UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION

IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF HYDROLOGY

ENGR. JOSE CONDONAR JR.

CE 443 – 02656

GR. 2 REPORT COMPILATION

ALCEBAR, RAISAN CERO, JOVEL

BALDAD, LEA ANGELICA JEVERO, MARY ANN JOY

BOLENCES, DASHIEL OSIGAN, ELITE

BUCAG, HANSEL RIVAL, RONNEL

CADENAS, JAISON CLARO SALON, BRYLE JADE

CAGUNDA, YVONNE TILLO, MARY CAMILLE

July 1, 2019
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Water Balance Method ------------------------------------------------- Cero, Jovel

Mass Transfer Method ------------------------------------------------- Bucag, Hansel

Empirical Method and Direct Measurement ---------------------- Cadenas, Jaison C.

Transpiration and Evapotranspiration ---------------------------- Osigan, Elite

Depression Storage ------------------------------------------------------ Bolences, Dashiel

Subsurface and Subsurface Runoff Phenomenon --------------- Salon, Bryle Jade

Rainfall-Runoff Processes: Mechanism and Cycle --------------- Tillo, Mary Camille

Stage-Discharge Relationships --------------------------------------- Jevero, Mary Ann Joy

Flood Prediction ------------------------------------------------------------ Baldad, Lea Angelica

Surface and Subsurface Runoff Phenomenon: ------------------- Cagunda, Yvonne

Graph Analysis

Unit Hydrograph ------------------------------------------------------------ Alcebar, Raisan

Synthetic Unit Hydrograph ------------------------------------------------ Rival, Ronnel

 Acknowledgement

The success and final outcome of this written report required a lot of guidance and assistance.
We were extremely privileged to have the people who helped us in the process of completing this
written report. These people contributed a lot to our written report, we would not be able to
complete this without their aid and we are extremely thankful.

First and foremost, we would like to thank our God Almighty for blessing us with good health,
knowledge, and wisdom that we needed for this subject.

We would like to thank our families, especially our parents, who never stopped showing their
support for us and provided us with everything we needed.

Lastly, we would like to thank our professor, Engr. Jose Condonar Jr., for guiding us throughout
this subject. He taught us the lessons we needed for this subject and also responsibility, which is
one thing he has always enforced to his students. We are grateful to have you as our professor.
 WATER BALANCE METHOD AND ENERGY BALANCE
METHOD
By: Jovel D. Cero

 In the natural environment, water is almost constantly in motion and is able to

change state from liquid to a solid or a vapor under appropriate conditions.
Conservation of mass requires that, within a specific area over a specific
period of time, water inflows are equal to water outflows, plus or minus any
change of storage within the area of interest. Put more simply, the water
entering an area has to leave the area or be stored within the area.
IN – OUT = CHANGE IN STORAGE
 A water balance can be established for any area of earth's surface by
calculating the total precipitation input and the total of various outputs.
 The water-balance approach allows an examination of the hydrologic cycle for
any period of time.
 The purpose of the water balance is to describe the various ways in which the
water supply is expended.
 The water balance is a method by which we can account for the hydrologic
cycle of a specific area, with emphasis on plants and soil moisture

Uses of Water Balance Method

Water balance is the base of management and policy making in some critical
matters related to water resources management such as design of water supply
systems, flood estimation, water allocation and use, management of stormwater
and wastewater in urban areas, aquatic ecosystems management, water trading
and virtual water.

Example Problem: A swimming pool having dimensions 20x20x5 ft. has a leak
in its wall where 11.5 inches of water seeped out. If the change in storage is -
8.0 in., and precipitation is 7.0 in, Calculate the volume of its evaporation for a
certain time interval.

Solution:

IN – OUT = ΔS

P – (E+L) = ΔS

7.0 – (E+11.5) = -8.0

E = 3.5 in (1 ft/12 in) = 0.292 ft

VE = 20×20×0.292 = 116.8 cu.ft Ans.

ENERGY BALANCE METHOD

• The potential evaporation by the Energy Balance method is given by the

equation:

Rn Rn
Er = =
ρw lv L

Where:

Er = evaporation rate

Rn = irradiation (the radiant flux received by a surface per unit area)

𝜌w = density of water

lv = latent heat (the amount of energy needed to cause a phase change)

L = latent heat factor given in Table 1 (product of water density and latent heat)

In the energy balance method, only the transfer of heat as sensible heat flux is
considered, and evapotranspiration (latent heat flux) is calculated as the residual term
in the general energy balance equation.

Example Problem: On the 24TH of January, 2013, in the Upper Brushy Creek
Watershed, the net radiation averaged over the day from the National Land Data
Assimilation System, is 52 W/m^2. The average air temperature through the day is 15
degree Celsius. Compute the corresponding potential evaporation rate using the
energy balance method.

Solution:

E = Rn/L

E = 52/28.91*

E = 1.8 mm/day Ans.

*L=28.91 is obtained from Latent Heat Factor Table corresponding to 15 deg. Celsius
in any textbook.

MASS TRANSFER METHOD

By: Bucag, Hansel

 Also known as “Turbulent Diffusion Method”.

  Method for estimating the actual evaporation from a body of water, assuming it
is proportional to the product of wind velocity (perhaps raised to a power less
than one), the difference between the saturation vapor pressure at water surface
temperature and the vapor pressure of the ambient air, and an empirical mass-
transfer coefficient.

 In astrophysics, mass transfer is the process by which matter gravitationally

bound to a body, usually a star, fills its Roche lobe and becomes gravitationally
bound to a second body, usually a compact object (white dwarf, neutron star or
black hole), and is eventually accreted onto it. It is a common phenomenon in
binary systems, and may play an important role in some types of supernovae
and pulsars.

