Sense and Intersensoriality

Author(s): François Delalande

Source: Leonardo, Vol. 36, No. 4 (2003), pp. 313-316
Published by: The MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1577331
Accessed: 12/11/2010 12:43

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless
you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you
may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=mitpress.

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

The MIT Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Leonardo.

http://www.jstor.org
Sense and Intersensoriality

ABSTRACT

FranfoisDelalande Intersensorialityis partof the

moregeneralproblemof
musicalmeaning:Howdoes
soundrelateto something
outsideof the worldof sound?If
we distinguish the "form"of
i i
soundfromits "matter," the
T he relationship between sound and other ditors listen to Stravinskyand have discussioncan thenbe divided
senses interests two categories of scholars: the first group from obtained convergent verbal re- intotwo parts.First,howcan
soundforms(shapes,profiles)
the fields of music and the human sciences, the second group sponses. Additional development suggest othertemporalforms,
composed of specialists in the pure sciences, notably in neu- was carried out by Michel Imberty suchas movement? Thehypoth-
rophysiology. The role of the first group, to which I belong, is [6], who took Franc&s'swork in mu- esis developedhereis that
to pose problems; that of the second group is to solve them. sical semantics further, using more sensorimotor experienceis
This division of labor suits me perfectly, for the problems in- modern statistical methods of fac- generalizedto furnisha base, in
successivelayers,for identifying
volved strike me as particularly complex. torial analysis of correspondences. suggestedmovementsthatare
Indeed, in the field of music, we often have to describe cer- Convergences of meaning that go moreandmoreabstract.
tain facts that have to do with the senses but that summon up beyond the field of pure sound can Secondly,howcan a soundbe
various forms of synesthesia, taken in a broad sense. However, be systematically observed. For ex- saidto be "hot"or "cold,""dark"
or "clear"?Metaphors concern-
I hasten to state that for me, the question of various forms of ample, Imberty's first postulate ingthe matterof sounddeal
synesthesia and intersensoriality is only a part of the more links sound to movement. This is witha commonlevelof synes-
general problem of musical meaning. This is why I find it nec- fairly close to intersensoriality. But thesia;a few stages of the
essary to situate the various fields in relationship to one an- isn't the word "movement" in the historicalstudyof thisphenome-
nonare recalledhere.
other before bringing certain points to light in a more precise responses collected by Imberty a
manner. mere metaphor? This difficulty will
be encountered time and time
again: Are we induced to describe meaning with the help of
MEANING
metaphors, for want of anything better, or are these metaphors
The problem of meaning in music has long divided theoreti- supported by some basis or other? If the latter, is this basis
cians into two opposing groups: first, as in the current case of physiological or does it appear during childhood? This is one
semiotics, those for whom meaning within the world of sound of the questions that must obviously be addressed.
relates to something outside of the world of sound-a sort of This discussion will be divided in two parts, one that deals
external referent-and, second, those who have searched for with sound "forms"and one that deals with sound "matter."
musical meaning within music itself-an internal referent. For the statement of this dichotomy, I am indebted to Pierre
The latter position was frequently defended up to the work Schaeffer, who set the concepts of form and matter in oppo-
ofJakobson, that is to say,until a relatively recent date. Jakob- sition to each other in order to describe the morphology of
son considered music "a language which signifies itself" [1]. sound elements [7]. Form describes outline, that is to say,tem-
The main supporters of this conception in the history of music poral evolution, whereas matter includes more immediate cri-
were Edouard Hanslick [2] and Leonard Meyer [3]. Hanslick's teria such as tone or texture. Qualities that pertain to form
contentions were relayed by a brilliant spokesman, Igor refer to movement and are probably based on a kinesthetic
Stravinsky,who stated, perhaps a bit peremptorily, "Iconsider type of experience. Synesthetic associations between sound
that music, in its essence, is powerless to express anything else: matter and other sensorial fields, such as sight or touch, prob-
a feeling, an attitude, a psychological state, a phenomenon in ably fall within the province of physiologists. I will nonethe-
Nature, etc." [4]. For Leonard Meyer, the existence of both less try to present the information in my possession for
types of referent was obvious. The referent that concerns in- collective analysis.
ternal organization may intervene in the pleasure of recep-
tion; it makes it possible, through interacting resonance, to
anticipate, to create an expectation that ends in a resolution THE SENSORIMOTOR BASES OF THE
capable of causing an emotion. But this is not exactly mean- REPRESENTATION OF MOVEMENT
ing. Meyer specifies that there also exists an external referent. Just as symbolism among children rests essentially on sensori-
If positions like that of Stravinskyare outdated, it is due to motor experience, as has been explained by Piaget [8], so for
the work of psychologists such as Robert Frances [5], who have the musician, and notably the performer, the symbolism of
experimented with sound reception by maliciously having au- movement is based on gestural experience. There is a con-
tinuous transition between sensorimotor experience and sym-
bolism and this may be one of the keys to the explanation of
Francois Delalande (researcher), Groupe de Recherches Musicales, Institut National de musical meaning. In music, and especially in the music of the
l'Audiovisuel, 116 avenue du President Kennedy, 75520 Paris Cedex 16, France. E-mail:
<fdelalande@ina.fr>. Web: <http://www.ina.fr/grm>. Western world, the representation of movement has been con-
Translated by Yvesand Barbara Lemeunier. sidered one of the bases of meaning. Frances points out that
Originally presented at the colloquium Intersens et Nouvelles Tecnologies (Intersenses
emotion in music is linked to sounds through the represen-
and New Technologies), 28 November-2 December 2000, at Cite de la Musique, Marseille, tation of movement. A sound form can be related to what he
France.
calls a "kinetic form of behavior,"which is itself linked to emo-

