon Dioxide to release energy.
■ Lactic Acid Fermentation: It is the incomplete breakdown of pyruvate
into Lactic Acid to release energy.
● Breathing: It is the process of inhaling the gas required for respiration (O₂), and
exhaling waste/unrequired gases (CO₂).
○ Inhalation/Inspiration: Inhalation is the process of taking in the gas required for
respiration (O₂).
○ Exhalation/Expiration: Exhalation is the process of giving out waste gases,
unrequired for respiration (CO₂).
● Gaseous Exchange: Gaseous Exchange is the exchange of gases required for (or) created
by respiration, between an organism’s body and its environment.
● ATP: ATP(Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell.
● Haemoglobin: It is the respiratory pigment present in the RBCs of humans. It takes up
oxygen from alveolar air, and carries it to tissues which are deficient in oxygen.

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Respiration:
● Respiration: Respiration is the process by which food(taken in through nutrition) is
oxidized to release energy.

Stages Of Respiration:
1. External Respiration:
a. Breathing (In Animals): Breathing is the process of inhaling the gas required for
respiration (O₂), and exhaling waste/unrequired gases (CO₂).
i. Inhalation/Inspiration: Inhalation is the process of taking in the gas
required for respiration (O₂).
ii. Exhalation/Expiration: Exhalation is the process of giving out waste
gases, unrequired for respiration (CO₂).
➢ Aerobic animals, like human beings, inhale Oxygen(O₂) and exhale Carbon
Dioxide(CO₂).
b. Gaseous Exchange: Gaseous Exchange is the exchange of gases required for (or)
created by respiration, between an organism’s body and its environment.
➢ In human beings, this is the diffusion of Oxygen(O₂) from the lungs to the
blood, Carbon Dioxide(CO₂) from the blood to the lungs.
➢ In plants, this is the exchange of Oxygen(O₂) and Carbon Dioxide(CO₂)
between the plant and its environment, through its stomata and large
intercellular spaces.
2. Internal Respiration: Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between an
organism’s transport system and its body cells.
➢ In human beings, this is the gaseous exchange between arterial blood and body cells.
3. Cellular Respiration: Cellular Respiration is the process by which food(taken in
through nutrition) is oxidized using gases(taken in through respiration) to release
energy at cellular levels.
➢ There are two main types, namely Aerobic Respiration and Anaerobic Respiration.

Types Of Respiration:
➢ In all cases, the first step of (Cellular) Respiration is the breakdown of glucose, a six
carbon molecule, into pyruvate. This takes place in the cytoplasm.
1. Aerobic Respiration: Aerobic Respiration is the complete breakdown of pyruvate, in
the presence of oxygen. It releases a large amount of energy. This process starts in the
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cytoplasm, and continues in the mitochondria of the cell. The products are Water and
Carbon Dioxide.
Glucose --------------> Pyruvate + Energy --------------> Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP(Energy)
(6 Carbon (3 Carbon Molecule)
Molecule)
2. Anaerobic Respiration: Anaerobic Respiration is the incomplete breakdown of
pyruvate, in the absence of oxygen. It releases a small amount of energy. This process
occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.
On the basis of products, it is categorised as:
a. Alcoholic Fermentation: It is the incomplete breakdown of pyruvate into
Ethanol and Carbon Dioxide to release energy. This process mainly takes place
in yeast.
Glucose -------------> Pyruvate + Energy --------------> Ethanol + CO₂ +ATP(Energy)
(6 Carbon (3 Carbon Molecule) (2 Carbon
Molecule) Molecule)
b. Lactic Acid Fermentation: It is the incomplete breakdown of pyruvate into
Lactic Acid to release energy. This process takes place in human muscle cells,
when there is a lack of oxygen due to vigorous exercise. The accumulation of
lactic acid causes cramps.
Glucose ---------------> Pyruvate + Energy -----------------> Lactic Acid + ATP(Energy)
(6 Carbon (3 Carbon Molecule) (3 Carbon Molecule)
Molecule)