 Based on theories of turbulent mass transfer in boundary layer to calculate the

mass water vapour transfer from the surface to the surrounding atmosphere.

Important Mass Transfer Concepts

3 Number of Stages

 Based on the overall efficiency, we have

certain relation between ideal and actual
stages.
 Ideal stages can be calculated
graphically using the method shown in
the figure.
 For packed column, we don’t have stages.
But we have a concept known as number of transfer units.

PENMAN EQUATION

 The penman formula is a semi-empirical equation combining mass

transfer (Ea) and energy budget (H) methods. The formula was
developed by Penman in 1948 and is still widely used for calculating
the potential evaporation using synoptic meteorological data.

 Describes evaporation (PET) from an open water surface, and was

developed by Howard Penman in 1948.

 Based on sound theoretical reasoning and is obtained by a

combination of the energy-balance and mass transfer approach.
 AH𝑛+ 𝐸𝑎γ
PET = A+γ

where:

PET - daily potential evapotranspiration (mm/day)

A – slope of the saturation vapour pressure vs temperature curve at the

mean air temperature (mmHg per ⁰C Table 3.3)

H𝑛 – net radiation ( mm of evaporable water per day)

𝐸𝑎 – parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit

γ - psychrometric constant = 0.49 mmHg/ ⁰C

The net radiation is the as used in the energy budget (Eq.(3.8)) and is
estimated by the following equation.

Where:

Ha = incident solar radiation outside the atmosphere on a horizontal

surface expressed in mm of evaporable water per day (it is a function of the
latitude and period of the year as indicated in Table 3.4)

a = a constant depending upon the latitude Ф and is given by

a= 0.29cos Ф
b= a constant with an average value of 0.52
n = actual duration of bright sunshine in hours
N = maximum possible hours of bright sunshine (it is a function of latitude
as indicated in Table 3.5)
 r = reflection coefficient (albedo). Usual ranges of values of I r are given
below

σ= Stefan- Boltzman constant 2.01 x 10-9 mm/day

Ta = mean air temperature in degrees kelvin= 273 + C

ea = actual mean vapour pressure in the air in mm of mercury

The parameter Ea is estimated as where:

u2 = mean wind speed at 2 m above ground (km/day)

ew = saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature (mm Hg) Table3.3

ea = actual vapour pressure

Example:

Calculate the potential evapotranspiration from an area near New Delhi in the
month of November by Penman’s formula. The following data are available

Latitude : 28˚4’N

Elevation : 230 m (above sea level)

Mean monthly temp = 19⁰C H : (Table 3.4)
Calculator : a
( Table 3.3)
Latitude = 28˚4’N
e Mode + 3 + 2 +
w

By Interpolation: Nov.
20˚ 11.2
17.5 ⁰C 15 mmHg 30˚ 9.1
20 ⁰C 17.54 mmHg
X Y Ha = 9.506 mm of water/day
ew(19 ⁰C) = 16.524 mmHg 17.5 15
20 17.54 Mean observed sunshine hours = 9
h
A:
17.5 ⁰C 0.95 mm/⁰C (Table 3.5)
20 ⁰C 1.05 mm/⁰C 20˚ 11.2
30˚ 10.6
+ AC + Shift 1 +
A(19 ⁰C ) = 1.01 mm/⁰C 5+5 𝑛 9
N =10.716 h ; 𝑁
= 10.716

𝑛
= 0.840
𝑁

19ŷ = 16.524

RH = 75% ; RH = 𝑒 𝑎
𝑒 Ta = ⁰C + 273
𝑤
= 19 + 273
ea = 16.524(.75) Ta = 292 K
ea = 12.40 mm Hg
4 -9 4
σ(Ta) = 2.01x10 (292)
4
a = constant dependent upon the latitude σ(Ta) = 14.613
a = 0.29 cosø
= 0.29 cos(28˚4’) Nature of surface area:
a = 0.256 close-ground green crop
r = 0.25

b = constant w/ an average value of 0.52

2 𝑢
b = 0.52 Ea = 0.35 (1 + 166 ) (ew – ea)

85
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant = 0.35 (1 + 160) (16.524 - 12.40)
-9
= 2.01x10 mm/day Ea = 2.210 mm/day
-9
σ = 2.01x10 mm/day
 𝑛 4 𝑛
Hn = Ha(1 – r) (a + b ) – σ(Ta) (0.56 – 0.092√𝑒𝑎) (0.10 + 0.90 )
𝑁 𝑁
= 9.506(1 – 0.25) (0.256 + 0.52(0.840)) – 14.613(0.56 – 0.092√12.40)
(0.10 + 0.90(0.840))
= 4.9393176 – 2.952492232

Hn = 1.987 mm of water/day

AH𝑛 + 𝐸𝑎γ (1.01 x 1.987) + (2.210 x 0.49)

PET = =
A+γ (1.01+ 0.49)

PET = 2.06 mm/day

EMPIRICAL METHOD AND DIRECT MEASUREMENT

By: Cadenas, Jaison Claro

Estimation / Measurement of Evaporation

This is done by the following methods

• Using evaporimeters
• Using empirical equations
• By analytical methods

Evaporimeter
These are pans containing water which are exposed to the atmosphere. Loss of
water by evaporation from these pans are measured at regular intervals (daily).
Meteorological data such as humidity, wind velocity, air and water temperatures, and
precipitation are also measured and noted along with evaporation.
 USGS Class A Evaporation Pan

Measuring Evapotranspiration

The Typical way of measuring evaporatoin

is via the Class A evaporation pan. The pan
is filled with water to a specified line at the
beginning of the observation day. At the
end, it is refilled to the same line. The
amount of water poured in represents the
evaporation.