? 2003 ISAST LEONARDO, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 2003

313-316,
tional states. To give a simple example,
Frances uses this postulate to explain that
a rapid movement (allegro) is generally
more joyous than a slow movement. A
person who is depressed has lower mus-
cular tone, so to speak, compatible with
slow body movements. Consequently, a
slow form in music, associated, thanks to
another explicative link, with a certain
type of movement (a kinetic pattern of
behavior) can evoke an emotional state.
In this case, the representation of move-
ment serves as a relay.
The link between movement in sound
and motor movement remains to be es-
tablished (as I intend to do here). Of
course, meaning in music is based on
many other codes. Gino Stefani has sug-
gested a hierarchy of codes on five levels,
which go from codes that are general or
anthropological (meaning common to
all people) to those that are more spe-
cific and technical [9]. As will be the case
throughout this study, we are obviously
dealing with general codes, not with
transmitted culture. We are searching for
explanations on a general level (physio-
logical, ontogenetic, etc.) that are clearly
supra-cultural.
SENSORIMOTOR EXPERIENCE:
ACCOMMODATION AND
ASSIMILATION
A parallel can be established between the
sensorimotor experience of a small child
and that of a musician; it should proba-
bly be interpreted as a continuation of
what the musician experienced in in-
fancy. During the sensorimotor period,
there is no clear gap between act and feel-
ing; a gesture is both an impetus and a
recipient, that is to say that a child expe-
riences the world by shaking, pushing,
twisting, etc., and this kinesthetic expe-
rience is closely linked to the making of
sounds. When a child pushes a chair over
the floor, he hears the noise he is mak-
ing at the same time as he becomes aware
of resistance and of his own effort. Thus
a relationship between kinesthesia and
sound is created in the sensorimotor ex-
perience. By listening to a tape of the
sound produced, one can easily decode
it as the indication of an effort, a gesture
that pushes, scrapes and suddenly be-
comes easier. And indeed, this happens
constantly in music. When listening to a
violinist play, one can easily perceive the
bow bearing down, letting up and accel-
erating. The first meaning attached to
the sound of an instrument is the gesture
that produces it. But the gesture for an
instrument includes a whole series of lev-
els, which go as far as what I will call the
314 Delalande,Sense and Intersensoriality
"suggested" gesture. If a sound of the
same contour were produced by a syn-
thesizer, it would also suggest a move-
ment, but an imaginary movement that
could have produced such a sound.
The instrumentalist's experience is of
a sensorimotor type. The performer uses
body and gestures not only to produce
sounds but also to receive them. The per-
former perceives with the hands, mouth,
breath, ribcage and so forth. Between
production and reception, a tight imbri-
cation is established, quite comparable
to what can be observed during infancy.
For Pierre-YvesArtaud, a flutist,
Interpretation,for a musician,must go
througha distinctsensualcontactwith
his instrument.Throughthe sensations
that he experienceswhen he playsthe
flute, in the tips of his fingers,close to
his lips, and also throughthe feeling of
his breath going into the mouthpiece.
The musicalcontrolof the phrasing,and
everythingelse, goes throughthat con-
tact, that very physicalcontactwith the
instrument.The contactwiththe stream
of air thatis obtainedby the fingersis as
importantas the contactone haswiththe
lips. If I playa Boehmflute,whichrules
out any direct contact between fingers
and air,I have the impressionI'm fum-
blingin the dark,thatsomethingis miss-
ing in the sensations that I need to
achievethe propertone [10].
Thus we realize to what extent the fin-
gers, lips, and so on play a role as recep-
tors in instrumental music. This alone
justifies the use of the term "sensorimo-
tor." As Pierre-Yves Artaud has stated,
there is indeed an adjustment process; it
springs from the reception and rests on
an extremely short feedback loop. The
sensorimotor reception playsa role in the
adjustment of the gesture, primarily in
the search for tone.
It might be thought that things would
be different for a pianist. But the term
used by the pianist Jean-Claude Pen-
netier is worthy of note. Like Artaud, he
considers that he constantly "accommo-
dates" his gestures. (The word "accom-
modation" is Piaget's.) He never says:To
obtain such and such a sound, to play
such and such a passage better, I must
do thus and so. By no means. He adjusts
his gesture empirically. "Ithink that one
must listen to what one feels is the
proper gesture and progressively be-
come conscious of it so that little by lit-
tle, in short, it becomes memorized"
[ 11]. This is indeed a description of the
sensorimotor process of accommodation
