URTeC: 2019-A-121

High-resolution Measurements of Elasticity at Core Scale. Improving

Mechanical Earth Model Calibration at the Vaca Muerta Formation.
Anton Padin*1, Gilles Pijaudier-Cabot2, Alain Lejay1, Hamid Pourpak1, Jean-Philippe
Mathieu1, Atef Onaisi1, Gregory Boitnott3 and Laurent Louis3; 1. Total Exploration and
Production, 2. Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, 3. New England Research, Inc.
Copyright 2019, Unconventional Resources Technology Conference (URTeC) DOI 10.15530/urtec-2019-A-121-URTeC

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Unconventional Resources Technology Conference held in Denver, Colorado, USA,
22-24 July 2019.

The URTeC Technical Program Committee accepted this presentation on the basis of information contained in an abstract
submitted by the author(s). The contents of this paper have not been reviewed by URTeC and URTeC does not warrant the
accuracy, reliability, or timeliness of any information herein. All information is the responsibility of, and, is subject to corrections by
the author(s). Any person or entity that relies on any information obtained from this paper does so at their own risk. The information
herein does not necessarily reflect any position of URTeC. Any reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper by
anyone other than the author without the written consent of URTeC is prohibited.

Abstract
Having a large number of layers in a reservoir model is computationally time-consuming, hence simulation
of hydraulic fracturing in unconventional reservoirs usually rely on simplified, log-based models. In such
models, vertical heterogeneities are upscaled to a few, averaged facies with homogeneous stiffness, stress,
strength, toughness and natural fracture properties. In reality, however, unconventional reservoirs often
contain singular heterogeneities and strong vertical and horizontal anisotropic properties that greatly affect
fracture growth. The abundance of heterogeneities is believed to affect vertical hydraulic fracture growth
(positively or negatively) due to stress differences, toughening effects at interfaces or the piling of thin
lithologies with extreme, opposed stiffness or strength properties. From the simulation point of view, the
challenge remains keeping a computationally-efficient but also representative (well-upscaled) model.

In this work, we focused on stiffness characterization, and particularly, on Young’s modulus calibration,
and provide a concept-proof example for the Vaca Muerta formation, in Argentina. The current strategy in
building stiffness models is to rely on sonic data to generate upscaled models with a few representative
layers. A core acquisition program is normally put in place to calibrate the log-based model, and includes
triaxial tests, where dynamic and static properties are measured at various stress conditions. Technically,
characterization of each relevant lithology using these core measurements is possible, but given the degree
of vertical heterogeneity, it would imply a very important logistical and economical effort. In addition, core
plug selection is usually biased towards the stiffest rocks, leaving aside other facies, such as weak or ductile
layers. As a result of these difficulties, core programs are usually limited to a few core plugs covering the
target reservoir, leaving calibration of other units, and particularly of potential fracture barriers, unknown.

To address these difficulties, we concept-proved a core-to-log methodology that provides a fast calibration
method for log-based elasticity. We measured rebound hardness in parallel to dynamic measurements of
ultrasonic surface wave velocities (P and S) at the milimetric scale, then calibrated the results with discrete
triaxial tests performed on plugs, representing all relevant lithological facies, and finally compared the
results against log-based parameters. Our work shows that such integration helps at developing robust core-
to-log elasticity relationships in the entire core length, eventually providing a proper foundation for better
stiffness model prediction, at a fraction of the cost and time of traditional core acquisition programs.
2019-A-121-URTeC 2

Introduction

Having a large number of layers in a reservoir and fracture model is computationally time-consuming,
hence simulation of hydraulic fracturing in unconventional reservoirs usually rely on simplified, log-based,
layer-cake geomechanical models. In such models, vertical heterogeneities are upscaled to a few, averaged
facies with homogeneous stiffness, stress, strength, toughness and natural fracture properties (Figure 1). In
reality, however, unconventional reservoirs often contain singular heterogeneities and strong vertical and
horizontal anisotropic properties that greatly affect fracture growth. The Jurassic-Cretaceous Vaca Muerta
Fm., in the Neuquén basin, Argentina, is a good example of a reservoir whose lithological heterogeneity is
critical to hydraulic fracturing optimization. The formation is characterized by the presence of stacked
associations of clay-rich ash beds, calcite-cemented ash beds, bed-parallel calcite-filled veins (i.e. beef) and
carbonate nodules, interbedded within the mudrock matrix (Figure 2). These heterogeneities are believed
to affect (positively or negatively, depending if vertical fracture containment is desired) vertical hydraulic
fracture growth due to stress differences, toughening effects at interfaces or as a result of the piling of thin
lithologies with extreme, opposed stiffness or strength properties. From the simulation point of view, the
challenge remains keeping a computationally-efficient, but also representative, upscaled model.

