EX.

NO: AMPLITUDE MODUATON AND DEMODULATION

AIM:
a) To construct AM modulator and demodulator circuit and to trace message, carrier,
modulated and demodulated signal.

b) To determine the modulation index of AM modulated wave.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the Component /Equipment Specifications/Range Quantity

1 Transistor BC 107 1

2 Capacitor 0.01µF, 2 µF. 1

3 Decade inductance box 1mH-10H 1

4 Resistors 1KΩ, 22KΩ, 6.8KΩ, 10KΩ, 1Each

100 KΩ.

5 CRO 30MHz 1

6 Function generator 3MHz 2

7 Regulated Power Supply (0-30) V 1

8 Diode 0A79 1

9 Connection wires Single strand as per requirement

10 Bread Board - 1

FORMULA:

Classical Method:
The Modulation Index is defined as,

Where Vmax and Vmin are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.
Trapezoidal Method
Modulation index 𝑎=
Where A is the maximum peak to peak amplitude of the output signal.
B is the minimum peak to peak amplitude of the output signal

THEORY:

Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristics of a carrier signal is

varied in accordance with a modulating signal. The base band signal is referred to as the modulating
signal and the output of the modulation process is called as the modulation signal. Amplitude
modulation is defined as the process in which is the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied linearly
with the base band signal. The envelope of the modulated wave has the same shape as the base
band signal provided that the carrier frequency fc must be much greater than the highest frequency
components fm of the message signal m(t) i.e. f c >> fm. The modulation index must be less than unity.
If the modulation index is greater than unity, the carrier wave becomes over modulated.

The demodulation circuit is used to recover the message signal from AM wave at the
receiver. An envelope detector is a simple and yet highly effective circuit that is well suited for the
demodulation of AM wave, for which the percentage modulation is less than 100%.Ideally, an
envelope detector produces an output signal that follows the envelop of the input signal wave form
exactly.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.1 AM modulator

Fig. 2 AM demodulator
MODEL WAVEFORMS:

Demodulated Signal

CALCULATION OF MODULATION INDEX FROM AM MODULATED SIGNAL:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig.1.

2. Switch on the power supply and set to + 12 volts.
3. Apply sinusoidal modulating signal of frequency fm 1 KHz with amplitude 1Vp and carrier signal of
frequency fc greater than fm.
4. Observe the amplitude modulated output.
5. Tabulate the values of amplitude, time period and frequency of the modulating, carrier and
modulated waveform.
6. Find the values of Vmax and Vmin and calculate modulation index.
7. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.2.
8. Give the AM wave as input to the demodulator circuit and observe the output
9. Note down amplitude, time period and frequency of the demodulated output waveform.
10. Trace both the modulated and demodulated waveforms and check for its frequency match.

Tabulation:

Signal Amplitude Time Period Frequency

(V) (ms) (KHz)

Modulating signal

Carrier signal
Vmax
Carrier signal
Modulated signal
Vmin

Vmax(pp)

Vmin(pp)
Demodulated signal

Result:

The AM modulator and demodulator circuits are constructed and waveforms are observed
and plotted, modulation index of AM modulation is determined.
 EX.NO.2 FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM:
To construct frequency modulator and demodulator circuit and to trace message, carrier,
modulated and demodulated signal.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Name of the
S.No. Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment

1 ICs XR 2206,NE 565 1 Each

0.001µF, 1 µF 2 Each

2 Capacitors 10 µF 2

100 µF, 470 µF 1 Each

47KΩ 3

3 Resistors 10 KΩ , 560 Ω 2 Each

4.7KΩ 1

4 Potentiometer 1 KΩ 1

5 CRO 30MHz 1

6 Function generator 3MHz 1

7 Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 2

8 Connection wires Single stand as per requirement

9 Bread Board - 1

THEORY:

Frequency Modulation is defined as a process in which the frequency of the carrier wave c(t) is
varied linearly with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal m(t).