Differences Between Aerobic And Anaerobic Respiration:
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic Respiration occurs in the presence Anaerobic Respiration occurs in the absence
of oxygen. of oxygen.
Aerobic Respiration releases a relatively large Anaerobic Respiration releases a relatively

amount of energy. small amount of energy.
Each glucose molecule produces 38 Each glucose molecule produces 2 molecules
molecules of ATP. of ATP.
Aerobic Respiration begins in the cytoplasm, Anaerobic Respiration occurs only in the
and continues in the mitochondria. cytoplasm.
E.g. Most plants and animals E.g. Anaerobic Bacteria, Yeast, etc.
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Breakdown Of Glucose By Various Pathways:
➢ The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesise ATP,
which is used to fuel all other activities in the cell. In these processes ATP is broken
down to give a fixed amount of energy, which is used to drive the endothermic
reactions taking place in the cell.
+ ATP: ATP(Adenosine Triphosphate) is the “energy currency of the cell”, as it
fuels endothermic processes in the cell. The energy released during respiration is
used to make ATP molecules from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
ADP + ℗ ----------> ADP~℗ = ATP
When the terminal phosphate linkage in ATP is broken using water, the energy
released is equivalent to 30.5kJ/mol.

Gaseous Exchange In Plants:
In plants the exchange of gases (namely O₂ and CO₂), takes place by the diffusion of oxygen
through the stomata, and the large intercellular spaces [which ensure that all cells are in contact
with air], into the cells of the plant.
The direction of diffusion depends on the environmental conditions and the requirements of
the plant:
● During the day, the CO₂ generated during respiration is used for photosynthesis, hence
there is no CO₂ release. Instead O₂ release takes place during daytime.
● During the night, when there is no photosynthesis occurring, CO₂ elimination takes
place.

At Daytime:
CO₂ generated during respiration → Photosynthesis → O₂ release
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At Night:
No Photosynthesis → CO₂ release

Gaseous Exchange In Animals:
Different animals have evolved different organs for the uptake of Oxygen from the
environment, and for getting rid of the Carbon Dioxide produced during respiration.

Aquatic Organisms: The rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that of
terrestrial organisms, as the amount of oxygen dissolved in water is fairly low compared to the
amount of oxygen in the air.
➢ Fish take in water through their mouths, and force it past their gills, where the dissolved
oxygen is taken up by the blood.

Terrestrial Organisms: Terrestrial organisms use oxygen in the atmosphere for respiration.
This oxygen is absorbed by different organs in different animals.
All these organs have a structure which increases their surface area in contact with the oxygen
rich atmosphere(Respiratory Surface).
Characteristic of this surface include:
➢ Very Fine and Delicate: The respiratory surface is very fine and delicate, as the exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide has to take place across this surface.
➢ Usually Placed Within the Body For Protection: The respiratory surface is usually
placed within the body for protection, so that there has to be passages to take air in and
out of this area.
➢ Have a Mechanism for Moving Oxygen In and Out of The Area: The respiratory
surface has a mechanism for moving air in and out of the area, from/to the area where
the oxygen is absorbed.

- Human Respiratory System:
1. Nasal Passage: Air is taken into the body through the nostrils, where it is filtered by the
fine hairs and mucus that line the passage.
From here, the air passes into the throat.
2. Throat: Air passes from the throat into the lungs. Rings of cartilage present in the
throat ensure that the passage doesn’t collapse.
3. Lungs:
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a. Bronchi: Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller
tubes(bronchi), which finally terminate in balloon-like structures called
alveoli(singular - alveolus).
b. Alveoli: The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take place.
For this, the walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels.
Exchange of gases in the alveoli takes place by the following process:
○ When humans breathe in, they lift their ribs and flatten their diaphragm,
causing the chest cavity to become larger. Because of this, air is sucked
into the lungs, and fills the expanded alveoli.
○ The blood brings CO₂ from the rest of the body for release into the
alveoli, and takes up the O₂ in the alveolar air to transport it to all the
cells in the body.
➔ During the breathing cycle, the lungs always contain a residual volume of air, so that
there is sufficient time for the O₂ to be absorbed and the CO₂ to be released.
● Respiratory Pigment: Diffusion pressure alone can’t take care of oxygen delivery to all
the body parts in a large-sized animal; they have Respiratory Pigments which take up
O₂ from the air in the lungs and carry it to tissues.
Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment in humans, which has a very high affinity for
oxygen. Haemoglobin is present in Red Blood Corpuscles.
As CO₂ is more soluble in water than oxygen, it is mainly transported in dissolved form
in our blood.