EMPIRICAL EQUATION

Most of the available empirical equations for estimating lake evaporation are a
Dalton Type of equation of the general form

𝑬𝑳 = K f (u) (𝒆𝒘 -𝒆𝒂 )

where:
𝑬𝑳 = lake evaporation (mm / day)

𝒆𝒘 = saturation vapour pressure at the water surface temperature (mm of mercury)

𝒆𝒂 = actual vapour pressure of the overlying air at a specified height (mm of

mercury)

f (u) = wind speed correction function

K= coefficient

𝒆𝒂 = is measured at the same height at which wind speed (u) is measured

Meyer’s Formula
𝒖𝟗
𝑬𝑳 = 𝒌𝑴 (𝒆𝒘 -𝒆𝒂 ) (1 + )
𝟏𝟔

where:

𝑬𝑳 = lake evaporation (mm / day)

𝒆𝒘 = saturation vapour pressure at the surface temperature (mm of mercury)

𝒆𝒂 = actual vapour pressure of the overlying air at a specified height (mm of mercury)

𝒖𝟗 = monthly mean wind velocity (Km ph) at height of 9m above the ground

𝒌𝑴 = coefficient accounting for other factors (0.36 for large deep waters and 0.50 for small
shallow lakes)

Wind Velocity
In the lower part of the atmosphere, up to a height of about 500m above the
ground level, wind velocity follows the one-seventh power law as

𝑢ℎ = C h^1/7

𝑢ℎ = wind velocity (in kmph) at a height h (in m) above ground level

C = constant

Analytical Methods of Evaporation Estimation

The analytical methods for the determination of Lake evaporation can be broadly
classified into three categories as:

1. Water - budget method.

2. Energy – balance method, and
 3. Mass – transfer method

EMPIRICAL EXAMPLE::

A reservoir with a surface area of 250 hectares had the following average values of
parameters during a week : water temperature = 20 degree celsius, relative humidity =
40 % wind velocity at 1.0 m above ground = 16 km/h. Estimate the average daily
evaporation from the lake and volume of water evaporated from the lake during that
one week.

Solution:

𝑒𝑤 = 17.54 mm of Hg

𝑒𝑎 = 0.40 x 17.54 = 7.02 mm of Hg

𝑈9 = wind velocity at a height of 9.0 m above ground

𝑢1 = 16 km/h 𝑢9 = ?

uh = C (h) ^1/7

uh = C (1) ^1/7 = 16 km/h

𝑢9 / 𝑢1 = ( ( 9 )^1/7) / C ( (1)^1/7 )

𝑢9 = 𝑢1 (9) ^1/7

= 16 (9) ^1/7

= 21.9km/h

By Meyer’s formula
E = 0.36 ( 17.54 – 7.02 ) ( 1 + 21.9 / 16 )

= 8.97 mm/day

Evaporated volume in 7 days

= 7 x 8.97 / 1000 x 250 x 10000

= 157,000 𝑚3
 TRANSPIRATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

By: Osigan, Elite

Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the aerial parts (roots, leaves, and
stem) of a plant.

Types of Transpirations:

1. Stomatal Transpiration

It is the loss of water through specialized pores in the leaves. It accounts for around
80 to 90% of the total water loss from the plants. As the name suggests, the process
involves the participation of the stomata.

Stomata are tiny openings or pores in plant tissue that allow for gas exchange.

2. Cuticular Transpiration

This type of transpiration is responsible for the loss of water in plants via the cuticle.
Cuticle is an impermeable covering present on the leaves and stem. It causes only
around 20% transpiration in plants. It is further reduced due to a thicker cuticle in
xerophytes.

3. Lenticular Transpiration

This type of transpiration occurs at a plant’s lenticels. Lenticels are the tiny openings
present on the woody bark through which transpiration occurs.

Factors affecting Transpiration:

Relative Humidity

It is the amount of water vapor in the air compared to the amount of water vapor that
air could hold at a given temperature.

Temperature

It greatly influences the magnitude of the driving force for water movement out of a
plant rather than having a direct effect on stomata.

Soil Water

The source of water for transpiration out of the plant comes from the soil. Plants with
adequate soil moisture will normally transpire at high rates because the soil provides
the water to move through the plant.

Light

Stomata are triggered to open in the light so that carbon dioxide is available for the
light-dependent process of photosynthesis.

Wind

Wind can alter rates of transpiration by removing the boundary layer, that still layer of
water vapor hugging the surface of leaves.

Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation from the land surface plus

transpiration from plants.
Water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and
other surfaces and by transpiration from plants.

Factors affecting Evapotranspiration:

Energy availability

The more energy available, the greater the rate of evapotranspiration. It takes about
600 calories of heat energy to change 1 gram of liquid water into a gas

Humidity gradient away from the surface

The rate and quantity of water vapor entering into the atmosphere both become higher
in drier air

Water availability

Evapotranspiration cannot occur if water is not available

DEPRESSION STORAGE

By: Bolences, Dashiel

WHAT IS DEPRESSION STORAGE?

 Water retained in puddles, ditches, and other depressions in the surface of the
ground.

 The quantity of storm water that is lost as a result of minor surface depressions
in the ground.

 When water temporarily accumulates in a low point with no possibility for

escape as runoff

 The volume, in inches (mm), that must be filled prior to the occurrence of run
off.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

VOLUME OF WATER STORED

The volume of water in depression storage at any time during a precipitation

event can be approximated as:

V is the volume of water in depression storage.

Sd is the maximum storage capacity of the depression.
Pe is the rainfall excess
K is a constant equal to 1/Sd.

Rainfall hyetograph

A graphical representation of the distribution of rainfall intensity over time.

