X-ray Diffraction Imaging

BedeScan™: Innovative X-ray Diffraction Inspection Improves 300mm Yields

by Petra Feichtinger, Bede X-ray Metrology

X-ray diffraction imaging of 300mm wafers is challenging conventional

semiconductor wafer inspection systems. BedeScan™, a novel product based
on proven scientific techniques for imaging wafer imperfections provides a
tool for optimising throughput in meeting quality control requirements.

BedeScan™, an innovative defect imaging tool developed by
Bede, employs non-destructive X-ray diffraction (XRD) to rapidly
inspect semiconductor wafers for grown-in or process-induced
structural defects that can lead to yield reduction and wafer
breakage [1-5]1. Critical lattice defects are easily and directly
viewed, such as point defect distribution and other frozen-in
stress phenomena from crystal pulling, mechanical edge damage,
thermal slip, and misfit dislocations.
X-rays are generated from the patented Bede Microsource®, a
high-brightness X-ray source with a small and stable beam spot.
The X-rays are diffracted from the wafer, while the sample is
translated with fast, high-precision motions in front of a CCD
camera, and a sequence of images is recorded. The images are then
integrated in the computer to form a composite defect image that
shows crystalline defect locations. This method allows a limited area
digital detector to be used to image 300mm wafer specimens.
The patented technology [6] results in a compact, fully digital
X-ray inspection tool with the functional capability consistent with
high-volume semiconductor manufacturing processes. BedeScan™
is an automated, recipe-driven tool with the speed, resolution,
and scanning area on the wafer fully and dynamically configurable
to the user. 300mm diameter wafers can be imaged in 30 minutes
and small regions, such as selected-area epitaxy and thermal
annealing support points can be imaged in considerably less
time. Alignment, exposure and generation of wafer defect images
are automated and do not require a skilled operator.

1
The numbers in brackets identify specific reference sources listed at the end of this article.
leading the way
in advanced semiconductor metrology
 X-ray Diffraction Imaging
The Economics of In-Line Wafer Defect Inspection
BedeScan™ is capable of providing fully automated quantitative digital data output, which makes the instrument suitable for full factory
automation and defect recognition. Using BedeScan™ technology, the following anomalies can be viewed during the inspection process:
• Crystalline lattice defects close to the wafer surface and in epitaxial layers
• Crystalline lattice defects in the wafer bulk
• Mechanical damage around the wafer edge Figure 1. Overview of common defects
and measurement modes available with
• Cross-sectional defect depth X-ray diffraction imaging technology.

(b) (a) (d)

(c) (e)

Figure 1 provides an overview of measurement modes available
with BedeScan™ and common defects. Observable defects
shown in the figure include: a) wafer bulk defects (bulk micro
defects, thermal slip dislocations, edge damage, etc.); b) misfit
dislocations causing relaxation of a strained epilayer in p/p++Si;
c) edge exclusion zone monitoring revealing mechanical edge
damage and thermal slip dislocations; d) single thermal slip
dislocation lines in the wafer bulk; and e) cross-sectional defect
depth (wafer front surface at the top; bottom surface at the
bottom of the image.)
Conventional non-destructive methods of wafer inspection, such
as photo luminescence, optical systems, and scanning infra red
depolarization (SIRD) are all unsatisfactory for crystallographic
defect inspection, in that they do not measure the atomic
arrangement directly. However, optical assessment is used routinely
during in-line wafer inspection, despite its limited value for
determination of crystallographic defect content. Optical methods
will only reveal these defects if they cause surface topographic
features, which is often not the case. Defect etching, which will
usually find all defects, is destructive; and thus, expensive monitor
wafers are required. Infrared microscopy has limited sensitivity to
the kinds of defects that must be observed, and severe restrictions
apply to backside treatment and doping levels.
Recognition of crystallographic defects influencing device
characteristics is invaluable for process development purposes.
Large monetary savings are possible if a problem can be
discovered at the process step where they are created instead of
downstream in the finished product. Since X-ray inspection for
crystallographic defects was largely unavailable to semiconductor
manufacturers up to now, BedeScan™ has the potential for
substantial savings by isolating defective material at an early stage.
For instance, an IC manufacturer processing 20,000 Si 300mm
wafers per month might experience a 0.5% improvement in
yield after installing a new automated non-destructive defect
characterization instrument. This translates to wafer starts, process,
and end-product savings of about $2.5M.2
Figure 2 shows a BedeScan™ defect image of a wafer with
finished CCD devices as well as a dark current measurement map
taken on the same wafer. The areas of device failure correspond
to the areas where thermal slip dislocations were found close
to the wafer surface. Recognition of these defects at an early
processing step could lead to substantial savings: The experienced
yield loss equates to 44%.
(a) (b)
Figure 2. a) BedeScan™ defect image revealing thermal slip in a 150mm
device wafer. Overview scan in reflection mode with a resolution of 20 µm.
b) Map of dark current measurements on the same wafer. White areas
indicate areas of device failure.
Data courtesy of Dr. Thomas Blanton, Eastman Kodak Company, USA.