Diagram Of Human Respiratory System:

- Mechanism Of Breathing/Gaseous Exchange In Humans:
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1. Inhalation/Inspiration: Inspiration is the process of taking in the gas required

for respiration (O₂).
➢ In Humans: When humans breathe in, they lift their ribs and flatten their
diaphragm, causing the chest cavity to become larger. Because of this, air is
sucked into the lungs, and fills the expanded alveoli.
2. Gaseous Exchange: Gaseous Exchange is the exchange of gases required for (or)
created by respiration, between an organism’s body and its environment.
➢ In Humans: The blood brings CO₂ from the rest of the body for release into the
alveoli. The Haemoglobin in the blood now binds with the O₂ in the alveolar
air, and carries it to tissues which are deficient in oxygen.
3. Exhalation/Expiration: Expiration is the process of giving out waste gases,
unrequired for respiration (CO₂).
➢ In Humans: When humans breathe out, the ribs are moved down and the
diaphragm becomes dome shaped, causing the chest cavity to become smaller.
Because of this, air pushed out of the lungs.

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iii. Transportation

Keywords:
● Transportation: Transportation is the movement of biologically important substances
from one part of the body to another.
● Blood: Blood is a fluid connective tissue, which supplies required materials to all cells of
the body, and collects waste products to be removed from the body.
● Double Circulation: The process by which blood passes through the heart twice in one
cycle of passage through the body.
● Arteries: Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to various
organs of the body.
● Capillaries: Capillaries are blood vessels with one-cell-thick walls, across which the
exchange of materials between the blood and the surrounding cells takes place.
● Veins: Veins are blood vessels that bring blood to the heart, from various organs of the
body.
● Valves: Valves are muscular flaps in either the heart or the blood vessels, that prevent
the backflow of blood.
● Blood Pressure: Blood Pressure is the force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel.
● Lymph/Tissue Fluid: Lymph is a fluid connective tissue, formed by some amount of
plasma, proteins and blood cells escaping into intercellular spaces in tissues, from pores
present in the walls of capillaries.
● Transpiration: Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of vapour, from the aerial
parts of a plant.
● Translocation: Translocation is the transport of the soluble products of
photosynthesis, from the leaves of a plant to the other parts.

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Transportation:
● Transportation: Transportation is the movement of biologically important substances
from one part of the body to another.

Transportation In Human Beings:
- The transport system in human beings consists of: Blood, Heart, Blood Vessels, and
Lymph.

Blood:
Blood is a fluid connective tissue, which supplies required materials to all cells of the body, and
collects waste products to be removed from the body.
- Components Of Blood:
Blood consists of 2 major components: Plasma and Blood Cells/Corpuscles.
● Plasma: Plasma is the liquid part of blood. Blood cells are suspended in the plasma.
Plasma transports food, CO₂, nitrogenous wastes, hormones, etc. in dissolved form.
● Blood Cells/Corpuscles:
○ Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): RBCs transport oxygen to all cells of the body.
○ White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): WBCs help to destroy foreign germs in the
body.
○ Platelets: Platelets help to clot blood at sites of injury.

- Functions Of Blood:
● Blood helps in the transport of nutrients to all parts of the body, for storage, oxidation,
and synthesis of new substances.
● Blood is involved in the transport of excretory products like urea, uric acid, and
ammonia.
● Blood helps in the transport of oxygen to all the tissues of the body, and the collection
of carbon dioxide from all tissues of the body, for respiration.
● The plasma of the blood helps to transport hormones from their place of synthesis, to
their target organs.
● WBCs in the blood help to prevent disease, by destroying foreign germs in the body.
● Platelets in the blood help to clot blood at sites of injury, preventing further blood
loss.*
● Blood helps in the regulation of pH and body temperature.

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➢ *Maintenance By Platelets: In the case of any injury where bleeding occurs, the loss of
blood must be minimised as bleeding leads to a pressure, which reduces the efficiency
of the pumping system. To prevent this the blood has platelets, which clot the blood at
sites of injury.