IMPERVIOUS DEPRESSION STORAGE

Water stored as depression storage on impervious areas is depleted by evaporation. A

relationship for depression storage versus catchment slope has been developed as
follows (Kidd, 1978).

Dp = 0.0303S-0.49 ( correlation coefficient 0.85)

where,
Dp = Depression storage , inch.
S = Catchment slope, percent.

If the soil surface has a low infiltration capacity and low hydraulic
conductivity, and if the topography allows for surface storage, then water may be
stored at the surface in small pools or depressions. These water-filled depressions,
called vernal pools, are often seasonal features
that form because of perched water tables.

PERVIOUS DEPRESSION STORAGE

Water stored as depression storage is subject to both infiltration and

evaporation.

This parameter is best represented as an interception loss, based on the type of

surface vegetation. For grassed urban surfaces, a value of 0.10 in. (2.5 mm) is typical.
IMPORTANCE OF DEPRESSION STORAGE

 Depression storage may be treated as a calibration parameter, particularly to

adjust runoff volumes.

 Depression storage is a type of hydrologic abstraction on the modeling of

precipitation-runoff relationship

 Depression storage may be of considerable magnitude and may play an

important role in hydrologic analysis and flood control.

FACTORS AFFECTING DEPRESSION STORAGE

The factors that affects the depression storage are: landform, soil
characteristics, topography, rain fall index and land use.

Example:

A small, 2-ha, mostly impervious urban catchment has an average slope of 1.5% and
the following average Horton infiltration parameter: f0 = 4mm/hr, fc = 1mm/hr k =
2.2hr-1 (infiltration occurs through cracks in the paving).Determine the depression
storage using Figure 2.
Solution,

Find the depression storage (dp) using the formula:

Dp= 0.0303 X S-0.49

Here, S is average slope.

Substitute 1.5% For S.

Dp= 0.0303x1.5-0.49

=0.02484 in

=0.630945 mm

Thus, the depression storage is

0.630945 mm

Using the precipitation input of Figure 5.2 of your text, estimate the volume of
depression storage for a 3.0-acre paved drainage area. State the volume in ft 3 and m
3. Convert it to an equivalent depth over the area in inches and centimeters.

Figure 5.2. Simple depression storage abstraction scheme.

Number 2 solution,

Using a basis of1.0 minutes (based on the representation of Figure 5.2)

Using Figure 5.2, estimate the initial depression storage abstraction:

V=(0.5 1.75) ft3/sec-acre

=2.25 ft3/sec-acre

The time scale on Figure 5.2 is in minutes; thus:

2.25 𝑓𝑡𝟹 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
V=(𝑠𝑒𝑐−𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒)( ) = 135.0 ft3/min-acre
𝑚𝑖𝑛

We are given the paved drainage area 3.0 acres so:

135.0 𝑓𝑡3
V=( )(3.0 acre) = 405.0 ft3
𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒

12 𝑖𝑛 3 2.54 𝑐𝑚 3 1.0 𝐿 1.0 𝑚3

=(405.0ft3)( ) ( 𝑖𝑛 ) (1000 𝑐𝑚3)( 1000 )
𝑓𝑡

=(405.0)(1728)(16.3871)(10-6)m3

=11.468 m3

Determine the volume – use a basis of 1.0 acre:

2.25 𝑓𝑡3 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
V=(𝑠𝑒𝑐−𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒)( )(1 min)( 1.0 acre) = 135.0 ft3
𝑚𝑖𝑛

Recall: 1.0 acre = 43,560 ft2

Thus:
𝑉 135.0 𝑓𝑡3 12 𝑖𝑛
d= 𝐴 = 43,560 𝑓𝑡2 = 3.099 x 10-3 ft ( )
𝑓𝑡

2.54 𝑐𝑚
= 0.0372 in x ( )
𝑖𝑛

= 0.0945 cm

SUBSURFACE AND SUBSURFACE RUNOFF PHENOMENON

By: Salon, Bryle Jade

WHAT IS RUNOFF?

The portion of rainfall, snowmelt, and/or irrigation water that runs over the soil
surface toward the stream rather than infiltrating into the soil- sometimes called
surface runoff.
“Runoff” is sometimes used to refer to both surface runoff (overland flow) and
subsurface runoff (inflow).

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO?

Surface runoff is water from rain, snow melting, or other sources that flows over the
land surface, and is a major component of the water cycle.

There are two types of surface runoff that occur during rainfall or snowmelt.

Types of surface runoff

Interflow, also known as subsurface runoff is relatively rapid flow toward the stream
channel that occurs below the surface. It occurs more rapidly than baseflow, but
typically more slowly than surface runoff.

GENERAL RUNOFF TERMS

PERCOLATION

- actually refers to movement of water within soil, and infiltration specifically

refers just to the process of water entering a soil surface.

INFILTRATION CAPACITY

- is the upper limit of infiltration rate. It includes surface infiltration and

percolation and is expressed in depth per time; for example, 15 millimeters per hour

GENERAL RUNOFF TERMS

- if precipitation rate is less than or equal to infiltration capacity, no surface

runoff occurs.

INFILTRATION RATE

- is the amount of water able to enter the soil in a specified time period. It is
expressed as depth per time; for example, 10 millimeters per hour.