Figure 1. Typical results of a fracture model for a single stage on a lateral well. Left, depth profile of minimum
horizontal stress used for the fracture simulation. The number and thickness of upscaled layers is chosen based on
stress and elastic properties. These are upscaled from wireline-based sonic velocities and calibrated with a minifrac
(red point, for the stress) and triaxial tests (for the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio; not shown). Right, simulation
results showing the vertical and horizontal extension of a half wing of the fracture, highlighted by propped
conductivity.

In this work, we focused on stiffness characterization, and particularly, on Young’s modulus calibration.
The current strategy in building 1D and 3D stiffness models is to rely on log-based (sonic) data to generate
upscaled models with a few representative layers. At the appraisal stage, a core acquisition program is
normally put in place, usually including a limited geomechanical core program which is used to calibrate
the wireline-based model. In the case of elastic properties, Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio are
measured during triaxial tests where dynamic (ultrasonic) and static properties are measured at various
stress conditions and ideally at various orientations with respect to the lamination. Dynamic to static
correlations obtained through this method are then applied to dynamic log data to calculate static values,
which are then input into the fracture simulator. Technically, characterization of each relevant lithology
using these core measurements is possible, but given the degree of vertical heterogeneity, it would imply a
2019-A-121-URTeC 3

very important logistical and economical effort. In addition, core plug selection is usually biased towards
the stiffest rocks, leaving aside other facies, such as weak or ductile layers. As a result of these difficulties,
for the most part cost, core programs are usually limited to a few core plugs covering the target reservoir,
leaving calibration of other units, and particularly of potential fracture barriers, unknown.

Cemented Nodule

Clayey Ash

Figure 2. Main types of heterogeneity found at the Vaca Muerta formation. The reservoir is characterized by the
presence of stacked associations of clay-rich ash beds, calcite-cemented ash beds, bed-parallel calcite-filled veins (i.e.
beef) and carbonate nodules, interbedded within the mudrock matrix. Combinations of these heterogeneities create
complex barrier mechanisms (such as fluid diversions, energy losses, screenouts or proppant bottlenecks) that affect
hydraulic fracture growth (see the cartoon at the bottom image) and conductivity after treatment.
2019-A-121-URTeC 4

Method

To address the aforementioned difficulties, we concept-proved a core-to-log methodology that provides a

fast core-based characterization method for log-based elasticity calibration at the bedding-plane (mm) scale.
Figure 3 shows the three tools used at Total’s CSTJF research center to undertake experimental work: a
(1) Gamma Density tool (Baker, 1957; Pickel and Heacock, 1960; Czubeck, 1983), which uses
monochromatic gamma rays to provide calibrated quantitative measurements of bulk density each cm; an
(2) Impulse Hammer™ tool (Boitnott et al., 2017), which measures force and acceleration to measure
rebound hardness (the energy loss during impact of a mass while it is freely falling onto the surface of a
core from a known height), whose force-time function is analyzed by an elastic Hertzian solution (Willis,
1966; Frank and Lawn, 1967; Koller and Busenhart, 1986; McLaskey and Glaser, 2010) to obtain a static,
uncalibrated, reduced Young´s modulus (Rathbun et al., 2014, 2017); and (3) an ultrasonic pulse velocity
gage (Naik et al., 2003; Trtnik et al., 2009) measuring the transit time of the P- and S-wavefronts generated
by a piezoelectric transducer vibrating under the effect of a small current at the slabbed core surface.

Figure 3. Photos showing the three tools used at Total’s CSTJF research center to undertake experimental work.
Theories behind all these three methods may be consulted in the literature shown at the references´ section. Left, a
Gamma Density tool, which uses monochromatic gamma rays to provide calibrated quantitative measurements of bulk
density each cm; middle, an Impulse Hammer™ tool, which measures force and acceleration to measure rebound
hardness (the energy loss during impact of a mass while it is freely falling onto the surface of a core from a known
height), whose force-time function is analyzed by an elastic Hertzian solution to obtain a static, uncalibrated, reduced
Young´s modulus; and right, an ultrasonic pulse velocity gage measuring the transit time of the P- and S-wavefronts
generated by a piezoelectric transducer vibrating under the effect of a small current at the slabbed core surface.

