STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Reviewer: Engr. Sonny Y. Cac Jr.

August 5, 2017
Prefixes used in SI units

Strength of Materials
- Also called as “mechanics of materials”, is a subject which deals with the behavior of solid objects subject to
stress and strains. It is also a study of the internal effect of external forces applied to a structural member.

- It refers to various methods of calculating the stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams,
columns and shafts.

Simple Stress
- It is the expression of force per unit area to structural members that are subjected to external forces and/or
induced forces. Stress is the lead to accurately describe and predict the elastic deformation of a body. It can
be classified as normal stress, shearing stress and bearing stress.

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a. Normal stress
It develops when a force is applied perpendicular to the cross-sectional area of the material. If the
force is going to pull the material, the stress is said to be tensile stress and compressive stress develops
when the material is being compressed by two opposing forces.

It is expressed as the ratio of the applied force divided by the resisting area or:

𝐏
σ=
𝐀
where:
σ = stress, Greek letter sigma (Pascals, psi, psf)
P = applied load or force (Newton, lbs, kips)
A = resisting area (m2, in2, ft2)

b. Shearing stress
It is caused by forces acting along or parallel to the area resisting the forces. It is produced whenever
the applied loads cause one section of a body to tend to slide past its adjacent section. It differs to tensile and
compressive stresses which are caused by forces perpendicular to the area they act.
They are commonly found in bolts, pins, and rivets used to connect various structural members and
machine components. Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress. It is expressed as:

𝐕
τ=
𝐀
where:
τ = shearing stress, Greek letter tau (Pascals, psi, psf)
V = resultant shearing force (Newton, lbs, kips)
A = resisting area (m2, in2, ft2)

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Three types of shearing stress:
1. Single shear

For single shear:

𝐕
τ=
𝐀

2. Double shear

For double shear:

𝐕
τ=
𝟐𝐀

3. Punching shear

For punching shear:

𝐕
τ=
𝛑𝐝𝐭

where:
d = diameter
t = thickness of the sheet

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 c. Bearing stress
It is the contact pressure between the separate bodies. It differs from the compressive stress, as it is
an internal stress caused by compressive forces. Bolts, pins and rivets create stresses in the member they
connect, along the bearing surface or surface of contact.

Bearing stress is expressed as:

𝐏 𝐏
σb = 𝐀𝐛 = 𝐝𝐭𝐛
𝐛
where:
σb = bearing stress (Pascals, psi, psf)
Pb = applied bearing load (Newton, lbs, kips)
d = diameter of the rivet bolt or pin
t = thickness of the plate material

Problems:
1. Determine the outside diameter of a hollow steel tube that will carry a tensile load of 500 kN at a stress of
140 MPa. Assume the wall thickness to be one-tenth of the outside diameter. Ans.112.4 mm
2. If the ultimate shear strength of a steel plate is 42,000 psi, what force is necessary to punch a 0.75 inch
diameter hole in a 0.625 inch thick plate? Ans. 61,850 lbs
3. A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile load of 400 kN. Determine the
outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 MN/m2. Ans. D=119.35 mm
4. What force is required to punch a 20-mm diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm thick? The shear strength
is 350 MN/m2. Ans. P = 549.8 kN
5. Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown in the figure if P = 400 kN. The
shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa. Ans. d = 29.13 mm

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 6. The lap joint shown in the figure is fastened by 3/4-inch diameter rivets. Calculate the maximum safe load
P that can be applied if the shearing stress in the rivet is limited to 14 ksi and the bearing stress in the
plates is limited to 18 ksi. Assume the applied load is uniformly distributed among the four rivets.
Ans. 24.74 kips

7. In the clevis shown in the figure, find the minimum bolt diameter and the minimum thickness of each
yoke that will support a load of P = 14 kips without exceeding a shearing stress of 12 ksi and a bearing
stress of 20 ksi. Ans. d = 0.8618 in and t = 0.4061 in

Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

- A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile forces, which resisting bursting,
developed across longitudinal and traverse section.

a. Tangential Stress (Circumferential Stress)

Consider the tank shown being subjected to an internal pressure, p. The length of the tank is L and
the wall thickness is t. Isolating the half of the tank:

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 F = pA = pDL

T= σt Awall = σt tL

[ΣFH=0]
F = 2T

pDL = 2(σt tL)

𝐩𝐃
σt= 𝟐𝐭
where:

σt = tangential stress
p = internal pressure
D = diameter
t = thickness
If there exist an external pressure, po , and an internal pressure, pi , the formula may be expressed
as:

(𝐩𝐢 −𝐩𝐨 )𝐃
σt= 𝟐𝐭

b. Longitudinal Stress
Consider the free body diagram in the traverse section of the tank:

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 The total force acting at the rear of the tank F must be equal to the total longitudinal stress on the

wall PT = σL Awall. Since t is so small compared to D, the area of the wall is close to πDt.
1
F = pA = p πD2
4