THE FOLLOWING INFLUENCES RUNOFF:

BASIC SLOPE

ROUGHNESS

URBANIZATION
 STREAM DENSITy

SOIL PROPERTIES

SOIL TEXTURE CALSSIFICATION

SOIL COMPOSITION

SOIL PROFILE

SURFACE PROPERTIES

Rainfall-Runoff Processes: Mechanism and cycle

By: Tillo, Mary Camille

Surface Runoff and Subsurface Runoff:

Surface Runoff or also known as overland flow, is the flow of water that occurs when
excess stormwater, meltwater, or other sources flows over the Earth's surface. This
might occur because soil is saturated to full capacity, because rain arrives more
quickly than soil can absorb it, or because impervious areas (roofs and pavement)
send their runoff to surrounding soil that cannot absorb all of it. Subsurface Runoff is
the water that infiltrates in the vadose zone (unsaturated zone), from rain, snowmelt,
or other sources, and moves laterally towards the streams.

Rainfall-Runoff processes:

• When rain falls, the first drops of water are intercepted by the leaves and
stems of the vegetation. This is usually referred to as interception storage.

• As the rain continues, water reaching the ground surface infiltrates into the
soil until it reaches a stage where the rate of rainfall (intensity) exceeds the
infiltration capacity of the soil. Thereafter, surface puddles, ditches, and other
depressions are filled (depression storage), after which runoff is generated.

• The infiltration capacity of the soil depends on its texture and structure, as
well as on the antecedent soil moisture content (previous rainfall or dry
season). The initial capacity (of a dry soil) is high but, as the storm continues,
it decreases.
In this figure, it depicts a cross section through a hillslope that exposes in more detail
the pathways infiltrated water may follow. Infiltrated water may flow through the
matrix of the soil in the inter-granular pores and small structural voids. Infiltrated
water may also flow through larger voids referred to as macropores. Macropores
include pipes that are open passageways in the soil caused by decaying roots and
burrowing animals. Macropores also include larger structural voids within the soil
matrix that serve as preferential pathways for subsurface flow. The permeability of
the soil matrix may differ between soil horizons and this may lead to the build up of a
saturated wedge above a soil horizon interface. Water in these saturated wedges may
flow laterally through the soil matrix, or enter macropores and be carried rapidly to
the stream as subsurface stormflow in the form of interflow.

MECHANISM:

In the Figure below, the infiltration excess overland flow mechanism is illustrated.
There is a maximum limiting rate at which a soil in a given condition can absorb
surface water input.
• This was referred to by Robert E. Horton (1933), one of the founding fathers
of quantitative hydrology, as the infiltration capacity of the soil, and hence this
mechanism is also called Horton overland flow.

• Infiltration capacity is also referred to as infiltrability. When surface water

input exceeds infiltration capacity the excess water accumulates on the soil
surface and fills small depressions. Water in depression storage does not
directly contribute to overland flow runoff; it either evaporates or infiltrates
later.

• With continued surface water input, the depression storage capacity is filled,
and water spills over to run down slope as an irregular sheet or to converge
into rivulets (small stream) of overland flow. The amount of water stored on
 the hillside in the process of flowing down slope is called surface detention.
The transition from depression storage to surface detention and overland flow
is not sharp, because some depressions may fill and contribute to overland
flow before others.

• Infiltration Excess Overland Flow occurs when water enters a soil system
than the soil can absorb or move it, such as when precipitation exceeds the
infiltration capacity of the soil.

• Saturation excess Overland Flow occurs when the soil becomes saturated,
and any additional precipitation or irrigation causes runoff.

• Perched Subsurface Stormflow occur when a zone of saturation occurs

above an unsaturated zone or horizon

CYCLE:

The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the
ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to form clouds.
Moisture is transported around the globe until it returns to the surface as precipitation.
Once the water reaches the ground, one of two processes may occur; 1) some of the
water may evaporate back into the atmosphere or 2) the water may penetrate the
surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either seeps its way to into the oceans,
rivers, and streams, or is released back into the atmosphere through transpiration. The
balance of water that remains on the earth's surface is runoff, which empties into
lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back to the oceans, where the cycle begins
again.
 STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS
By: Jevero, Mary Ann Joy

Stage-Discharge Relationships

Stage-discharge relation

- the empirical, or also theoretical, relationship existing between the water-

surface stage (water level) and the simultaneous flow discharge in an open
channel.

- also known as rating curve or just rating.

- expressions are synonymous and can be used interchangeably.

A typical simple stage discharge relationship is shown in Figure 6.1.

Discharge Rating Curve

- transforms the stage data to a continuous record of stream discharge

- also used to transform forecasted flow hydrographs into stage hydrographs

- may be simple or complex depending on the river reach and flow regime

- a very important tool in surface hydrology because the reliability of

discharge data values is highly dependent on a satisfactory stage-discharge
relationship at the gauging station

- preparation seems to be an essentially empiric task

- wide theoretical background is needed to create a reliable tool to switch

from measured water height to discharge
 Since the early XIX century it is a common practice to measure the discharge
of streams at suitable times, usually by a current meter or other methods (Rantz et
al. 1982a; ISO 1100-1, 1998; SIMN 1998).

Corresponding stage is also measured. A curve of discharge against stage can

then be built by fitting these data with a power or polynomial curve.

The traditional and simple way to gather information on current discharge is

then to measure the water level with gauges and to use the stage-discharge
relationship to estimate the flow discharge.

Direct Measurements of Discharge in Open Channels:

 Costly

 Time consuming

 Impractical during floods

Several methods have been proposed to improve data fitting, but generally
they have not adequately assessed the fundamentals of stage-discharge ratings
based on fluid mechanics (Giovanni Braca, 2008).

Stage-Discharge Controls

Station Control

-a section control or reach of channel downstream from the gage

- may be natural or man made

-usually effective only at low discharges

Channel Control

- the one governing the relationship between stage and discharge at medium
and high discharges; section controls are completely submerged

- the set of all physical features of the channel that dictate the river stage at a
given point for a given flow rate. Features include:

 Size

 Slope

 Roughness

 Alignment
  Constrictions and Expansions

 Channel Shape

The channel reach that functions as a control may lengthen as the discharge
increases, introducing new features in the stage discharge relationship.