FREQUENCY MODULATOR
The XR2206 is a Linear IC that can generate a high quality output waveform that is stable,
accurate, and either amplitude or frequency modulated by an external modulating signal. It can
produce sine, square, triangle, ramp, and pulse waveforms over a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to more
than 1.0MHz.Here XR2206 is used as FM modulator. The XR2206 contains a Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO) whose frequency is set by external RC timing components. The input modulating
signal deviates the VCO output from its frequency to produce a frequency modulated waveform.

FREQUENCY DEMODULATOR
Phase Locked Loop (PLL) NE 565 IC is used as FM demodulator. The filtered error voltage which
controls the VCO and maintains lock with the input signal is the demodulated FM output. The VCO
transfer characteristics determine the linearity of the demodulated output. Since VCO used in PLL is
highly linear, it is possible to realize highly linear FM demodulators.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

0 .0 0 1  F

M o d u la te d
4 7 k 4 .7 k O u tp u t

10  F
4 7 k

1 16
R3
4 7 k 2 15
1k
12 V D C 3 14
4 X R -2 2 0 6 13
1F
5 M o d u la to r 12
C 1 = 0 .0 0 1  F
M o d u la tin g 6 11
S ig n a l
7 10
1f
R1
8 9
1 0 k R2
1 0 k

Frequency Modulator
PIN DIAGRAM OF XR2206:
 Frequency Demodulator

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC565:

MODEL WAVEFORMS:

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are given as per circuit diagram.
2. Internally generated carrier signal is observed in pin 2 with zero input signal.
3. The message signal is given as input through pin 7 and the FM waveform is observed at pin
2.
4. The FM wave is given as input to the demodulator circuit and the demodulated signal is
obtained.
5. The message signal, carrier signal, modulated and demodulated signals are measured and
plotted in the graph sheet.
TABULATION:

Signal Amplitude Time Period Frequency

(V) (ms) (KHz)

Modulating signal

Carrier signal
Tmin fmin

Modulated signal Tmax fmax

Demodulated
signal

RESULT:

The frequency modulation and demodulation circuits are constructed and the carrier,
message, modulated and demodulated signals are traced.
 EX.NO.3 PCM ENCODER AND DECODER

AIM:

To study the operation of a pulse code modulator and demodulator using a PCM
trainer kit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Name of the
S.No. Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
1 PCM trainer kit 1

2 CRO (0-30) MHz 1

3 RPS (0-30)V 1

4 Probes, Connecting wires. few

THEORY:

Pulse code modulation systems are complex, in that message signal is subjected to
the large number of operations. The essential operations in the transmitter of a PCM system
are sampling, quantizing, and the encoding. The sampling, quantizing, encoding operations
are usually performed by the same circuit analog the transmitter path. At the receiver, the
essential operation consists of one last stage of the regeneration followed by the decoding
and then the demodulation.

Sampling

The incoming message signal is sampled with a train of the narrow rectangular
pulses so that to closely approximate of the instantaneous sampling process. In order to
ensure perfect reconstruction of the message at the receiver, the sampling rate must be
greater than twice the highest frequency component of the message signal in accordance
with sampling theorem.

Quantizing

The conversion of analog sample of the signal into a discrete form is called
quantizing power.

Encoding

It is used to translate the discrete set of sample values to a more appropriate form of
signal.

PROCEDURE

1. The PCM modulation and demodulation bits are arranged as per the circuit diagram
and connections are given.
2. The PAM output is noted from the position of the bit.
 3. The PCM output generated from the PAM output.
4. The modulation and demodulation are done.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

PCM TRANSMITTER

PCM RECEIVER
TABULAR COLUMN

OUTPUT AMPLITUDE(V) TIME PERIOD(ms)

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:

Thus the pulse code modulation is constructed successfully and the result is
obtained.
Ex No:4(a)
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM)
DATE:

AIM:
To construct a Pulse Amplitude Modulation and to study its waveforms
COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
S.No. Components /Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC 4016 - 1