The evaluation workflow used to validate the accuracy of high resolution measurements of elasticity at the
core scale is shown in Figure 4. The left part of the workflow shows the calibration of the combination of
tools, and the right part shows the application of this workflow to a well from the Vaca Muerta formation.
The workflow consisted on measuring the static (rebound hardness) and dynamic (wave velocities and bulk
density) properties of slabbed cores at the exact same depths (each 3 mm). Its main applications are the
creation of accurate, statistically-representative dynamic to static correlations and the characterization of
heterogeneities and units difficult to plug. In addition, if measurements at various orientations are possible,
anisotropic properties can also be calibrated, although it is out of the scope of this paper.
2019-A-121-URTeC 5

Figure 4. Evaluation workflow used to validate the accuracy of high resolution measurements of elasticity at the core
scale. The left part of the workflow shows the calibration of the combination of tools, and the right part shows the
application of this workflow to a well from the Vaca Muerta formation.
In addition, Figure 5 shows how triaxial and bench measurements can be combined to obtain the unknown
parameters of the static Sij compliance matrix and the dynamic Cij´s of the dynamic elastic stiffness matrix.
As shown in this figure, by combining dynamic and static measurements at both conditions, we can entirely
solve all unknowns for the horizontal and vertical directions.

Calibration

In order to validate our workflow, first we calibrated the three tools under the same conditions on the same
materials. We measured bulk density, rebound hardness and ultrasonic velocities at bench conditions at the
milimetric scale on the same samples of aluminum 6061-T6 and Machinable Glass Ceramic (Macor), as
well as in some mudrock samples from the hot shale.
For bulk density, the plug vs. gamma density crossplot on the left photo in Figure 6 shows that this tool,
constructed in the 1980´s, is well calibrated and can be relied upon for density measurements, used in
conjunction with velocity measurements to obtain dynamic Young´s modulus and Poisson´s ratio.
For rebound hardness, we estimated that for purely-elastic materials, the error between uncalibrated
hardness and calibrated, interpreted Young´s modulus by applying Hertzian theory was only between 4%
(measured in ceramic standard) and 7.9% (measured in aluminum), therefore, for slabbed, unfractured cores
(no size effect problems),

𝑬𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 = 𝑬𝒓𝒆𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅_𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟎 [1]

2019-A-121-URTeC 6

Figure 5. This graph shows the various possibilities to obtain the static Sij compliance matrix and the dynamic Cij´s
of the dynamic elastic stiffness matrix parameters from triaxial and bench measurements.

Figure 7 shows the results of a multi-stress triaxial test designed to measure elastic moduli by fitting the
stress vs. strain response to a sequence of loading cycles including four different stress trajectories. By a
sequence of confining and axial load perturbations from a starting effective stress state typically chosen to
be the net mean stress of interest, the measured strain data are fit to the elasticity equations to obtain the
best fitting compliance tensor Sij. Based on the data from Vaca Muerta mudrock samples tested at triaxial
conditions, we can consider that the assumption that mudrocks, as well as most heterogeneities in the Vaca
Muerta formation (with the exception perhaps of the clay-rich ductile ashbeds) behave elastically is correct,
and thus rebound hardness theory is accurate at predicting elasticity empirically.
2019-A-121-URTeC 7

Figure 6. Left, plug vs. gamma density crossplot showing that the gamma-density tool, constructed in the 1980´s, is
well calibrated and can be relied upon for density measurements. Top right, Machinable Glass Ceramic (Macor) block
used for calibration. Bottom right, aluminum 6061-T6 block used for calibration.

Figure 7. This plot shows the results of a multi-stress triaxial test designed to measure elastic moduli by fitting the
stress vs. strain response to a sequence of loading cycles including four different stress trajectories. The plot shows a
comparison of measured and predicted strains from the test protocol designed to constrain the static VTI elastic
stiffness tensor from the tests on four of the samples studied. Strains A(1,2) are the average axial strains parallel to
bedding, C(1,2) are the average circumferential strains centered perpendicular to bedding, and C(3) is the
circumferential strain centered at the point parallel to bedding. By a sequence of confining and axial load perturbations
from a starting effective stress state typically chosen to be the net mean stress of interest, the measured strain data are
fit to the elasticity equations to obtain the best fitting compliance tensor S ij.
2019-A-121-URTeC 8