Heart:
The heart is a muscular organ, which pumps blood into the blood vessels.
- Structure Of Heart: The human heart has four chambers, to prevent the mixing of
Oxygen Rich/Oxygenated blood and Carbon Dioxide Rich/Deoxygenated blood.
The four chambers of the heart are as follows:
● Atrium: Upper Chambers: The atria receive blood through veins, hence they only have
thin walls. The left atrium receives CO₂ rich blood, while the right atrium receives O₂
rich blood.
● Ventricles: Lower Chambers: The ventricles pump blood through arteries, hence they
have thicker walls than atrium. The left ventricle pumps CO₂ rich blood, while the
right ventricle pumps O₂ rich blood.

Structure Of Human Heart:

- Pumping Action Of The Heart - Double Circulation:
1. The Left Atrium receives oxygen rich blood from the lungs. The left atrium relaxes
while it is collecting this blood.
2. The Left Atrium then contracts while the Left Ventricle relaxes, causing the blood to
be transferred to it.
3. Then, the Left Ventricle contracts, pumping the blood out to the body through the
Aorta.
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4. The Right Atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the Vena Cava.
The right atrium relaxes while it is collecting this blood.
5. The Right Atrium then contracts while the Right Ventricle relaxes, causing the blood
to be transferred to it.
6. Then, the Right Ventricle contracts, pumping the blood out to the lungs for
oxygenation.
+ Valves present in the heart ensure that blood doesn’t flow backward when the
atria or ventricles contract.

Representation Of Transport And Exchange Of O₂ And CO₂ - Double Circulation:

+ Structure Of Heart In Different Vertebrates:
● Mammals And Birds: Mammals and birds have four chambered hearts. This ensures
the separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, allowing for a highly efficient
supply of oxygen to the body. This is necessary as these animals have high energy needs,
and constantly use energy to maintain their body temperature (warm-blooded).
● Reptiles And Amphibians: Reptiles and amphibians have three chambered hearts, as
they do not use energy to maintain their body temperature, which depends on the
temperature of the environment (cold-blooded), allowing them to tolerate some mixing
of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
● Fish: Fish have two chambered hearts, and are also cold-blooded. In fish, blood is
pumped from the heart to the gills, oxygenated there, and then supplied directly to the
rest of the body.
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In fish, blood only goes through the heart once during one cycle of passage through the
body. On the other hand, blood goes through the heart twice during each cycle of
passage in other vertebrates, a process known as double circulation.

Blood Vessels:
- Types Of Blood Vessels: There are three main types of blood vessels involved in
transportation: Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins.
● Arteries: Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to various
organs of the body.
Characteristics:
○ Arteries carry oxygenated blood (except for the Pulmonary Artery).
○ Arteries have thick muscular walls, in order to withstand the high pressure with
which the heart pumps the blood.
○ Arteries do not have valves.
➔ On reaching an organ or tissue, the artery divides into smaller and smaller
vessels. The smallest vessels, capillaries, have walls that are one-cell-thick.
● Capillaries: Capillaries are blood vessels with one-cell-thick walls, across which the
exchange of materials between the blood and the surrounding cells takes place.
Characteristics:
○ The walls of Capillaries are one-cell-thick.
○ Capillaries have valves to prevent the backflow of blood
➔ The capillaries then join together to form veins.
● Veins: Veins are blood vessels that bring blood to the heart, from various organs of the
body.
Characteristics:
○ Veins carry deoxygenated blood (except for the Pulmonary Vein).
○ Veins have thinner walls than arteries, as they carry blood at a low pressure.
○ Veins have valves to prevent the backflow of blood.

+ Blood Pressure: Blood Pressure is the force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel.
The pressure of the blood in the artery during ventricular systole (when blood pumped
out of the ventricles) is called systolic pressure.
The pressure of the blood in the artery during ventricular diastole (when blood is
transferred from the atria to the ventricles) is called diastolic pressure.
The normal systolic pressure is about 120mm Hg, and normal diastolic pressure is
about 80mm Hg. (i.e. The normal blood pressure is 120/80)
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Blood pressure is measured with a sphygmomanometer.