2 2
International SEMATECH Manufacturing Initiative, Industry Economic Model v8.1ss for custom products at 180 - 90 nm technology nodes.
BedeScan™: Innovative X-ray Diffraction Inspection Improves 300mm Yields
BedeScan™ X-ray Diffraction Inspection Technology... What is It?
The underlying principle of BedeScan™ is based on X-ray diffraction.
X-ray diffraction imaging, also called X-ray topography [7], is
recognized as a powerful tool for directly imaging defects in single
crystals, such as semiconductor substrates and epitaxial thin films.
To obtain an X-ray diffraction defect image, the wafer is oriented
with respect to the incident X-ray beam, such that a single set of
planes, designated by the Miller indices of (hkl) satisfy the Bragg’s
Law condition for diffraction, namely:
2dsinØB = λ,
where d is the spacing of the diffracting planes, ØB is the Bragg
angle and λ is the X-ray wavelength.34 (See Figure 3.)
Figure 3. X-ray diffraction based on Bragg’s law
For wafers that contain no defects, the crystalline lattice is
essentially perfect, leading to a constant X-ray intensity diffracted
from the wafer. However, defects that disturb the perfection of
the lattice (i.e. those defects that introduce strain and/or tilt)
alter the d-spacing and/or the Bragg angle, which gives rise to
variations in the diffracted intensity in the vicinity of the defects
[7,8]. The method was widely used in the 1960s and 70s for
process development to improve silicon wafer quality [9, 10, 11].
The complexity of the technique, however restricted its
implementation in manufacturing for larger diameter wafers...
until the development of the BedeScan™.
3
Miller indices are a universally-accepted symbolic vector representation that identifies the orientation of an atomic plane in a crystal lattice.
4
Sir William W. H. Bragg and his son, Sir William W. L. Bragg, developed the equation discussed above to explain why the cleavage faces
of crystals reflect X-ray beams at certain determinable angles of incidence.
5
1 arcsecond = 1/3600th of a degree.
Both reflection and transmission geometries can be employed
with BedeScan™ at the same resolution. In reflection geometry,
strain fields of defects close to the wafer surface are imaged,
while transmission geometry is capable of identifying defects
across the whole width of the wafer, from the back side to the
front surface. As can be seen in Figure 4, the imaging detector is
fixed, and the wafer scans through the beam. Crystalline defects
causing strain/tilt in the crystal lattice influence the diffracted
beam direction and intensity.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. BedeScan™ X-ray diffraction imaging method in a) transmission
and b) reflection modes
The resulting image contrast is expected to be similar to synchrotron
radiation topography [12] which is essentially orientation contrast
(or geometric diffraction contrast). Distorted regions are expected
to stay in contrast, but to result in a distortion of the image. This
has a further benefit, in that “Bragg angle control” employed in
conventional Lang topography is inherent in the contrast mechanism,
and fairly distorted samples (more than 1º mis-orientation) can
be imaged in a single exposure [13]. Orientation contrast is
however controllable in the BedeScan™ technique, down to
sensitivity of only a few arc seconds.5 No re-exposure is required,
as the orientation contrast control is done as a part of post-
exposure data processing (patent pending). The ultimate image
resolution possible is about 0.5 µm as determined by:
R=S*b/a,
where R is the physical resolution, S is the focal spot size, b is
the distance between the specimen and detector, and a is the
distance between the focal spot and the specimen.
3
leading the way
in advanced semiconductor metrology