and assimilation. Piaget has a phrase,
which he uses for children, that is per-
fectly fitting to describe playing an in-
strument: "The hand adapts to the shape
of the object" [12].
MEANING LINKED TO
GESTURE
We have just seen how the creative ges-
ture adjusts in sensorimotor fashion and
how we are progressively led towards the
suggested gesture. As we shall see, this
takes place in a type of continuous move-
ment and not by going through distinct
stages. The first degree on the contin-
uum is that of the meanings linked to the
producing gesture. The voice is a good
example of this. Listening to a singer, one
can actually perceive an effort overcome
by skill. The aria of the Queen of the
Night in Mozart's MagicFlutegoes up to
a high F, which is very hard to produce.
When the singer reaches it, we feel she
cannot go higher, that she must not be
asked to go up to an F sharp. However,
the Institut de Recherche et Coordi-
nation Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM)
has recently created a computerized
"singing" program, and one of its first
projects was to program the Queen of the
Night's aria. This proved to be a magnif-
icent counter-example. Naturally, the
computer synthesized the high F with
such ease that no hint of an effort can be
heard. The absence of effort makes us re-
alize that an extremely high note sung by
a singer is perceived as being fraught with
tension and even risk of failure.
GENERALIZINGASSIMILATION
We can go a step further towards the sug-
gested gesture by examining how a cer-
tain gesture made by an interpreter can
be assimilated to a more general ensem-
ble of other gestures. This is what Piaget
calls "generalizing assimilation" [13].
This pattern is extremely important be-
cause it represents one of the registers of
expression. As was evidenced in the ex-
ample of a child pushing a chair,whether
a performer plays vigorously or lightly,
the audience is perfectly capable of imag-
ining a vigorous or light touch. Insofar as
a musician is concerned, a vigorous ges-
ture will be related to all the vigorous ges-
tures he or she may make in a lifetime,
and even to vigorousness itself as a moral
category. Through the sound-producing
gesture, a much broader category is sug-
gested. This is how concepts are formed
during childhood. The Piagetian termi-
nology of generalizing assimilation is per-
fectly apt to describe what is being
produced in the case under study.A child
who caresses a stuffed toy experiences a
feeling similar to that of caressing other
soft objects. The child will then equate
these sensations, and many other similar
ones, so that the word "soft"will come to
evoke a precise experience. The word
would have no meaning if the child had tion, a relationship is established between of "lightening" is based on the sensori-
not felt and equated an aggregate of feel- fluid sonorousness and an also fluid type motor experience of lightness.
ings, thus leading to the creation of a cat- of movement of the upper body. Like-
egory of equivalence called "softness." wise, breathing, for a pianist, unlike a
TEMPORAL SEMIOTIC UNITS
Through a comparable mechanism of woodwind player, obviously plays no role
generalizing assimilation, feelings can be- in the production of sound. However, on The representations of movement can
come more inclusive and softness can a certain level, pianists are conscious of thus be studied irrespective of all real ges-
refer to affective relationships or intona- the fact that they must fully control their tural or physical origins. The MIM team
tions of the voice. The concept of "soft- breathing. The pianistJean-Claude Pen- (with which I was associated for that
ness" gradually expands. netier has stated, study) tried to do so by making an in-
This is exactly what happens in music. ventory of the type of sonorous figures
There's one thing that obsesses me,
I hear the gesture of a pianist who plays whichis breathing.To playsuch or such named Temporal Semiotic Units [17].
lightly or strikes the keys with force; I sur- a piece,I knowhowI'mgoing to breathe. First the team observed that the repre-
mise what the gesture is because, through- For certain attacks, I like to breathe sentation of movement can be dissoci-
out the whole of my sensorimotor deeply,whereasfor others,mylungsbe- ated from a precise trajectory. Thus, a
come emptyas I breathe out, and that "fall"is characterized morphologically by
education, I have been able to translate a
correspondsto certainsounds,to a cer-
sound into a gesture. Moreover,these ges- tain expressivevolition. a steady acceleration of any one param-
tures can be extended to much more in- eter after a period of stability,but it is pos-
clusive categories. Pianist Glenn Gould And if I suggest, "Do you really think sible, by simulation, to produce falls that
progressively reduced the range of ges- it's expressive? Or isn't it simply linked rise, or that neither rise nor fall (e.g. an