However, we also found that there is a size effect in hardness measurements, as well as an influence of
confining stress. Figure 8 shows the results of estimating static Young´s modulus from rebound hardness
at the same rock samples for slabbed 1 inch plugs, compared to Young´s modulus measured previously on
those plugs at triaxial conditions. Left, plot of triaxial versus rebound hardness on the same plugs, showing
the effect of sample size (and thus of the distance to sample boundaries) on Young´s modulus. For the
slabbed plugs, sample boundaries are too close to the tool tip, therefore the sample is slightly more
compliant, giving smaller values of Young´s modulus than for triaxial testing. There may also be an effect
of confinement in the different results, an effect that is not seen in dynamic measurements, which seem to
be almost independent of confining stress.

Figure 8. This graph shows the results of estimating static Young´s modulus from rebound hardness at the same rock
samples for slabbed 1 inch plugs, compared to Young´s modulus measured previously on those plugs at triaxial
conditions. Left, plot of triaxial versus rebound hardness on the same plugs, showing the effect of sample size (and
thus of the distance to sample boundaries) on Young´s modulus. For the slabbed plugs, sample boundaries are too
close to the tool tip, therefore the sample is slightly more compliant, giving smaller values of Young´s modulus than
for triaxial testing. There may also be an effect of confinement in the different results, an effect that is not seen in
dynamic measurements, which seem to be almost independent of confining stress.

For ultrasonic measurements at bench conditions, Figure 9 shows the calibration results for the stress
dependence of velocity. For the same sample depths, plugs were acquired and tested for dynamic properties
at triaxial and bench conditions. Experimental results show that stress dependence is small, especially for
shear waves, where there is almost no dependence on stress. Although vertical measurements of
compressional ultrasonic waves show some stress dependence, it is a relatively minor effect, and thus we
can conclude that for the Vaca Muerta mudrocks, bench ultrasonic measurements in slabbed cores are
comparable to triaxial ultrasonic measurements under reservoir conditions.

Results - Application #1- Core to Log Elasticity Calibration

The first and most obvious application of calibrated high resolution elasticity measurements at the core
scale is to use them to calibrate sonic-based Young´s modulus. Figure 10 shows two plots of wave
compressional and shear velocities measured at the bench, plotted against calibrated Young´s modulus
measured with the rebound hardness tool and calibrated as explained in this paper. This relationship may
2019-A-121-URTeC 9

be used to convert logs to static E and v when core data is not available. In addition, it allows predicting
the shear velocity in new wells when no shear log is available. The ability to run hundreds or thousands of
measurements instead of tens as in triaxial measurements helps improve the statistical representativeness
of elasticity models.

Figure 9. Calibration of bench ultrasonic velocity measurements to study the stress dependence of velocity. For the
same sample depths, plugs were acquired and tested for dynamic properties at triaxial and bench conditions.
Experimental results show that stress dependence is small, especially for shear waves, where there is almost no
dependence on stress.
Figure 11 shows another application of calibrated high resolution elasticity measurements: the calibration
of dynamic and static moduli at the millimeter or centimeter scale. The log data (green line) is a
measurement of half a meter to 1 meter sonic velocities, therefore giving much smoother curves. On the
other hand, of particular importance for high resolution measurements is the ability to identify zones where
elastic stiffness increases or decreases significantly from the average, because these may act as barriers to
fracture growth.
2019-A-121-URTeC 10

Figure 10. Plots of wave compressional and shear velocities measured at the bench, plotted against calibrated Young´s
modulus measured with the rebound hardness tool and calibrated as explained in this paper.

Figure 11. Depth plots comparing elastic parameters from log data versus core data (from triaxial, rebound hardness
and bench velocities) for a well from the Vaca Muerta formation, Argentina.
2019-A-121-URTeC 11

Results - Application #2- Dynamic to Static Correlation of Elasticity

A second application of the combination of calibrated rebound hardness and bench velocity measurements
is the validation of dynamic to static correlations. Figure 12 shows the dynamic to static correlation for a
well in the Vaca Muerta formation. The correlation obtained with the high resolution workflow almost
matches the correlation by Wang (2000), currently being used for the Vaca Muerta and other
unconventional plays when there is no data available. This plot also shows that the triaxial data also falls
within the range of the bench measurements, however those are much more statistically representative. For
the two Vaca Muerta wells studied in this work, the static to dynamic correlation for the hot shale is the
following:

𝑬𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 ∗ 𝑬𝒅𝒚𝒏 − 𝟗. 𝟐𝟔 [2]

Although as more well data becomes available this correlation should be adjusting, we are confident that
this fast, cost-efficient method is applicable for any other well, including the non-reservoir core, and it
should not change significantly for the organic-rich part of the reservoir in the same maturity window.