Table 1
Wafer Scan Times
Sample Size
300mm, full wafer scan
200mm, full wafer scan
multi point support scan,
wafer edge scan,
high resolution zoom-in
X-ray Diffraction Imaging
Scan Time In practice, however, the spatial resolution of the technique is
limited to around 3µm by the pixel size of current CCD cameras.
30 minutes Table 1 gives an indication of typical wafer scan times.
20 minutes
The final defect image is created in the computer by integrating
over the frames into a complete image. A virtual scan of the
depending on individual requirements detector in the computer (similar to an airport baggage scanner) is
undertaken. Special “on-the-fly” algorithms have been developed,
including video file compression algorithms from the movie
industry to compress the data, without sacrificing accessibility.
The innovative scanning and stitching sequence allows imaging of
specimen of any size. The tool itself, however, is a quarter of the size
of a traditional X-ray topography instrument6, at only 2m x 1.5m x 2m.
(See Figure 5.) This is attained using the Bede Microsource®‚ X-ray
generator, which runs on only 80W power; thus the cost of
ownership (COO) is a fraction of that of the conventional
instrument. A BedeScan™ tool running full time for a year would
use about 200,000 fewer kWH and consume about $70,000 less in
film cost. During this period, the system would be able to scan
five to ten times as many wafers at comparable resolutions.
BedeScan™ employs novel high-speed ultra-low-vibration linear
motors for movement of the specimen during an exposure. The
novel mechanics (patent pending) allows access to a wide range
of incoming beam angles and source-specimen distances. The
optimum distances can always be selected to preserve the
maximum X-ray intensity.
Two sample holding systems are offered. For whole wafers, an
edge clamp/support system was designed. This is both compatible
with semiconductor processes and sufficiently X-ray transparent.
For fragments of wafers, a novel drum skin support of thin
polymer sheet is used.

Figure 5.
Manual Loading BedeScan™

4 6
Typically a Lang camera that was originally developed by A.R. Lang for X-ray topography.
BedeScan™: Innovative X-ray Diffraction Inspection Improves 300mm Yields

Applications for BedeScan™

The BedeScan™ X-ray diffraction imaging tool ensures rapid identification of critical lattice defects in bare and device wafers.
As can be determined from the following applications, the tool offers significant advantages over conventional wafer inspection systems.

Edge exclusion zone monitoring

With the proposed adoption of an edge exclusion zone
1mm wide, SEMI (Semiconductor Equipment and Materials
International) standards for wafer edges will require closer
monitoring of edge defects. Crystalline defects preferentially
nucleate at mechanical sub-surface damage sites left over from
mechanical wafer shaping [1]. Commonly employed optical
techniques sensitive to surface features may not detect residual
sub-surface cracks and tilted regions. In addition, a polished
wafer edge does not have a well-defined shape, rendering
optical edge inspection difficult.
The defect image produced by BedeScan™ in Figure 6 shows
mechanical edge damage and slip lines in a doped wafer after
thermal processing. An annular dataset was collected to survey
the wafer for edge damage, without wasting measurement time
for the usually perfect wafer center. Damage sites in and close
to the wafer edge as well as thermal slip dislocations having
nucleated at these damage sites are clearly visible. The swirls
are results from slight lattice parameter changes due to dopant
distribution within the wafer.
Figure 6. BedeScan™ defect image revealing mechanical edge damage and
slip lines in a doped wafer after thermal processing. Overview scan with a
medium speed CCD scan at a resolution of 20 µm.
Data courtesy of Dr. Don-Kun Lee, LG Siltron, Korea

Scans in transmission mode are used to detect defects in the (a)

wafer bulk, while reflection mode scans show sensitivity to strain
fields of defects close to the wafer surface only. The defect images
in Figure 7 were taken of the edge region of a test wafer a) in
reflection mode - front surface, b) in reflection mode - back surface,
and c) in transmission mode. Transmission scans are capable of
revealing buried mechanical damage within the wafer edge, while
there may not be an indication of residing mechanical damage at (b)
either surface of the wafer. For in-line monitoring purposes, very
fast scanning of the wafer edge area can be undertaken, resulting
in a position versus intensity plot.
Figure 7. BedeScan™ defect images revealing mechanical edge damage
in a bare test wafer. Overview scan with a medium speed CCD scan at a
resolution of 20 µm.
(c)