2 Resistors 1 K,22K,10K 2,1,2

3 Capacitors 0.01µf,10µf 1,1

4 Signal generator (0-3M)Hz 1

5 CRO (0-30M)Hz 1
6 Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Modulation:

PIN DIAGRAM: IC 4016

 Demodulation:

THEORY:

The Pulse Amplitude Modulation is the simplest form of the pulse modulation schemes. PAM
is a pulse modulation system in which the signal is sampled at regular intervals, and each sample is
made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling.
Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC): transmission in which (a)
frequencies produced by amplitude modulation are symmetrically spaced above and below the carrier
frequency and (b) the carrier level is reduced to the lowest practical level, ideally completely
suppressed.
In the double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) modulation, unlike AM, the
wave carrier is not transmitted; thus, a great percentage of power that is dedicated to it is distributed
between the sidebands, which implies an increase of the cover in DSB-SC, compared to AM, for the
same power used.
DSB-SC transmission is a special case of Double-sideband reduced carrier transmission.
PROCEDURE:
1. The 4016 integrated circuit is a CMOS bilateral switch which is used as a sampling switch. A
positive voltage on pin 13 closes the CMOS transistor switch between pins 1 & 2. When pin
13 is a as zero volts, the switch is open.
2. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
3. Connect a 100K Hz sine wave (carrier signal) of 2V from an function generator at the pin 13 .
4. Connect a 1K Hz sine wave (modulating signal) of 1.5V from an audio generator at the point
on R4.
 5. Connect the oscilloscope to pin 2 of 4016 IC, adjust the 1K potentiometer (R4) to vary the
amplitude of the modulating signal. Also adjust the frequency of the modulating signal to
obtain stable display on the oscilloscope. The wave form obtained is PAM.
6. Vary the amplitude and frequency of the sine wave signal and observe the change in the
output waveform.

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN

Signal Amplitude(V) Time(ms) Frequency(Hz)

Message signal

Carrier signal

Modulated signal
 Industrial Purpose:

 Used as Ethernet connection

 Used in photobiology
Troubles & Trouble Shooting:
 Checking the circuit connections whether it is properly connected as per the circuit diagram.
 Check the whether the Timing R and C are designed properly.

RESULT:
Thus the Pulse Amplitude Modulation circuit is successfully designed and the waveforms are
observed.
 Ex No:4(b)
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM)
DATE:

AIM:
To construct a Pulse Width Modulation circuit and to study its performance.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. Components /Equipments Range Quantity

1 IC 555 timer 1

2 Resistor 10 kΩ 1

3 Capacitor 0.01 uf 1

4 Signal generator [0 - 3 MHz] 1

5 CRO 20MHz 1

6 Regulated power supply 12V 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 PIN DIAGRAM: IC 555

TABULAR COLUMN:

Parameters Amplitude(V) Pulse width Time(ms)

Message signal
Carrier signal
PWM Output

MODEL GRAPH:
 THEORY:

The pulse width modulation signal is generated from the PAM signal and transmitted. At the
receiver the PAM signal is transmitted and then demodulated by low pass filtering.
The modulating signal is applied to the input of a PAM modulating circuit to generate the PAM
signal. The same pulse train which supplies the PAM modulator is used to give a ramp generator to
provide a train of ramp pulses which all have equal sweeps, amplitude and duration. These ramp
pulses are added quickly to the PAM pulses to produce varying height ramps. The varying height
ramps gate a Schmitt trigger circuit to generate the varying width rectangular pulses of the PWM
wave. The PWM pulse can be transmitted directly or used as the input to a pulse position
modulation.
At the receiver the received pulses are put together in a regenerative circuit to remove some of
noise and sequence up the pulses. The signal waveform is recovered by low pass filtering.

PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit was constructed as per the circuit diagram.
2. At terminal 2 of IC555 trigger pulse is applied and the modulating signal terminal at pin no 5.
3. The dc supply is provided to bias the IC.
4. The PWM output is observed across the terminal 3 through CRO.