The development of the rating curve when there is more than one control effective
and when data are limited, requires judgment in both interpolation and extrapolation of
the data. This situation is partially aggravated when the controls are not permanent; the
various discharge measurements are then representative of changes in the positioning of
the segments of the rating curve.

Interpreting the Rating Curve

Paired stage and discharge data

are commonly plotted on logarithmic
paper (log scale for both the ordinate
and abscissa) since this scaling tends
to produce a nearly linear (or at least
piece-wise linear) fit to the observed
data. Assuming the rating "curve" is
nearly a straight line in situations
with compound controls, changes in
the slope of log rating "curve"
identify the range in stage over
which the individual control is
effective. The "linearized" rating line
also makes extrapolation or
interpolation comparatively easy
compared to using the data on an
arithmetic or rectangular scale.

Figure 6.5 shows how a rating

curve would look under logarithmic
versus rectangular coordinates. The
benefit of using rectangular-
coordinate paper for rating analysis
is that trends and changes in the low flow portion of the curve are more apparent and that zero
flow conditions can be identified. Zero flow cannot be described in the log scale. For flood
forecasting, however, logarithmic plotting is preferable because of its ability to identify control
changes. This is very useful during real-time flood monitoring.
 Figure 6.6 shows a rating
curve with three distinct
sections within which the
segments can be described as
nearly linear. The point at
which the slope of the curve
changes coincides with the
stage at which one control
becomes submerged and the
next control becomes effective.
This transition point should be
considered when observed data is being monitored during significant river rises.

For example, consider the case where a river stage is increasing at a dangerous rate, and it
is occurring at a stage that is near the top of the portion of the rating under the main channel
section control. It can be concluded from the rating curve that the rate of rise will likely
moderate even if the rain and flow rate remain constant. From Figure 6.6, it can be seen that
significant increases in flow are required for only moderate increases in stage once the stage
reaches a level that is under the influence of the flood plain channel control portion of the
rating.

Figure 6.7 relates this concept to the channel characteristics. Once the flow leaves the
main channel, the horizontal component of the cross sectional area increases dramatically
compared to the main channel. Correspondingly, the vertical component (or stage) of the cross
sectional area does not increase significantly for increases in flow. For these reasons, ratings
plotted logarithmically provide useful insight into the behavior of a river reach at moderate to
high flow.
 FLOOD PREDICTION
By: Baldad, Lea Angelica

Good predictions and warnings save lives. With only a few minutes’ notice of a tornado of
flash flood, people can act to protect themselves from injury and death. Predictions and
warnings can also reduce damage and economic losses. When notice of an impending disaster
can be issued well in advance, as it can for some riverine floods, wildfires, and hurricanes,
property and natural resources can be protected.
Flood forecasting is the use of forecasted precipitation and stream flow data in rainfall-
runoff and stream flow routing models to forecast flow rates and water levels for periods
ranging from a few hours to days ahead, depending on the size of the watershed or river basin.
Flood forecasting can also make use of forecasts of precipitation in an attempt to extend the
lead-time available.
Flood forecasting is an important component of flood warning, where the distinction between
the two is that the outcome of flood forecasting is a set of forecast time-profiles of channel
flows or river levels at various locations, while "flood warning" is the task of making use of
these forecasts to tell decisions on warnings of floods.
Real-time flood forecasting at regional area can be done within seconds by using the
technology of artificial neural network. Effective real-time flood forecasting models could be
useful for early warning and disaster prevention.

How are floods predicted?

Predicting floods is notoriously tricky. They depend on a complex mixture of rainfall, soil
moisture, the recent history of precipitation, and much more. Snowmelt and storm surges can
also contribute to unexpected flooding.
Flood predictions require several types of data:

 The amount of rainfall occurring on a real time basis.

 The rate of change in river stage on a real time basis, which can help indicate the
severity and immediacy of the threat.
 Knowledge about the type of storm producing the moisture, such as duration, intensity
and areal extent, which can be valuable for determining possible severity of the
flooding.
 Knowledge about the characteristics of a river's drainage basin, such as soil-moisture
conditions, ground temperature, snowpack, topography, vegetation cover, and
impermeable land area, which can help to predict how extensive and damaging a flood
might become.

What Instruments Can Be Used to Predict a Flood?

Rain Gauges

-A rather simple device, the rain gauge acts like a measuring cup to measure the amount of
precipitation in a certain area. Using a rain gauge allows meteorologists to know exactly
how much rain has fallen, allowing them to gauge exactly how much moisture is within
the soil.
- provide the most accurate method of measuring rainfall at a single geographic point. To
have operational value, the rain gauge report must be available in real time, and automated
reporting networks are increasing.

Satellites

- On November 2, 2009, the European Space Agency launched the Soil Moisture and
Salinity (SMOS) satellite. It measures moisture levels of the soil, rate of plant growth and
salt levels in the ocean over the entire planet. It sends the gathered measurements back to
Earth where scientists use the data to predict possible flooding or extreme dry conditions.
NASA is also using the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) to measure the
amount of moisture within the Earth's soil.

- Estimates of rainfall from satellite data are less direct and less accurate than either gauges or
radar, but have the advantage of high resolution and complete coverage over oceans,
mountainous regions, and sparsely populated areas where other sources of rainfall data are
not available.

Airborne Lasers

In the Queenstown Lakes district in New Zealand, meteorologists are scanning targeted
areas with lasers in order to predict flash floods. The LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
laser scanner is secured to an aircraft. As the aircraft flies over, the laser gathers
information about the area below including changes in the shoreline. The U.S. National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and NASA are using the data to determine these
changes and predict possible flooding.