leading the way

in advanced semiconductor metrology
 X-ray Diffraction Imaging
Imaging of thermal slip dislocations
Thermal slip dislocations are known to cause yield problems [14].
Because digital X-ray diffraction imaging has previously not been
available for this task within a wafer fab, alternative measurement
methods have been utilized, although they do not measure slip
directly. Tools based on light scattering can only detect slip
dislocations when threading arms have reached the front side of
the wafer and created sufficiently high slip steps. In other words,
using such a process, slip can only be detected when it is in a
rather advanced state. Furthermore, slip dislocations usually
nucleate on edge or backside damage (pin-marks) that typically
cannot be detected by scattering from the top surface. Similar
problems are encountered with SIRD, which cannot be used for
highly doped or backside-treated wafers and also does not offer
high resolution options. Photo luminescence measurements present
resolution and scan time disadvantages, although they are
effective in finding dislocation pileups, once the defects are in a
state of electrical activity.
Early stage identification by BedeScan™, on the other hand,
offers the ideal solution for these problems, as transmission
mode scans are sensitive to dislocations at any depth within
the wafer. The high speed CCD camera can be used for quick
overviews of localized damage sites; the high-resolution CCD
camera for defects that are particularly difficult to view.
Figure 8 shows a defect image of thermal slip dislocations in
transmission mode. The high oxygen content in this sample
(precipitated bulk micro defects, BMDs) introduced high stress in the
surrounding lattice, causing dislocations to form. Single dislocation
lines and curved threading ends can easily be distinguished in the
high resolution zoom-in. The wafer is slightly miscut, which is why
orthogonal dislocation lines are not exactly perpendicular.
(a) (b)
2mm
Figure 9 shows a defect image around a pin-mark in reflection
mode. Threading dislocations ending at the wafer surface are
visible, while the majority of dislocations buried in the wafer bulk
are not detected in this measurement mode.
6
Imaging of the onset of relaxation
Growth of a strained epitaxial layer beyond the critical thickness
may result in misfit dislocation nucleation and thus layer
relaxation [15]. This has several detrimental effects. The layer
strain and thus desired electron and hole mobility will not persist
throughout device processing. Also, threading dislocations in the
device region alter the device properties [14]. Thus, detection of
layer relaxation at an early stage in the process is important for
assurance that the devices will work as planned. X-ray diffraction
defect imaging technology is capable of measuring the onset of
relaxation, i.e. the existence of initial, sparse dislocations in
epitaxial wafers and patterned wafer pads.
Figure 10 shows defect images of 300mm square-sized SiGe
epilayer pads. A series of samples with decreasing layer thickness
was investigated. Transistors are expected to show inferior device
characteristics if any relaxation is present. Defect imaging can
reliably show the onset of relaxation, i.e. the existence of single
misfit dislocations, as can be seen in the pictured series.
(a) (b) (c)
0.1mm 0.1mm 0.1mm
Figure 10. Digital BedeScan™ defect images of 300 µm square-sized pads
after SiGe epilayer deposition shown in increasing order of layer thickness.
Zoom-in scan with a high-resolution CCD at a resolution of 3 µm.
Sample courtesy of Dr Wiebe de Boer, Philips Semiconductors, Fishkill, USA.
Figure 8. BedeScan™ defect image
showing slip bands and thermal slip
dislocations nucleated from BMDs.
a) Overview scan with a medium
speed CCD at a resolution of 20 µm.
b) Detailed scan with a medium
speed CCD at a resolution of 10 µm
Figure 9. BedeScan™ defect image
showing a pin mark. Detailed scan
at a resolution of 5 µm.
Sample courtesy of Dr. Frans Voogt,
Philips Semiconductor, Netherlands
BedeScan™: Innovative X-ray Diffraction Inspection Improves 300mm Yields
Automated defect recognition
BedeScan™ is capable of producing automatically generated defect recognition maps.
The number of “good” versus “bad” dies on a wafer can thus be predicted. (See Figure 11.)
Summarizing the Advantages of the
X-ray Diffraction Inspection Tool
• The BedeScan™ X-ray defect imaging technology is fully
digital and automatable. Thus, BedeScan™ for the first time
allows introduction of a well established crystallographic
defect imaging technique to the Fab environment.
• BedeScan™ non-destructively images a range of critical
crystallographic defects, which can lead to yield reduction
and wafer breakage. Alternative defect inspection methods
in use in today’s wafer fabs cannot provide this capability.
• A CCD camera of limited size can be used to image
specimen of any size in the BedeScan™ method.
• BedeScan™ allows rapid imaging of localized defects
without losing time for mapping perfect wafer areas.
• BedeScan™ provides quick low resolution scans with the option
of subsequent scans of areas of interest at high resolution.
• The digital data from BedeScan™ can be re-evaluated for
highly flexible strain sensitivity to local mis-orientations.
• BedeScan™ enables measurements in reflection, transmission
and cross section modes, at the same high resolution, limited
only by the pixel size in the camera.
• The availability of quantitative data on BedeScan™ enables
use of the tool for automated defect recognition.
• BedeScan™ is clean-room compatible, and robotic loading may
be performed. The system has significantly fewer moving parts
than a conventional camera, and it is thus more appropriate for
low contamination and for maintenance and service.
Figure 11. Defect image with
respective defect recognition
map, indicating potentially
defective dies.
Installations
In 2003, a BedeScan™ prototype instrument was delivered
to LG Siltron, Korea, a renowned high-volume silicon
manufacturing company. Through collaborative efforts,
the versatile instrument is meeting process development
requirements and is improving on the performance of previous
X-ray metrology tools for routine monitoring and identification
of wafer defects.
(Dr Don-Kun Lee, LG Siltron, Korea).
In 2005, a BedeScan™ was installed at Philips Semiconductors
Nijmegen, The Netherlands, a renowned bipolar and CMOS IC
device manufacturer. Through close cooperation between Bede
and Philips, this novel tool is being released as a replacement
for Philips' aged conventional X-ray Lang camera. The high-
speed BedeScan™ is already routinely used for inspecting
incoming substrates and for process development. In addition,
the BedeScan™ has demonstrated more than satisfying
capabilities for failure analysis.
(Dr Frans Voogt, Philips Semiconductor, Netherlands)
leading the way
in advanced semiconductor metrology
 X-ray Diffraction Imaging
References:
1. Feichtinger, P., Goorsky, M. S., Oster, D., D’Silva, T., Moreland, J., Journal of the 9. A.E. Jenkinson and A.R. Lang, Direct Observation of Imperfections in Crystals,
Electrochemical Society 148, G379 (2001). Wiley Interscience, New York, 471 (1962).
2. L.C. Kimerling and J.R. Patel, in VLSI Electronics Microstructure Science, edited 10. Authier, A., Dynamical Theory of X-ray Diffraction, Oxford University Press, 2001.
by N.G. Einspruch and H. Huff (Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, FL, 1985). 11. D.K. Bowen and B.K. Tanner, High Resolution X-ray Diffractometry and
3. K. Ismail, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 14, 2776-2778 (1996). Topography, Taylor & Francis Inc., Bristol (1998).
4. V. Kveder, T. Sekiguchi, and K. Sumino, Phys. Rev. B 51, 16721-16727 (1995). 12. Dudley, M., Huang, X.R., and Huang, W., Journal of Physics D 32 A139 (1999).