High blood pressure, called hypertension, is caused by the constriction of the arterioles,
resulting in resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery, and internal
bleeding.

Lymph (Tissue Fluid): Lymph/Tissue Fluid is a fluid connective tissue, formed by some
amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells escaping into intercellular spaces in tissues, from
pores present in the walls of capillaries. Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries from the
intercellular spaces, which join to form lymph vessels, that finally open into larger veins.
+ Lymph is similar to the plasma of blood, but is colorless, and contains less protein.

- Functions Of Lymph:
● Lymph is involved in the transportation of substances to areas that blood vessels
do not reach.
○ Lymph transports digested and absorbed fat from the small intestine, to
areas that blood vessels do not reach.
● Lymph drains excess fluid from intercellular places back into the blood.

Transportation In Plants:
Plants have two independent pathways for transportation:
● Xylem: Xylem transports water and minerals obtained from the soil, from the roots of
the plant to the other parts.
+ Transportation occurs by using physical forces.
● Phloem: Phloem transports the soluble products of photosynthesis, from the leaves of
the plant to the other parts.
+ Transportation occurs by using energy from ATP.

Transport Of Water - Xylem:
+ Xylem tissues in plants consist of an interconnected network of the vessels and
tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves. The xylem tissues form a continuous system of
water-conducting channels, reaching all parts of the plant.
➢ At the roots of a plant, cells in contact with the soil actively take up ions, creating a
difference in the concentration of these ions between the root and the soil. Water
moves into the xylem in the roots to make the concentration equal. Hence, there is a
steady movement of water into the root xylem, creating a column of water that is
steadily pushed upwards.
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➔ This pressure alone can’t move water over the heights of taller plants. Hence, plants use
transpiration to move water in the xylem to the highest parts of the plant body.
➢ Plants lose water through the stomata by transpiration. This evaporation of water
molecules from the cells of the leaf, creates a suction which pulls water from the xylem
of the root.

● Transpiration: Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of vapour, from the aerial
parts of a plant.
Transpiration takes place mainly through the stomata.
Uses Of Transpiration:
○ Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and the
minerals dissolved in it.
○ Transpiration helps in temperature regulation.
○ Transpiration removes excess water from the plant.

Transport Of Food And Other Substances - Phloem:
The transport of the soluble products of photosynthesis – translocation, occurs in the phloem.
The phloem also transports amino acids, and other substances.
+ These substances are especially delivered to the storage organs of roots, fruits and seeds,
and to growing organs.

➔ Translocation in phloem takes place in the sieve tubes, with the help of the adjacent
companion cells. Translocation takes place in both the upward and downward
directions.

Unlike Xylem, where transportation occurs by the use of physical forces, transportation in
Phloem takes place by using energy:
➢ Material like sucrose is transferred into the phloem tissue using energy from ATP,
which increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue, causing water to move into it.
Material in the phloem is then moved to tissues which have less pressure, allowing the
phloem to move material according to the plant’s needs.
E.g. In the spring, sugar stored in the root or stem tissues is transported to the buds,
which need energy to grow.
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iv. Excretion

Keywords:
● Excretion: Excretion is the process by which an organism removes harmful metabolic
● Osmoregulation: Osmoregulation is the process by which an organism regulates the
water balance in its body.
+ Ultrafiltration: Ultrafiltration is the filtration of small particles, solutes and solvents,
through a finely porous membrane, under pressure.
+ Glomerulus: The glomerulus is a bunch of fine blood capillaries present in the
Bowman’s capsule of a nephron, where ultrafiltration occurs.
+ Bowman’s Capsule: The Bowman’s capsule is the cup-shaped end of a nephron, which
collects the filtrate produced by the glomerulus during ultrafiltration.
● Artificial Kidney: An artificial kidney is a device used to remove nitrogenous wastes
from the blood through hemodialysis.

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Excretion:
● Excretion:Excretion is the process by which an organism removes harmful metabolic
The process of excretion is different in unicellular and multicellular organisms:
➔ Unicellular Organisms: Many unicellular organisms excrete metabolic wastes by
diffusing them into the surrounding area, through the body surface.
➔ Multicellular Organisms: Multicellular organisms have specialized organs to perform
the process of excretion.