Industrial Purpose:

 Used as tuning circuits.

 Radio Control

Troubles & Trouble Shooting:

 Checking the circuit connections whether it is properly connected as per the circuit diagram.
 Check whether the Timing R and C are designed properly.
 Check whether the width of modulation is narrower for negative half cycle and it is wider for
positive half cycle.

RESULT:

Thus the Pulse Width Modulation Circuit was designed and pulse width modulated output
waveform is observed.
 Ex No:4(c)
PULSE POSITION MODULATION (PPM)
DATE:

AIM:
To construct a pulse position modulation circuit and to study its performance.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. Components /Equipments Range Quantity

1 IC 555 timer 1

2 Resistor 10kΩ, 3.9kΩ 1,1

3 Capacitor 0.01µf,0.1µf 1,1

4 Signal generator (0.1- 3 M)Hz 1

5 CRO (0-30M)Hz 1

6 Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PIN DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

Time(ms) Total Time (ms)

Parameters Amplitude(V)
PWM ON PWM OFF
Message signal
Carrier signal
PPM Output
 THEORY:

In the pulse position modulation the position of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
varying amplitude of the modulating signal. The pulses are denser in accordance with the peak of the
modulating signal and almost widely spaced or nil at the negative cycle of the modulating signal.
Pulse position modulation signals can be readily generated from the pulse width modulation signals
by using the modulated edge of PWM pulse to trigger a monostable multivibrator circuit which
generates fixed width. A fixed period reference pulses is generated from the incoming PPM
waveform and a flip-flop is set by the reference pulse and reset by the PPM pulse. The result is a
rectangular pulse width modulated pulse at the output of a flip-flop. PWM pulses can be used as an
input to the PPM.At the receiver end the PPM pulses can be recovered using a low pass filter circuit.

PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit is constructed as per the circuit diagram.
2. The input modulating signal is fed through the terminal 5.
3. The dc supply is provided to bias the IC.
4. The PPM output is taken from the terminal 3.
5. The observed readings are verified by plotting graph.
Industrial Purpose:

 Used as tuning circuits.

 Radio Control

Troubles & Trouble Shooting:

 Checking the circuit connections whether it is properly connected as per the circuit diagram.
 Check whether the Timing R and C are designed properly.
 Check whether the width of modulation is narrower for negative half cycle and it is wider for
positive half cycle.
 Check whether the PPM turns ON for every PWM turns OFF. Also the width of PPM is
constant as same as the width of the carrier.

RESULT:
The Pulse Position Modulation circuit was constructed and its output waveform was obtained.
 Ex No:5(a)
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK) MODULATION
DATE:

AIM:
To construct the amplitude shift keying modulation circuit and to obtain the ASK modulated
waveform.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. Components /Equipments Range Quantity

1 OPAMP-IC 741 1
2 FET-BFW10 1

3 Diode-OA79 1

4 Resistor 10kΩ, 47kΩ, 1kΩ 3,2,2

5 Capacitor 0.1µf 1
6 Signal generator (0.1-3M)Hz. 1
7 CRO (0-30M)Hz 1
8 Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
9 Bread board 1
10 Connecting wires required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

ASK modulation:
 PIN DIAGRAM:

Demodulation:

THEORY:

In the ASK modulation technique, the carrier amplitude is switched between two values. For
binary signals it is ON and OFF state. It is otherwise called as on off keying. The modulated wave
consist of pulses are marks representing is and spaces corresponding zero’s.
ASK modulation:
The ASK can be generated by either of three methods:
AM modulator having polar input.
A balanced modulator having unipolar input. In both cases, double side band linear
modulation is achieved. The transmission bandwidth is therefore twice that of the basic bandwidth.
The necessary bandwidth is given by, BT= 2B= 2s/k
Where, s= Signaling speed (digits/seconds)
B= base bandwidth
K= Pulse shape factor
In practice, larger values of BT are used to facilitate minimization of noise with the help of
pulse shaping filters after detection.
One technique to reduce BT or increasing the signaling speed is to pass the modulated signal
through a VSB filter. It marks the bandwidth half (i.e.) BT =B= s/k, this is because one side band has
been removed except the vertical portion. However, complete side band suppression is not possible.
PROCEDURE:
1. The ASK modulator is constructed as per the circuit diagram.
2. A digital data input and an analog carrier signal were given as input to the ASK modulator .
3. The output of the ASK modulated wave is observed and the readings are plotted
4. The output of the ASK modulated wave is given as input to the ASK demodulator circuit.
5. The output of the ASK modulated wave is observed and the readings are plotted.

