General Biology

The CELL THEORY is one of the foundational tenets of biology and explains the relationship
between cells and living things.
Development of this theory occurred largely as a result of advancements in the field of
microscopy.
Cell Theory Timeline
Zacharias Janssen
Time: 1590
• Invented the first compound microscope
Robert Hooke
Time: 1665
• Used light microscope to look at thin slices of plant tissue (cork)
• Saw tiny chambers and coined the term ‘cell’
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Time: 1673
• First to see living microscopic organisms (in pond water)
• Termed these microorganisms ‘animalcules’
Matthias Schleiden
Time: 1838
• Concluded that: “All living plants are made of cells”
• Credited for developing first two tenets of cell theory (with Schwann)
Theodore Schwann
Time: 1839
• Concluded that: “All living animals are made of cells”
• Credited for developing first two tenets of cell theory (with Schleiden)
Rudolph Virchow
Time: 1855
• Concluded that: “Where a cell exists, there must have been a pre-existing cell”
• Credited for developing the third tenet of the cell theory
The compound microscope has two systems of lenses for greater magnification, 1) the ocular, or
eyepiece lens that one looks into and 2) the objective lens, or the lens closest to the object.
Basic parts of the microscope:
EYEPIECE LENS: the lens at the top that you look through. They are usually 10X or 15X
power.
TUBE: Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses
ARM: Supports the tube and connects it to the base
BASE: The bottom of the microscope, used for support
ILLUMINATOR: A steady light source used in place of a mirror. If your microscope has a
mirror, it is used to reflect light from an external light source up through the bottom of the stage.
STAGE: The flat platform where you place your slides. Stage clips hold the slides in place. If
your microscope has a mechanical stage, you will be able to move the slide around by turning two
knobs. One moves it left and right, the other moves it up and down.
REVOLVING NOSEPIECE OR TURRET: This is the part that holds two or more objective
lenses and can be rotated to easily change power.
OBJECTIVE LENSES: Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope. They
almost always consist of 4X, 10X, 40X and 100X powers. When coupled with a 10X (most
common) eyepiece lens, we get total magnifications of 40X (4X times 10X), 100X, 400X and
1000X. To have good resolution at 1000X, you will need a relatively sophisticated microscope
with an Abbe condenser.
RACK STOP: This is an adjustment that determines how close the objective lens can get to the
slide. It is set at the factory and keeps students from cranking the high power objective lens down
into the slide and breaking things. You would only need to adjust this if you were using very thin
slides and you weren't able to focus on the specimen at high power.
CONDENSER LENS: The purpose of the condenser lens is to focus the light onto the specimen.
Condenser lenses are most useful at the highest powers (400X and above). Microscopes with in
stage condenser lenses render a sharper image than those with no lens (at 400X). I
DIAPHRAGM OR IRIS: Many microscopes have a rotating disk under the stage. This
diaphragm has different sized holes and is used to vary the intensity and size of the cone of light
that is projected upward into the slide. There is no set rule regarding which setting to use for a
particular power. Rather, the setting is a function of the transparency of the specimen, the degree
of contrast you desire and the particular objective lens in use.

Animal and plant eukaryotic cells are also different from prokaryotic cells like bacteria.
Prokaryotes are usually single-celled organisms, while animal and plant cells are generally
multicellular. Eukaryotic cells are more complex and larger than prokaryotic cells. Animal and
plant cells contain many organelles not found in prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotes have no true
nucleus as the DNA is not contained within a membrane, but is coiled up in a region of the
cytoplasm called the nucleoid. While animal and plant cells reproduce by mitosis or meiosis,
prokaryotes propagate most commonly by binary fission.