Excretion In Human Beings:
Human Excretory System:
The human excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys and ureters, a urinary bladder and an
urethra.
- The main function of the human excretory system is to remove nitrogenous wastes
(urea, uric acid, etc.), from the body. Urine is created to filter these waste products out
of the blood.

Human Excretory System:

Process Of Excretion In Humans:
Urine is produced in the kidneys; it then passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder,
where it is stored until it’s released through the urethra.
● Kidney: The kidney is the main organ of the human excretory system. Every drop of
blood must be filtered in the kidneys.
The main functions of kidneys are:
➢ Removing excess water from the body (osmoregulation), and nitrogenous wastes from
the blood, in the form of urine.
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➢ Maintaining a constant concentration of blood plasma

➢ Regulating the pH of blood

○ Nephron: Nephrons are the basic filtration units of the kidney. Each kidney
contains 800,000 - 1.5 million nephrons.

Filtration of Blood/Formation of Urine in Nephron:

➔ The renal artery brings oxygenated blood, along with nitrogenous wastes and
other substances, to the kidneys.
The renal artery then divides into many branches; each branch leads to the
glomerulus of a nephron.
1. Ultrafiltration occurs in the glomerulus, forcing many of the substances

dissolved in the blood into the Bowman’s capsule.
2. The filtrate then passes through the tubular part of the nephron, where some
useful substances, such as glucose, amino acids, salts, and a major amount of
water are selectively reabsorbed.
+ The amount of water reabsorbed depends on the amount of excess water
present in the body, and the amount of dissolved waste to be excreted.

➔ The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called the ureter, which
connects the kidney to the urinary bladder.
➔ Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder
leads to the urge to pass it out through the urethra.
+ As the bladder is muscular, it is under nervous control. Hence, the urge
to urinate can usually be controlled.

- In a healthy adult, the volume of the initial filtrate in the kidneys is about 180 L daily.
However, the volume excreted is 1 L - 2 L, as the remaining filtrate is reabsorbed in the
nephrons.

Structure Of Nephron:
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Artificial Kidney (Hemodialysis):

+ Kidneys are vital organs for survival. When the kidneys fail, nitrogenous waste products
accumulate in the body, which can lead to death.

In the case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney can be used to remove nitrogenous wastes
from the blood through hemodialysis.

- Hemodialysis:
● Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended
in a tank filled with dialysing fluid. This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as blood,
but it is devoid of nitrogenous wastes.
○ The patient’s blood is passed through these tubes. During this passage, the
nitrogenous waste products from the blood pass into the dialysing fluid by
diffusion.
○ The purified blood is then pumped back into the patient’s body.

➔ Hemodialysis is similar to the function of a kidney. However, it is different as there is

no reabsorption involved.

Excretion In Plants:
+ Plants release excess water produced during respiration through by transpi
+ Plants get rid of
● For other wastes, plants use a variety of methods:
○

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Science Ch. 8 - Biology Ch. 2 :

Reproduction of Organisms

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2. Dividing of nucleus
3. constriction
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Science Ch. 9 - Biology Ch. 3:

Heredity And Evolution

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Science Ch. 12 - Physics Ch. 1 :

Electricity

Keywords:

Electric Charge:

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Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Keywords:
● Magnetic Field Lines:
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Sources of Energy

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Science Ch. 1 - Chemistry Ch. 1 :

● Oxidation/Reduction / Redox Reaction​: A reaction in which one substance is oxidised

● Variable Coefficients Method:

➢ 2FeSO₄ (s) --------> Fe₂O₃ (s) + SO₂ (g) + SO₃ (g)

➢ 2Pb(NO₃)₂ (s) --------> 2PbO (s) + 4NO₂ (g) + O₂ (g)

➢ 2NaCl (l) ------------> 2Na (s) + Cl₂ (g)

➢ 2AgBr (s) ------------> 2Ag (s) + Br₂ (g)

● Double Displacement Reaction​: A reaction in which there is a mutual exchange of ions

Reducing Agent: HCl

Effects Of Oxidation On Everyday Life​:

Copper (Cu) Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Copper Carbonate (CuCO₃) Green

Silver (Ag) Hydrogen Sulphide (H₂S) Silver Sulphide (Ag₂S) Black

Aluminium (Al) Oxygen (O₂) Aluminum Oxide (Al₂O₃) White

All compounds of Alkali Metal (Li⁺, Na⁺, (None)

All compounds of NO₃⁻ (None)

Compounds of HCO₃⁻ (None)

Compounds of Halides (Except F⁻ ) (Cl⁻ , Ag⁺, Pb⁺, Hg⁺

Compounds of SO₄⁻² Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, Hg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, Sr²⁺

Compounds of (OH⁻ ) All compounds of Alkali Metal (Li⁺, Na⁺,

[H₂ (at cathode -ve) and O₂ (at anode +ve)]

solution taken in a test tube B. 2NaCl (aq) + BaSO₄ (s)

Science Ch. 2 - Chemistry Ch. 2 :

Acids & Bases​:

Bases​: A base is a substance which dissociates in water to give H⁺ ions.

Taste Acids are sour in taste. Bases are bitter in taste.

Electrical Conductivity Aqueous solutions of acids as well as bases are good

NaOH + Al → NaAlO₂ + H₂

Litmus Red Purple Blue

Turmeric Yellow Yellow Reddish-Brown

Red Cabbage Red Purple Green

Hydrangea Blue Purple Pink

Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Pink

Methyl Orange Red Orange Yellow

+ pH Paper​: pH paper is paper impregnated with universal indicator, used for

Onion Characteristic Smell Retains Normal Smell Loses Smell

● pH​: pH is a measure of power of hydrogen ion concentration [H⁺].

● Chlorine is used as a disinfectant.

○ Sodium Bicarbonate is prepared by the action of Ammonia(NH₃) and CO₂ on

● Hydrated Salts​: Salts that contain water of crystallisation

matchstick near the mouth of the fine jet. Observe.

Na₂CO₃ Test No change is observed. NaOh and Na₂CO₃ do not react.

Dilute HCl Red 1 Strong Acid

Dilute NaOH Violet 13 Strong Base

Dilute CH₃COOH Orange 3 Weak Acid

Lemon Juice Orange 2.2 (approx. 2) Weak Acid

Water Green 7 Neutral

Dilute NaHCO₃ Blue 8.5 (approx. 9) Weak Base

Science Ch. 3 - Chemistry Ch . 3 :

Physical Properties Of Metals And Non-Metals​:

Metallic Lustre Metals are lustrous Non-Metals are not lustrous

Hardness Metals are hard Non-Metals are not very hard

Electrical Metals are good conductors of Non-Metals aren’t good

Sonority Metals are sonorous Non-metals aren’t sonorous

Density Metals have a high density Non-Metals have lower

Color Metals are grey and black Non-Metals are of different

➢ At room temperature, the surfaces of Calcium Magnesium, Aluminum and

Solubility Electrovalent compounds are usually Covalent compounds are

Electrical *Ionic compounds conduct electricity Covalent compounds are poor

Rock Salt (NaCl) Sodium (Na)

Bauxite (Al₂O₃) Aluminum (Al)

Pyrolusite (MnO₂) Manganese (Mn)

Calamine (ZnCO₃) Zinc (Zn)

● Oxidation/Reduction / Redox Reaction: A reaction in which one substance is oxidised

● Double Displacement Reaction: A reaction in which there is a mutual exchange of ions

Effects Of Oxidation On Everyday Life:

Acids & Bases:

Bases: A base is a substance which dissociates in water to give H⁺ ions.

+ pH Paper: pH paper is paper impregnated with universal indicator, used for

● pH: pH is a measure of power of hydrogen ion concentration [H⁺].

● Hydrated Salts: Salts that contain water of crystallisation

Physical Properties Of Metals And Non-Metals:

● Assimilation: Assimilation the process by which absorbed food is distributed to various

1. Inhalation/Inspiration: Inspiration is the process of taking in the gas required

Human Excretory System:

Filtration of Blood/Formation of Urine in Nephron:

Artificial Kidney (Hemodialysis):