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:
Parameters Amplitude(V) Time(ms)
Message signal
Carrier signal
ASK Output
 Industrial Purpose:

 Optical Fiber Communication

 Laser and LED applications

Troubles & Trouble Shooting:

 Checking the circuit connections whether it is properly connected as per the circuit diagram.
 Check whether the correct transistor and other active elements.

RESULT:

The ASK modulation circuits were constructed and its modulated waveform were obtained.
 Ex No:5(b)
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK) MODULATION
DATE:

AIM:
To construct the FSK modulation circuit and to obtain the FSK modulated waveform.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

No. Components /Equipments Range Quantity

1 IC XR2206 1
2 Resistor 5.1kΩ, 4.7k Ω, 100k Ω. 3,1,1
3 Variable resistors 50k Ω, 1k Ω. 1,1
4 Capacitor 1µf 4
5 Signal generator (0.1-3M)HZ 1
6 CRO (0-30M)Hz 1
7 Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
8 Bread board 1
9 Connecting wires required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 PIN DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

Parameters Amplitude(V) Time(ms)

Message signal
Carrier signal
FSK Output
 THEORY:

FSK is one of the three main digital modulation technique. FSK is relatively simple. The
modulating signal is a binary stream that varies between two different frequency levels.
FSK MODULATOR:
In binary FSK the carrier frequency is shifted in accordance with binary input. The FSK
output shifts between mark and space frequency. There is a change in the output frequency every
time. The logic condition of the binary input signal change consequently and the output rate of
change is equal to the input rate of change (i.e). Bit rate & band rate are equal.
IC XR2206:
The XR-2206 is a monolithic function generator integrated circuit capable of producing high
quality sine, square, triangle, ramp, and pulse waveforms of high-stability and accuracy. The output
waveforms can be both amplitude and frequency modulated by an external voltage.
Frequency of operation can be selected externally over a range of 0.01Hz to more than 1MHz.
The circuit is ideally suited for communications, instrumentation, and function generator applications
requiring sinusoidal tone, AM, FM, or FSK generation.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per circuit diagram.
2. The value of VCO and PLL is adjusted to the input frequency by the variable resistors
connected in pin 3 and 13,14
3. Verifying the output frequency of FSK modulation signal, Maximum frequency and minimum
of FSK modulation are observed.

Industrial Purpose:

 Over voice lines

 In high frequency applications

Troubles & Trouble Shooting:

 Checking the circuit connections whether it is properly connected as per the circuit diagram.
 Check whether the carrier frequency of 100 KHz by IC XR2206 (function generator).
 Calculation of R and C is design properly. Connect each resistor to 7 and 8th pin of XR2206.
Give the input to 9th pin.

RESULT:

Thus the frequency shift keying modulator and demodulator circuit was constructed and
performed.
 Ex No:5(c)
PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK) MODULATION
DATE:

AIM:
To construct and test the performance of BPSK modulator using XR 2206.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

No. Components /Equipments Range Quantity

1 IC XR2206 1
2 Resistor 5.1kΩ, 50kΩ, 47kΩ 2,1,1
3 Diode OA79 1
4 Variable resistors 10k Ω, 200k Ω. 1,1
5 Capacitor 10µf,1µf,1nf. 1,2,1
6 Signal generator (0.1-3M)HZ 1
7 CRO (0-30M)Hz 1
8 Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
9 Bread board 1
10 Connecting wires required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Pin diagram: XR2206