tures he used to a certain number of types to a force? Is the contraction . .. ?" "Not acceleration of the frequency of itera-
corresponding to what musical terminol- at all, it's expressive!" replies Pennetier. tion). For example, in the Temporal
ogy would call "expressive traits" [14]. A certain type of breathing seems to be Semiotic Unit called "inexorable trajec-
What is meant by an expressive trait? linked to a certain expressive content. tory," in spite of its name, the idea of a
Merely a type of productive gesture that "Takea very short breath, fill your lungs trajectory is not the major element (as
has become generalized. When Glenn half full, like a plant in water which opens simulations have shown, it can either rise,
Gould struck the keyboard either vigor- and closes very gently,"is the advice Pen- fall or do neither), but rather the feeling
ously or lightly, the sound produced was netier gives to one of his pupils. In this of the inexorable, which can be para-
not the only indicator-in addition, body instance, the piece to be played is phrased by the expression "that never
position, facial expression-including Chopin's Second Ballade, which is, ac- stops ... "-whatever action it is applied
movements of the eyebrows-expressed cording to Pennetier, very delicate, a sort to. This is why we chose the term Tem-
vigor or lightness. In a "vigorous"body of inner paradise. "Youfeel more at ease poral Semiotic Units (rather than "rep-
position, his shoulders would contract physically to play that piece and that in- resentation of movement" or "dynamic
and his head pull in. A contraction of the fluences your imagination. What is imag- figures"), to stress the fact that we have
whole upper body could be observed. On ined modifies our breathing, but I think departed from particular dynamics in
the other hand, to play light, successive that the opposite movement also exists, order to describe an experiment in tem-
notes, Gould's head would no longer be that if you modify your breathing, you porality in the broadest sense possible.
drawn back into his shoulders, and he can modify your own mental image." This exploration had no other ambi-
adopted another typical posture, leaning Thus it appears that part of an inter- tion than to stress the fact that the mean-
over the keyboard, and wrinkling his preter's motivity is not directly functional ings of movement related to sound
forehead. Thus his whole body was in- but plays a role through the intermedi- shapes-even if they are based on the
volved. ary of an image. sensorimotor experience of early child-
hood and prolonged by the experience
of the instrumentalist-actually comprise
THE ACCOMPANYING THE SUGGESTED GESTURE combined series of meanings. Those
GESTURE The last stage towards abstraction is what meanings range continuously from the
This leads us to yet another level of in- we have called the suggested gesture, or simple representation of a sound-
terpretation, which can be called the ac- movement, the sound that "soars"and producing gesture to a generalization of
companying gesture. The important becomes "lighter."We have alreadynoted experiences in temporality separate from
question is: What is the purpose of these that it can be obtained by a stroking all causal connection.
gestures, which seem useless? Let us movement that in actual fact becomes
watch Glenn Gould playing a very lighter, but also by a synthesizer, in which
smooth legato; he tends to move his case the reference to a suggested gesture "SOUND" AND SYNESTHESIA
upper body, either swaying from side to is then the product of an illusion. Jean- I will deal more rapidlywith the questions
side or rocking back and forth. There is Pierre Drouet, a percussionist, explains about the "matter"of sound-in opposi-
a range of movements that obviously are that now and then the "lightening" is ob- tion to its form-and with the metaphors
not used to produce sound. How can tained by pressure. This is the case for a associated with it, probably linked to var-
they be interpreted? Using our analyses hand-played percussion instrument with ious forms of synesthesia, simply because
and cross-checking with Gould's remarks a membrane, like the zarb. "Whatis pe- this subject, which is also standard in
[15], we can see that gestural coherence culiar is that sometimes, to give an im- music, is less well described.
has to do with expression. To create flu- pression of lightness, I have paradoxically Rather than the word "matter,"bor-
idity, thanks to a sustained legato (no- to strike harder" [16]. In this case we rowed from Schaeffer (and which already
tably in the left hand), he tends to make note that the performing gesture and the calls to mind intersensoriality), I will use
the type of movement described above. suggested movement are completely dis- the word "sound,"in the sense currently
That is to say in the imaginary concep- sociated, even if genetically the meaning generally accepted in all musical genres.