5. F.M. Ross, R. Hull, D. Bahnck, J.C. Bean, L.J. Peticolas, and C.A. King, Applied 13. P. Feichtinger, B. Poust, M. Wormington, D.K. Bowen, M.S. Goorsky, R. Sandhu,
M. Wojtowicz “Crystal Quality Determination of Wide Bandgap Materials
Physics Letters 62, 1426-1428 (1993).
using X-Ray Topography”, accepted for publication in the Proceedings of
6. D.K. Bowen, M. Wormington, P. Feichtinger, and L. Pina, “X-ray Topography the 204th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society.
Apparatus”, U. S. Patent 6,782,076 (2004).
14. S. M. Hu, Journal of Applied Physics 70, R53-R80 (1991).
7. A. R. Lang, Journal of Applied Physics 29, 597-598 (1958). 15. J. W. Matthews and A. E. Blakeslee, Journal of Crystal Growth
8. B. K. Tanner and D. K. Bowen, Materials Science Reports, 8, 369 (1992). 27, 118-125 (1974).

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Scientific Instruments Ltd in the UK and/or other countries.
BedeScan is a trademark of Bede Scientific Instruments Ltd
in the UK and/or other countries
The BedeScan technology was awarded US patent no
6,782,076 in August 2004. Patents for the same
technology are pending in China, Europe and Japan.

leading the way

in advanced semiconductor metrology