PT = σL πDt

[ΣFH=0]
PT = F

σL πDt = p 14πD2

𝐩𝐃
σ L= 𝟒𝐭

where:

σL = longitudinal stress
p = internal pressure
D = diameter
t = thickness

If there exist an external pressure, po , and an internal pressure, pi , the formula may be expressed
as:

(𝐩𝐢 −𝐩𝐨 )𝐃
σ L= 𝟒𝐭

It can be observed that the tangential stress is twice that of the longitudinal stress:

σt = 2 σL

Problems:
1. A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter with a wall thickness of 20 mm, is subjected to an
internal pressure of 4.5 MN/m2. Calculate the tangential and longitudinal stresses in the steel.

Ans. σt = 45 MPa , σL = 22.5 MPa

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 2. Compute the safe wall thickness of a 76.2 cm diameter steel tank. The tank is subjected to 7.33 MPa pressure
and the steel material has a yield stress of 215.4 MPa. The factor of safety to use is 3. Ans. 3.89 mm
3. A cylindrical water tank is 8m in diameter and 12 m high. If the tank is to be completely filled, determine the
minimum thickness of the tank plating if the stress is limited to 40 MPa. Ans.11.77 mm
4. Calculate the minimum wall thickness for a cylindrical vessel that is to carry a gas at a pressure of 1,400 psi.
The diameter of the vessel is 2 ft, and the stress is limited to 12 ksi. Ans. 1.4 in
5. A cylindrical tank with 10 inched inside diameter contains oxygen gas at 2,500 psi. Calculate the required
thickness in mm under a stress of 28,000 psi. Ans. 11.34 cm

Strain

- It is also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in length caused by the applied force, to
the original length.

𝜹
ε=𝑳
where:
ε = strain, Greek letter epsilon (dimensionless)
δ =deformation, Greek letter delta
L = original length
Stress-Strain Diagram

- The graph of the quantities with the stress σ along the y-axis and the strain ε along the x-axis is called the
stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for various materials. The diagram shown
below is that for a medium-carbon structural steel.

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 Stress-strain diagram of a medium-carbon structural steel

a. Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)

From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight line. This
linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678
and is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain or:

σ∝ε or σ=kε
The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity (E) or Young's Modulus named
after Thomas Young and is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then:

σ=Eε

where:

σ = stress (Pascals, psi, psf)

ε = strain (dimensionless)

E = Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus

b. Elastic Limit

The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape
when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e developed such that there is no permanent
or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

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c. Yield Point

It is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding without any
increase in load.

d. Ultimate Strength

The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.

e. Rupture Strength

It is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking strength.

Definition of Terms

1. Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region from P to R
is called the plastic range.

2. Modulus of Resilience

It is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually increased from O to P, in
3
N·m/m . This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the
elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy
without creating a permanent distortion.

3. Modulus of Toughness

It is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually increased from O to R, in
3
N·m/m . This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The
toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to break.

4. Working Stress

It is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading.

5. Allowable Stress

The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The
allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since

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 proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable stress is taken as either the yield point
or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety.

6. Factor of Safety

The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to allowable strength is called the factor of
safety.

Axial Deformation
- In solving for axial deformation:
-
𝐏𝐋
δ=
𝐀𝐄

where:
δ = axial deformation, Greek letter delta
P = applied load
L = length
A = area
E = Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus

Shearing Deformation
- Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not change in length but
undergoes a change in shape.

The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is called the shear strain and is
expressed as:
𝛅𝐬
γ=
𝐋
where:
γ = shear strain
δs = shearing deformation
L = length

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 The ratio of the shear stress (τ) and the shear strain (γ) is called the modulus of elasticity in shear or
modulus of rigidity and is denoted as G, in MPa.

𝛄
G=
τ
The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing force is:

𝐕𝐋 𝛕𝐋
δs = =
𝐀𝐬 𝐆 𝐆

where V is the shearing force acting over an area As.

Poisson’s Ratio

- When a bar is subjected to a tensile loading there is an increase in length of the bar in the direction of the
applied load, but there is also a decrease in a lateral dimension perpendicular to the load. The ratio of the
sidewise deformation (or strain) to the longitudinal deformation (or strain) is called the Poisson’s Ratio and is
denoted by ν.