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

Parameters Amplitude(V) Time(ms)

Message signal
Carrier signal
PSK Output
 THEORY:

The PSK is now widely used in both military and commercial communications systems. The
general analytic expression for psk is
Si(t)=√(2E/t) cos[2∏ fo(t)+ Fi(t)] 0≤t≤T and i=1,2,…….M
Where the phase term, will have m discrete values.For the binary PSK m is 2. The parameter
E is symbol energy, T is symbol time duration and 0≤t≤T.
In BPSK modulation, the modulating data signals shift the phase of the waveform Si(t) to one
of the two states, either zero or 180, the waveform shows a typical BPSK waveform with its abrupt
phase changes at the symbol transitions, if the modulating data stream were able to consist of
alternating one’s and zero’s there would be such an abrupt change at each transition.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The square wave signal with amplitude +2V and frequency of 1 KHz is applied at the first pin.
3. BPSK output is observed at the CRO from 2nd pin.
4. The input and the output waveforms are drawn in the graph.

Industrial Purpose:

 Wireless LAN applications

Troubles & Trouble Shooting:

 Checking the circuit connections whether it is properly connected as per the circuit diagram.
 Check whether the carrier frequency of 100 KHz by IC XR2206 (function generator).
 Calculation of R and C is design properly. Connect variable resistor to 7th pin only of
XR2206. 9th pin is should be grounded.

RESULT:
Thus the circuit for binary phase shift keying has been constructed and the output waveforms
have been obtained.
 Ex No:6
SIMULATION OF CELLULAR SYSTEM
DATE:

AIM:
To simulate the UMTS handoff performance using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB

THEORY:
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) is a growing cellular technology and it
is famously acknowledged as 3G mobile communication system. It offers high data transfer speed,
speech, email, web browsing, multimedia, video telephony, and the audio streaming. UMTS offers
enhanced videoconferencing and high speed internet access and wide range of multimedia services.
The UE (User Equipment) moves from one location to other that indicates that the user can vary its
location any time everywhere with any speed.
The function of hand over technique is to ensure the user connectivity without disturbing the
call. In our survey readings these handover types have been studied those include horizontal
handover, vertical handover, hard handover, soft handover, inter system handover, inter frequency
handover and intra frequency handover.
The mobile user’s requirements are enhanced by the development of technology. The user
wants mobility and interoperability within dissimilar networks while enjoying the multimedia
services. In sequence to accomplish the demand of the users data requirements such as, lesser delay,
better quality of service, high data rate, mobility and interoperability with available cellular Networks
are required. UMTS uses the WCDMA (Wide band Code Division Multiple Access) technology that
offers high rate, on demand bandwidth and higher capacity as compared to 2nd Generation
technology.
ALGORITHM:
1. Initialize the values of distance between transmitter and receiver(d),integer(n),and z values
2. Assume the transmitted power as 1
3. In the loop condition use the formula for the power received
4. Plot the graph with distance Vs power received for different values of n and plot the graph.
PROGRAM CODE:
clc;
clear all;
d=1:5;
n=1;
z=1;
Pt=1;
while n<=1
Pr=Pt*(1./(d.^n));
PrdB=10*log(Pr);
n=n+0.5;
z=z+1;
plot(PrdB);
axis tight;
grid on;
title(['Power at the receiver for n=',num2str(n-0.5)]);
xlabel('Kilometers');
ylabel('Power received (dB)');
end
OUTPUT:
Power at the receiver for n=1
0

-2

-4

-6
Power received (dB)

-8

-10

-12 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Kilometers

-14

-16
Industrial Purpose:

 1G, 2G, 3G and other generation applications.

Troubles & Trouble Shooting:

 Verify the source codes and logics.

 Whether and input is given properly. And output is executed without errors.