Delalande,Sense and Intersensoriality 315

 "Matter," "tone," "sonorousness" and
"sound" are near synonyms; they desig-
nate qualities that come to mind imme-
diately, independently of evolution and
development. Most of those who produce
music-performers, conductors, techni-
cians, radio programmers-speak of
"sound" in this sense, whatever musical
universe they belong to [18]. Listeners
most often qualify the word "sound" by
using metaphors of synesthetic order. It
is in this field that we can best study synes-
thesia in music. For example: the first
movement of "Winter" in The Four
Seasons,by Vivaldi, played by the ensem-
ble II Giardino Armonico. It is "program
music" illustrating a text. The text de-
voted to "Winter"is concerned with cold
and ice; how can one render cold and ice
through music and, more precisely,
through "sound"?Vivaldi found his so-
lution and his interpreters theirs. Why is
it that a given sound seems colder than
another? Is the sound obtained by play-
ing alponticello-very close to the bridge,
and therefore a bit rasping-a cold
sound? In what conditions is it cold? It is
clear that there must be cold and warm
sounds,just as we speak of light and dark
tones. We constantly use synesthetic
metaphors to describe "sound,"and this
is the very field that we are exploring.
There is a history of synesthesia in psy-
chology. At the end of the 19th and be-
ginning of the 20th century, there was an
interest in pathological cases, notably in
"color-hearing."This phenomenon is of
no particular interest to us, even if it
sometimes helps us understand more
general mechanisms. Research has gone
beyond this stage and, from the Gestalt
school on, has tried to examine forms of
synesthesiain a more general way.Werner
[19], for example, was led to formulate
hypotheses of a physiological nature to
explain associations between colors and
sounds. Merleau-Ponty also stated,
These are not exceptional phenomena.
Synesthetic perception is the rule, and
if we do not perceive it, it is because sci-
entific knowledge displaces the experi-
ence.... we have forgotten how to see,
to hear and, in general, to feel, and we
infer that the organization of our bodies
and the world as the physicist perceives
it is what we ought to see, hear and feel
[20].
Thus, perception seems to be guided
by knowledge, but on a certain level,
there must exist what Werner calls a
"synesthetic layer" [21], which is more
general than the differentiation made
through the channels of the senses.
There are thus strong, exceptional
cases of synesthesia and weak, ordinary
316 Delalande,Sense and Intersensoriality
forms, experienced by all of us, which
crop up in metaphorical language. But a
lack of metaphor does not mean that
there is no synesthesia. Surely an expla-
nation must be given for metaphoric con-
vergences. If I ask a group of subjects to
classify a set of tones from light to dark,
their answerswill be quite similar.On the
other hand, it is not at all apparent that
people listening to music will want to clas-
sify tones on such a scale.
When we listen to music, we constantly
use metaphors, putting sounds in rela-
tionship to non-sonorous elements,
which our other senses can normally per-
ceive, but not necessarily in the same way.
One listener will be awareof a scale going
from light to dark, another will notice a
near and far relationship, and yet an-
other will distinguish rising and falling.
The result will be diverging forms of
metaphorization, linked to different
methods of listening. However, if a lis-
tener is given precise directions that
focus the semantic field on a particular
dimension, such as high/low or shrill/
deep, sufficient convergence can be ob-
served so as to construct scales delineated
by such correspondences. Schaeffer did
this in speaking of rough and smooth
sounds [22]. It is not necessary to classify