WSR-88D radars

Graphically display detected precipitation on a map. Radar can show the location of the
intense rainfall cores, and estimate the duration of rainfall. Radar can also track the evolution
of storm systems over time.

SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE RUNOFF PHENOENON: GRAPH

ANALYSIS
RUN OFF CHARACTERISTICS
By: Cagunda, Yvonne

A study of annual hydrograph of streams enables one to clarify streams into three classes;
1. PERENNIAL STREAM – is on which always carries some flow. There is considerable
amount of groundwater flow throughout the year. Even during dry seasons the water will be
above the bed of stream.

2. INTERMITTENT STREAM – has limited contribution from the groundwater, during the
wet season the water table is above the stream bed and there is a contribution of the base flow
to the stream flow. However, during dry season the water table drops to level lower than that
of the stream bed and the stream dries up. Excepting for an occasional storm which can produce
a short duration flow, the stream remains dry for the most part of the dry month.

3. EPHEMERA STREAM- is one which does not have any base flow contribution. The annual
hydrograph of such arrives shows series of short duration spikes marking flash flows s response
to storms. The stream becomes dry soon after the storm flow.
Typically, an ephemeral stream does not have any well-defined channel. Most of the rivers
in arid zone area of ephemeral kind.

HYDROGRAPH

A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against time chronologically. Depending on the
unit of time involved, we have:
 Annual hydrographs showing the variation of daily or weekly or 10 daily mean flows
over a year.
 Monthly hydrographs showing the variation of daily mean flows over a month.
 Seasonal hydrographs depicting the variation of the discharge in a particular season
such as the monsoon season or dry season.
 Flood hydrographs representing stream flow due to a storm over a catchment.

PURPOSES OF HYDROGRAPHS
1. watershed evaluation
 2. design of structure works
3. flood plan management
4. emergency action plan
5. design of flood ponds
6. channel design
7. grade stabilization structures

UNIT HYDROGRAPH
By: Alcebar, Raisan

The problem of predicting the flood hydrograph resulting from a known storm in a catchment
has received considerable attention. A large number of methods are proposed to solve this
problem and of them probably the most popular and widely used method is the unit-hydrograph
method. This method was first suggested by Sherman in 1932 and has undergone many
refinements since then.

A unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from one unit depth
(1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at a uniform rate for a specified
duration (D hours). The term unit here refers to a unit depth of rainfall excess which is usually
taken as 1 cm. The duration, being a very important characteristic, is used as a prefix to a
specific unit hydrograph. Thus, one has a 6-h unit hydrograph, 12-h unit hydrograph, etc. and
in general a D-h unit hydrograph applicable to a given catchment. The definition of a unit
hydrograph implies the following:
 The unit hydrograph represents the lumped response of the catchment to a unit rainfall
excess of D-h duration to produce a direct-runoff hydrograph. It relates only the direct
runoff to the rainfall excess. Hence the volume of water contained in the unit
hydrograph must be equal to the rainfall excess. As 1 cm depth of rainfall excess is
considered the area of the unit hydrograph is equal to a volume given by 1 cm over the
catchment.
  The rainfall is considered to have an average intensity of excess rainfall (ER) of 1/D
cm/h for the duration D-h of the storm.
 The distribution of the storm is considered to be uniform all over the catchment.
Figure 6.9 shows a typical 6-h unit hydrograph. Here the duration of the rainfall excess is 6 h.

Area under the unit hydrograph = 12.92 × 106 m3

Hence, catchment area of the basin = 1292 km²

Two basic assumptions constitute the foundations for the unit-hydrograph theory. These are:
(i) the time invariance and (ii) the linear response.

Time Invariance
This first basic assumption is that the direct-runoff response to a given effective rain- fall in a
catchment is time-invariant. This implies that the DRH for a given ER in a catchment is always
the same irrespective of when it occurs.

Linear Response
The direct-runoff response to the rainfall excess is assumed to be linear. This is the most
important assumption of the unit-hydrograph theory. Linear response means that if an input
x₁(t) causes an output y₁(t) and an input x₂(t) causes an output y₂(t), then an input x₁(t) + x₂(t)
gives an output y₁(t) + y₂(t). Consequently, if x₂(t) = r x₁(t), then y₂(t) = r y₁(t). Thus, if the
rainfall excess in a duration D is r times the unit depth, the resulting DRH will have ordinates
bearing ratio r to those of the corresponding D-h unit hydrograph. Since the area of the resulting
DRH should increase by the ratio r, the base of the DRH will be the same as that of the unit
hydrograph.

INSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYDROGRAPH (IUH)

The unit-hydrograph concept discussed in the preceding sections considered a D-h unit
hydrograph. For a given catchment a number of unit hydrographs of different durations are
possible. The shape of these different unit hydrographs depend upon the value of D. Figure
6.23 shows a typical variation of the shape of unit hydrographs for different values of D. As D
is reduced, the intensity of rainfall excess being equal to 1/D increases and the unit hydrograph
becomes more skewed. A finite unit hydrograph is indicated as the duration D → 0. The
limiting case of a unit hydrograph of zero duration is known as instantaneous unit hydrograph
(IUH). Thus, IUH is a fictitious, conceptual unit hydrograph which represents the surface
runoff from the catchment due to an instantaneous precipitation of the rainfall excess volume
of 1 cm. IUH is designated as u(t) or sometimes as u (0, t). It is a single-peaked hydrograph
with a finite base width and its important properties can be listed as below:

Consider an effective rainfall I(τ) of duration t₀ applied to a catchment as in Fig. 6.24. Each
infinitesimal element of this ERH will operate on the IUH to produce a DRH whose discharge
at time t is given by:

Equation (6.25) is called the convolution integral or Duhamel integral. The integral of Eq.
(6.25) is essentially the same as the arithmetical computation of Eq. (6.5).
The main advantage of IUH is that it is independent of the duration of ERH and thus
has one parameter less than a D-h unit hydrograph. This fact and the definition of IUH make it
eminently suitable for theoretical analysis of rainfall excess-runoff relationship of a catchment.
For a given catchment IUH, being independent of rainfall characteristics, is indicative of the
catchment storage characteristics.
 SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPH
By: Rival, Ronnel

A synthetic unit hydrograph retains all the features of the unit hydrograph, but does not
require rainfall-runoff data. A synthetic unit hydrograph is derived from theory and
experience, and its purpose is to simulate basin diffusion by estimating the basin lag based on
a certain formula or procedure.

A number of methods for developing synthetic- unit hydrographs are reported in literature. It
should, however, be remembered that these methods being based on empirical correlations
are applicable only to the specific regions in which they were developed and should not be
considered as general relationships for use in all regions

All the methods of deriving a UH discussed previously require observations of rainfall and
runoff. However, for some drainage basins rain gages and/ or streams flow gages are not,
therefore, rainfall – runoff data are not available. For those basins, some kind of techniques to
generate UH (without using rainfall – runoff records) is needed. The UH so derived is called
synthetic UH.

• Three types of synthetic UHs:

(1) those relate hydrograph characteristics (peak discharge, time base,

time-to-peak, etc.) to basin characteristics;

(2) those based on dimensionless UH; and those based on models of

watershed storage.

Snyder’s Method

The first synthetic unit hydrograph was developed by Snyder in 1938, based on a study of a
large number of catchments in the Appalachian Highlands of eastern United States developed
a set of empirical equations for synthetic-unit hydrographs in those areas. These equations are
in use in the USA, and with some modifications in many other countries, and constitute what
is known as Snyder’s synthetic-unit hydrograph.

• Study area: US Appalachian highlands. 10 ~ 10,000 mi2 (30 ~30,000 km2)

• Properties characterizes the response of watershed under various rainfall inputs:

(a) Duration of rainfall excess;

(b) Lag time;

(c) Time base of UH;

(d) Time to peak;

(e) Peak discharge of UH;

(f) Shape of UH.

 In order to provide sufficient flexibility for simulating a wide range of diffusion amounts,
Snyder devised two parameters: (1) a time parameter Ct, and (2) a peak parameter Cp. A
larger Ct meant a greater basin lag and, consequently, greater diffusion. A larger Cp meant a
greater peak flow and, consequently, less diffusion.

The synthetic unit hydrograph of Snyder (1938) is based on relationships found between
three characteristics of a standard unit hydrograph and descriptors of basin morphology. The
hydrograph characteristics are the effective rainfall duration, tr, the peak direct runoff
rate, qp, and the basin lag time, tl. From these relationships, five characteristics of a required
unit hydrograph for a given effective rainfall duration may be calculated the peak discharge
per unit of watershed area, qpR, the basin lag, tlR, the base time, tb, and the widths, W (in
time units) of the unit hydrograph at 50 and 75 percent of the peak discharge.

Figure 11.2: Snyder’s Synthetic Unit Hydrograph

Snyder’s method allows the computations of

(a) lag time (tL);

(b) UH duration (tr);

(c) UH peak discharge (qp);

1. Lag time (tL): time from the center of rainfall – excess to the UH peak

tL = C1Ct (LLc)0.3

where tL = Time [hrs]; C1 = 0.75 for SI unit; 1.0 for English unit; Ct = Coefficient which
is a function of watershed slope and shape, 1.8~2.2 (for steeper slope, Ct is smaller); L =
length of the main channel [mi, km]; Lc = length along the main channel to the point nearest
to the watershed centroid

2. UH Duration (tr):

tr = tL / 5.5

where tr and tL are in [hrs]. If the duration of UH is other than tr, then the lag time needs
to be adjusted as
 tpL = tL + 0.25 (tR - tr)

where tLR = adjusted lag time; tR = desired UH duration.

3. UH Peak Discharge (qp):

C C
w,75 w,50
W  W 
75 1.08 50 1.08
q q
p or p

where C2 = 2.75 for SI unit; 640 for English unit; Cp = coefficient accounting for flood
wave and storage condition, 0.4 ~ 0.8; qp = specific discharge, [m3/s/km2] or
[ft3/s/mi2]

To compute actual discharge, Qp = Aqp

4. Time Base (tb):

Assuming triangular UH,

tb = C 3 / qp

where tb – [hrs]; C3 = 5.56 for SI unit, 1290 for English unit.

5. UH Widths: or

where

CW, 75 = 1.22 for SI unit; 440 for English unit;

CW, 50 = 2.14 for SI unit; 770 for English unit;.

W50, W75 are in hours; Usually, 1/3 of the width is distributed before UH peak and 2/3 after
the peak

Remember to check that the volume of UH is close to 1 cm or 1 inch

 REFERENCES
 Ponce, V.M. (1989). Engineering Hydrology: Principles and Practices. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
 Sumbramanya, K. (2008). Engineering Hydrology. 3rd Edition. West Patel Nagar New
Delhi 110 008. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
 Raghunath, H.M. (2006), Hydrology Principles Analysis, 4835/24, Andan Road,
Daryaganj, New Delhi. New Age Internation (P) Ltd., Publishers
 https://sciencing.com/instruments-can-used-predict-flood-7298074.html
 https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2015/22/jul_flood
 https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-are-floods-predicted?qt-new_science_products=0#qt-
news_science_products