RESULT;
Thus the UMTS handoff performance is simulated by using MATLAB.
Ex No:7
SATELLITE LINK BUDGET SIMULATION
DATE:

AIM:
To simulate the satellite link budget calculation using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB

THEORY:
Satellite Uplink:
The signals have to be sent at different frequency, usually in the higher 14GHz band, to avoid
interference with downlink signals. Another function performed by the uplink station is to control
tightly the internal functions of the satellite itself. Uplinks are controlled so that the transmitted
microwave power beam is extremely narrow, in order not to interfere with the adjacent satellites in
the geo – arc. The powers involved are several hundred watts.

Transponder:
Each satellite has a number of transponder witch access to a pair of receive / transmit antennas
and associated electronics for each channel. For example in Europe the uplink sends a signal at a
frequency of about 14 GHz. These are received downlink converted in frequency of about 11/ 12
GHz and boosted by high power amplifier for retransmission to earth. Separate transponder is used
for each channel and is powered by solar panels with backup batteries for eclipse protection.

Satellite Down Link:

The medium used to transmit signal from satellite to earth is microwave electromagnetic
radiation which is much higher in frequency normal broadcast TV signal in VHF / UHF bands.
Microwave still exhibit a wave like nature, but inherit a tendency to serve attenuation by water vapors
or any obstruction in line of sight of antenna. The transmitted micro wave power is extremely weak
by the time it reaches earth and unless well designed equipment is used and certain installation
precaution are taken, the background noise can ruin the signal.
ALGORITHM:
Uplink:
1. Initialize the values of Earth station transmitted o/p power,Earth station Back off Loss,Earth
station Branching and Feeder Loss, Diameter, Frequency,Additional Uplink Atmospheric
Losses,Transponder Ratio, Transmission Bit Rate.
2. Use the formula to calculate downlink parameters.
3. Obtain the values of the Antenna Gain,The Free Space Path Loss, EIRP, CPD, CNR, EbNo1
and Final E b No
Downlink :
1. Initialize the values of satellite transmitted o/p power,Satellite modulation Back off
Loss,Satellite Branching and Feeder Loss, Satellite Diameter, Satellite Frequency,Additional
Downlink Atmospheric Losses, Transponder2 Ratio,Enter the Transmission Bit Rate
 2. Use the formula to calculate downlink parameters
3. Obtain the values of the Antenna Gain,The Free Space Path Loss, EIRP, CPD, CNR, EbNo1
and Final E b No
PROGRAM CODE:
%UPLINK
Pt=input('Enter the Earth station transmitted o/p power: ');
Lbo=input('Earth station Back off Loss: ');
Lbf=input('Earth station Branching and Feeder Loss: ');
D=input('Enter the Diameter: ');
f=input('Enter the Frequency: ');
Lu=input('Additional Uplink Atmospheric Losses: ');
GTE=input('Enter the Transponder Ratio: ');
Fb=input('Enter the Transmission Bit Rate: ');
At=10*log10(.55*3.14*D*f*10/3);
Lp=183.5+20*log10(f);
EIRP=Pt+At-Lbo-Lbf;
CPD=EIRP-Lp-Lu;
CNR=CPD+GTE+228.6;
EbNo1=CNR-10*log10(Fb);
e1=10^(.1*EbNo1);
fprintf('\n The Antenna Gain: %f',At);
fprintf('\n The Free Space Path Loss: %f',Lp);
fprintf('\n EIRP: %f',EIRP);
fprintf('\n CPD: %f',CPD);
fprintf('\n CNR: %f',CNR);
fprintf('\n EbNo1: %f',EbNo1);
%DOWNLINK
Pt1=input('\n\nEnter the satellite transmitted o/p power: ');
Lbo1=input('Satellite modulation Back off Loss: ');
Lbf1=input('Satellite Branching and Feeder Loss: ');
D1=input('Enter the Satellite Diameter: ');
f1=input('Enter the Satellite Frequency: ');
Ld1=input('Additional Downlink Atmospheric Losses: ');
GTE1=input('Enter the Transponder2 Ratio: ');
Fb1=input('Enter the Transmission Bit Rate: ');
At1=10*log10(.55*3.14*D1*f1*10/3);
Lp1=183.5+20*log10(f);
EIRP1=Pt+At1-Lbo-Lbf;
CPD1=EIRP1-Lp1-Ld1;
CNR1=CPD1+GTE1+228.6;
EbNo2=CNR1-10*log10(Fb1);
e2=10^(.1*EbNo2);
Fin=e1*e2/(e1+e2);
fprintf('\n The Antenna Gain: %f',At1);
fprintf('\n The Free Space Path Loss: %f',Lp1);
fprintf('\n EIRP: %f',EIRP1);
fprintf('\n CPD: %f',CPD1);
fprintf('\n CNR: %f',CNR1);
fprintf('\n EbNo1: %f',EbNo2);
fprintf('\n\nFinalEbNo: %f',Fin);
SAMPLE INPUT AND OUTPUT:
Uplink:
Input:
Enter the Earth station transmitted o/p power: 30
Earth station Back off Loss: 3
Earth station Branching and Feeder Loss: 3
Enter the Diameter: 10
Enter the Frequency: 14
Additional Uplink Atmospheric Losses: 0.8
Enter the Transponder Ratio: -4.6
Enter the Transmission Bit Rate: 90000000
Output:
The Antenna Gain: 29.062991
The Free Space Path Loss: 206.422561
EIRP: 53.062991
CPD: -154.159570
CNR: 69.840430
EbNo1: -9.701995
Downlink:
Input:
Enter the satellite transmitted o/p power: 10
Satellite modulation Back off Loss: 0.8
Satellite Branching and Feeder Loss: 0
Enter the Satellite Diameter: 0.5
Enter the Satellite Frequency: 12
Additional Downlink Atmospheric Losses: 0.6
Enter the Transponder2 Ratio: 8.4
Enter the Transmission Bit Rate: 90000000
Output:
The Antenna Gain: 15.383223
The Free Space Path Loss: 206.422561
EIRP: 39.383223
CPD: -167.639337
CNR: 69.360663
EbNo1: -10.181762
Final EbNo: 0.050596
Industrial Purpose:
 Communication satellites and military applications.
Troubles & Trouble Shooting:
 Verify the source codes and logics.
 Whether and input is given properly. And output is executed without errors.