Problems:

1. A 30-m long aluminum bar is subjected to a tensile stress of 172 MPa. Find the elongation if E = 69, 116 MPa?
Ans. 7.46 m
2. What is the modulus of elasticity if the stress is 44,000 psi and unit strain of 0.00105? Ans. 41.905 x 106 Pa
3. A steel wire is 4.0 m long and 2 mm in diameter. How much is it elongated by a suspended body of mass 20
kg? Young’s modulus for steel is 196,000 MPa. Ans. 1.274 mm
4. A copper rolled wire 10 m long and 1.5 mm diameter when supporting a weight of 350 N elongates 18.6 mm.
Compute the value of the Young’s modulus of this wire. Ans. 106.48 MPa
5. A steel wire is 6 m long, hanging vertically supports a load of 2,000 N. Neglecting the weight of the wire,
determine the required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 140 MPa and the total elongation is not to
exceed 4mm. E = 200,000 MPa. Ans. 4.4 m

Thermal Stress

- Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount δT, is given by:

δT = αL(Tf−Ti) = αLΔT

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where:
α = the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C
L = length in meter

Ti = initial temperature in °C

Tf = final temperature in °C

For steel:
α = 11.25 × 10-6 m/m°C.

If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no load or stress will be induced in the
structure. In some cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal stress is created. The
internal stress created is termed as thermal stress.

For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports as shown, the thermal stress is
computed as:

deformation due to temperature changes;

δT = αLΔT

deformation due to equivalent axial stress;

PL σ
δP = =
AE LE

δT = δP
σ
αLΔT =
LE

σ = EαΔT

where σ is the thermal stress in MPa, E is the modulus of elasticity of the rod in MPa.

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 Take note that as the temperature rises above the normal, the rod will be in compression, and if the
temperature drops below the normal, the rod is in tension.

Problems:

1. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 1.75 in2 is stretched between two fixed points. The tensile load at
90°F is 1,850 lbs. What will be the stress at 0°F? At what temperature will the stress be zero? Assume ɑ = 6.8
x 10-6 inch/ (inch-°F) and E = 33 x 106 psi.
2. Steel railroad reels 10 meters long are laid with a clearance of 3 mm at a temperature of 15°C. At what
temperature will the rails just touch? What stress should be induced in the rails at that temperature if there
were no initial clearance? Assume ɑ = 11.7 μm/(m-°C) and E = 200 GPa.
3. An iron steam pipe is 200ft long at 0°C. What will its increase in length when heated to 100°C? Coefficient of
linear expansion is 10 x 10-6 ft/°C. Ans. 0.20 ft
4. A cylinder of diameter 1.0 cm at 30°C is to be slid into a hole on a steel plate. The hole has a diameter of
0.99970 cm at 30°C. To what temperature the plate must be heated? Coefficient of linear expansion for steel
is 1.2 x 10-5 cm/°C. Ans. 55°C

Torsion

- Consider a bar to be rigidly attached at one end and twisted at the other end by a torque or twisting moment
T equivalent to F × d, which is applied perpendicular to the axis of the bar, as shown in the figure. Such a bar
is said to be in torsion.

a. Torsional Shearing Stress, τ

For a solid or hollow circular shaft subject to a twisting moment T, the torsional shearing stress τ at a
distance ρ from the center of the shaft is:
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 𝐓𝛒 𝐓𝐫
τ= and τmax =
𝐉 𝐉

where J is the polar moment of inertia of the section and r is the outer radius.

For solid cylindrical shaft:

𝝅
J= 𝑫𝟒
𝟑𝟐

𝟏𝟔𝐓
τmax =
𝛑𝐃𝟑

For hollow cylindrical shaft:

𝝅
J = 𝟑𝟐 𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒

𝟏𝟔𝐓𝐃
τmax =
𝛑(𝐃𝟒 −𝒅𝟒 )

b. Angle of twist

The angle θ through which the bar length L will twist is:

𝐓𝐋
θ= (in radians)
𝐉𝐆

where T is the torque in N·mm, L is the length of shaft in mm, G is shear modulus in MPa, J is the
polar moment of inertia in mm4, D and d are diameter in mm, and r is the radius in mm.

c. Power transmitted by the shaft

A shaft rotating with a constant angular velocity ω (in radians per second) is being acted by a twisting
moment T. The power transmitted by the shaft is:

P = Tω = 2πTf

where T is the torque in N·m, f is the number of revolutions per second, and P is the power in watts.

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Problems:

1. A hollow shaft has an inner diameter of 0.035 m and an outer diameter of 0.06 m. Determine the polar
moment of inertia of the hollow shaft. Ans. 1.125 x 10-6 m4
2. What power would a spindle 55 mm in diameter transmit at 480 rpm. Stress allowed for short shaft is 59
N/mm2. Ans. 96.88 kW
3. A solid shaft 48.2 cm long is used for a transmission of mechanical power at a rate of 37 kW running at 1,760
rpm. The stress is 8.13 MPa. Calculate the diameter. Ans. 50 mm
4. A 2-inch solid shaft is driven by a 36-inch gear and transmits power at 120 rpm. If the allowable shearing
stress is 12 ksi, what horsepower can be transmitted? Ans. 35.89 hp

God bless for your board exam!

“Trust in the Lord with all your heart and lean not on your own understanding.
In all your ways acknowledge Him and He will direct your path.”
Proverbs 3:5-6

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