sounds on a rough/smooth axis, but if it
is done, the same sounds will be rough
or smooth for all listeners. We thus ap-
proach an area that undeniably possesses
a certain generality.
Gino Stefani [23], an Italian semioti-
cian, has tried to link the dimensions of
music to a common musical experience,
that is, to the way that music is received.
He calls this experience "sound record-
ing." Stefani's play on words underlines
the fact that the listener appropriates
sound and music and that there are dif-
ferent ways of doing so. Motor experi-
ence corresponds to rhythm; the
experience of what is "singable" corre-
sponds to melody. As for "sound,"in the
modern meaning mentioned above, Ste-
fani's contention is that it belongs typi-
cally to the register of synesthesia:
Soundestesia is a global recording of a
musical object-event;but it is also another
way of being seized by sound, by music
which takes hold of us "inall senses," that
is, synesthetically.We can thus say ... that
sound is what creates synesthesiain music
or, symmetrically, that it is a synesthetic
appropriation of music [24].
We can thus find forms and contours
that are probably of a kinesthetic na-
ture-whether melodic or rhythmical-
and "sound"-that is, an instantaneous
dimension that may more correctly be
linked to a classical conception of synes-
thesia.
References
1. Roman Jakobson, Essais de linguistiquegeneraleII
(Paris: Minuit, 1973) p. 99.
2. Edouard Hanslick, Du Beau dans la musique(Paris:
Christian Bourgois, 1986; originally published 1854).
3. Leonard B. Meyer, Emotionand Meaning in Music
(Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1956).
4. Igor Stravinsky,Chroniques
de mavie (Paris:Denoel,
1962) p. 63.
5. Robert Frances, La Perceptionde la Musique(Paris:
Vrin, 1958).
6. Michel Imberty,Entendrela Musique(Paris:Dunod,
1979) and LesEcritures
du Temps(Paris:Dunod, 1981).
7. Pierre Schaeffer, Traitedes objetsmusicaux (Paris:
Seuil, 1966).
8. Jean Piaget, La Formationdu symbolechezl'enfant
(Neuchatel-Paris: Delacchaux et Niestle, 1945).
9. Gino Stefani, La Competenzamusicale (Bologna,
Italy:CLUEB, 1982).
10. The quotations by the instrumentalists Pierre-
YvesArtaud,Jean-Claude Pennetier andJean-Pierre
Drouet are part of an inquiry prepared for a radio
series entitled "Musicand the Hand" on France Cul-
ture, 1980. For more complete excerpts, see Francois
Delalande, "Il gesto musicale, dal sensomotorio al
simbolico; aspetti ontogenetici," in F. Delalande, Le
condottemusicali(Bologna, Italy: CLUEB, 1993).
11. See Ref. [10].
12. Jean Piaget, La Naissancede l'intelligencechezl'en-
fant (Neuchatel, Switzerland, and Paris: Delachaux
et Niestle, 1977) p. 93.
13.Jean Piaget [12] p. 164.
14. Francois Delalande, "Lagestique de Gould; 616ele-
ments pour une s6miologie du geste musical," in G.
Guertin, ed., Glenn Gouldpluriel (Montreal: Louise
Courteau 6ditrice, 1988).
15. Delalande [14].
16. See Ref. [10].
17. Laboratoire Musique et Informatique de Mar-
seille, Les Unites semiotiquestemporelles(Marseille,
France: MIM, 1996).
18. Francois Delalande, LeSon desmusiques,entretech-
nologieet esthetique(Paris:Ina/Buchet-Chastel, 2001).
19. H. Werner, "L'unite de sens,"Journal depsycholo-
gie normale et pathologique31 (1934) pp. 190-205.
20. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenologie
de la per-
ception(Paris: Gallimard, 1971).
21. Werner [19] p. 200.
22. Schaeffer [7].
23. Gino Stefani, Musica: dall'esperienzaalla teoria
(Milan, Italy:Ricordi, 1998).
24. Stefani [23] p. 50.
FranfoisDelalandeis researchdirectorof the
Musical ReseachGroupat the Institut Na-
tionalde1'Audiovisuel in Paris.He leadswork
in twofields of music sciences:(1) electro-
acousticmusicanalysisand beyond:theoryof
analysis,musicreceptionand musicalbehav-
ior; and (2) ontogenesisof musical behavior
and its applicationto musicpedagogy.