PLANT TISSUE is a collection of similar cells performing an organized function for the plant
Types of Plant Tissue
MERISMATIC TISSUE – that it is the main growth tissue of the plant; All cells originate from
one meristem or another
APICAL MERISTEM is the plant tissue which drives above ground growth, and decides the
direction of the plant. Root meristems dig into the soil in search of water and nutrients
LATERAL MERISTEMS divide the plant and carry leaves in different directions
INTERCALARY MERISTEMS provide growth from the middle of the plant, to extend the leaves
upward into the sunlight
Permanent Tissue
*Surface Tissue*
EPIDERMIS
– flower parts, fruit, stems, cutin
– plant tissue formed of thin and densely packed cells, meant to separate the inside of the
organisms from the outside; also contains guard cells, which operate small opening called stoma
STOMA - control the passage of air and water through the leaves, allowing plants to move
water and nutrients up from the soil
PERIDERM – cork cells; secondary growth; dead cells
 CORK - plant tissue seen in woody plants, which dies and becomes an outer layer of bark
*Ground Tissues*
PARENCHYMA – found in all parts of the plant, and makes up large portions of the leaves, stems
and roots; highly involved in the process of photosynthesis
COLLENCHYMA – it provides support. Often, collenchyma plant tissue is seen in young plants,
with a limited number of cells; usually found wherever there is new growth and the other
structural cells have not set in yet
SCHLERENCHYMA – structural tissue which dies, but the cell wall and structure remain.
Sclerenchyma plant tissue forms long, connected fibers called sclereids. These fibers can extend
throughout a plant to provide support and strength to various organs
Complex Plant Tissue – deal with moving nutrients and water to the leaves, while removing the
products of photosynthesis from the leaves
XYLEM – specially designed for transporting water and nutrients from the roots
PHLOEM – needs to carry sugar down to the roots and stems
Cell Modifications
1. STEM CELLS – are unique cells of the body in that they are unspecialized and has the ability to
develop into tissues
2. BLOOD CELLS – are vital to life; RED blood cells, WHITE blood cells and PLATELETS
3. FAT CELLS – also called adipocytes, are the major cell component of Adipose tissue
4. SKIN CELLS – the skin is also composed of a epidermis (layer of epithelial tissue) supported
by a dermis (layer of connective tissue)
5. ENDOTHELIAL CELLS – form the inner lining of cardiovascular system and lymphatic
system structures
6. NERVE CELLS (Neurons) – are the basic unit of the nervous system
7. SEX CELLS (Gametes) – are reproductive cells produced in male and female gonads
8. CANCER CELLS – cancer develops from the abnormal properties in normal cells that enable
them to divide uncontrollably and spread to other locations
CELL CYCLE
- a process in which a cell grows and divides to create a copy of itself
- some organisms reproduce through this cycle
- in complex multicellular organisms, the cell cycle is used to allow the organism to grow and to
replace cells as they grow worn out
- in animals, the whole cycle takes around 24 hours from the start to finish
- some cells such as skin cells, are constantly going through the cell cycle, while other cells may
divide rarely
Cell Cycle 4 Phases:
Interphase
G1 (Gap 1)
- growth and synthesis
- begins at the completion of mitosis and cytokinesis and lasts until the beginning of the S phase
- longest phase
- the cell chooses either to replicate its DNA or to exit the cycle and enter a QUIESCENT
STATE (G0 Phase)
G0 (Resting Phase)
- non-dividing, differentiated state
- most human cells are in G0 phase: liver cells, nerve and muscle cells
- highly specialized cells are arrested in G0 and can never divide
S Phase (DNA Synthesis Phase)
- typically lasts for 6 hours
- in mammals, it takes place several hours after the cell has committed to carrying out DNA
synthesis
- each chromosome replicates exactly once to form a physically linked sister chromatids
- in animal cells, a pair of centrioles is also duplicated
G2 (Gap 2 Phase)
- follows the S phase
- some cells can exit the cell cycle
MITOSIS
- indirect cell division
- doubles the number of cell
- maintains the number of chromosomes
- parent cells need not only be diploid
- facilitates growth and maintenance of multicellular organisms
Phases of Mitosis
PROPHASE

METAPHASE

ANAPHASE

TELOPHASE

KARYOKINESIS CYTOKINESIS

ANIMAL TISSUE
Types of Animal Tissue
1. Epithelial Tissue
1A. Simple Squamous Epithelium – Allows materials to pass through diffusion and filtration, and
secretes lubricating substances.
Air sacs of lungs and the lining of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.
1B. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium – Secretes and absorbs
Ducts and secretory portions of small glands and in kidney tubules
1C. Simple Columnar Epithelium – For absorption,
it also secretes mucous and enzymes
Ciliated tissues found in bronchi, uterine tubes and uterus; smooth (nonciliated tissues) are in
the digestive tract and bladder.
1D. Pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium – Secretes mucus; ciliated tissue moves mucus.
Ciliated tissue lines the trachea and much and much of the respiratory tract
1E. Stratified Squamous epithelium – Protects against abrasion
 Lining the esophagus, mouth and vagina
1F. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium – Protective tissue
Sweat glands, salivary glands, and the mammary glands
1G. Stratified Columnar Epithelium – For secretions and protection
Male urethra and the ducts of some glands
1H. Transitional Epithelium – Allows the urinary organs to expand and stretch
Lining of the bladder, urethra,
and ureters

2. Connective Tissue
2.1. Blood
a. Red Blood Cell/Erythrocytes – for absorption of nutrients; delivers nutrients and oxygen
b. White Blood Cell/leucocytes – for protection
c. Platelets/thrombocytes – blood clotting
2.2. Connective Tissue Proper
a. Loose Connective Tissue – found in the skin
b. Fibrous connective tissue
Tendons - connects muscle to bones
Ligaments - connect bones to bones

2.3. Cartilage – Made up of elastic fibers and collagen.

Its function is for support and flexibility.
2.4. Bone – rigid and mineralized connective tissue made by bone-forming cells called osteoblast
which deposit collagen

3. Muscle Tissue
3a. Skeletal muscle ( voluntary muscle )
3b. Cardiac muscle ( involuntary muscle )
3c. Smooth muscle ( involuntary muscle )

4. Nervous Tissue
4a. Neurons
4b. Neuroglial cells ( Glial Cells)
Composed of nerve cell or neurons and glial cells for support.
Nerve cell receive and relay information/ electric signals throughout the animal body.
consists of dendrites, cell body and axon