Figure 12. Dynamic to static correlation for a Vaca Muerta well, compared to triaxial data and typical relationships.
2019-A-121-URTeC 12

Results - Application #3- Evaluation of Heterogeneities

Figures 13 and 14 show a third application of this workflow is the analysis of elasticity per facies. If a
sufficient number of measurements per facies is done, and facies variability in the horizontal direction is
not large, this information could help create synthetic curves for wells with known facies (or if the
relationship between lithological facies and common well logs is known by means of Principal Component
Analysis).

Figure 13. Plot of compressional velocity versus Young´s modulus per lithological facies.

Figure 14. Plot of occurrence of Young´s modulus magnitude per facies, for mudrocks and nodules.
2019-A-121-URTeC 13

Conclusions
In this work, we concept-proved a core-to-log methodology that provides a fast calibration method for log-
based elasticity. We measured rebound hardness in parallel to dynamic measurements of ultrasonic surface
wave velocities (P and S) at the milimetric scale, then calibrated the results with discrete triaxial tests
performed on plugs, representing all relevant lithological facies, and finally compared the results against
log-based parameters. Our work shows that such integration helps at developing robust core-to-log
elasticity relationships in the entire core length, eventually providing a proper foundation for better stiffness
model prediction, at a fraction of the cost and time of traditional core acquisition programs. We have shown
that calibrated high-resolution measurements at the core scale may be used to create accurate dynamic to
static correlations, to identify and characterize potential barriers to fracture growth, and to characterize
lithological facies for predicting their elastic properties at new wells when core data is not available.

Acknowledgements
The authors thank Total E&P for the authorization to publish this article. We would like to also thank Lionel
Martinez, Eider Hernandez-Bilbao, Rachel Jorand and Philippine Rutman for their valuable contributions.

References
Baker, P. E. "Density logging with gamma rays." (1957).
Boitnott, Gregory Naff, Gilles Yves Albert Bussod, and Jean-Carlo McLure. "Automatic impulse hammer
for characterization of mechanical properties of a material." U.S. Patent No. 9,618,436. 11 Apr. 2017.
Czubek, J. A. "Advances in gamma-gamma logging." The International Journal of Applied Radiation and
Isotopes 34.1 (1983): 153-172.
Frank, Frederick Charles, and B_R Lawn. "On the theory of Hertzian fracture." Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences 299.1458 (1967): 291-306.
Koller, M. G., and M. Busenhart. "Elastic impact of spheres on thin shallow spherical shells."
International journal of impact engineering 4.1 (1986): 11-21.
McLaskey, Gregory C., and Steven D. Glaser. "Hertzian impact: Experimental study of the force pulse
and resulting stress waves." The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 128.3 (2010): 1087-1096.
Naik, Tarun R., V. Mohan Malhotra, and John S. Popovics. "The ultrasonic pulse velocity method."
Handbook on nondestructive testing of concrete. CRC Press, 2003. 182-200.
Pickell, James J., and John G. Heacock. "Density logging." Geophysics 25.4 (1960): 891-904.
Rathbun, A. P., et al. "Non-destructive impulse based index testing of rock core." 48th US Rock
Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium. American Rock Mechanics Association, 2014.
Rathbun, Andrew P., and Russell T. Ewy. "Mechanical Index Testing of Unconventional Resource Core."
Unconventional Resources Technology Conference, Austin, Texas, 24-26 July 2017. Society of
Exploration Geophysicists, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Society of Petroleum
Engineers, 2017.
Trtnik, Gregor, Franci Kavčič, and Goran Turk. "Prediction of concrete strength using ultrasonic pulse
velocity and artificial neural networks." Ultrasonics 49.1 (2009): 53-60.
Wang, Zhijing. "Seismic anisotropy in sedimentary rocks, part 2: Laboratory data." Geophysics 67.5
(2002): 1423-1440.
Willis, J. R. "Hertzian contact of anisotropic bodies." Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 14.3
(1966): 163-176.