RESULT;
Thus the satellite link budget calculation is simulated by using MATLAB.
Ex No:8
OPTICAL FIBER LINK BUDGET SIMULATION
DATE:

AIM:
To simulate the optical fiber link budget calculation using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB
THEORY:
The optical link design essentially is putting the various optical components which we
discussed earlier, so that information can be transmitted satisfactorily. The satisfactoriness of the
transmission can be defined in terms of some characteristic parameters.
The user generally specifies the distance over which the information is to be sent and the data
rate to be transmitted. The Designer then has to find the specification of the system components.
The designer generally has to define some additional criteria either as per the standards or as
per the user specifications. The Design criteria are given in the following.
Primary Design Criteria
 Data Rate
 Link length
Additional Design Parameters
Modulation format eg Analog/digital
Depends upon the type of signals user want to transmit. For example if it is a TV signal, then
may be analog transmission is more suited as it requires less bandwidth and better linearity. On the
other hand if data or sampled voice is to be transmitted, digital format may be more appropriate. The
digital signals have to be further coded to suite the transmission medium and also for error correction.
System fidelity: BER, SNR
The system fidelity defines the correctness of the data received at the receiver. For digital
transmission it is measured by the Bit Error Ratio (BER) . The BER is defined as
Number of bits in error
BER =
Total Number of bits transmitted
In optical system the BER has to be less than 109 .
For analog system the quality parameter is the Signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio. Also there is a
parameter called the inter-modulation distortion which describes the linearity of the system.
Cost: Components, installation, maintenance
 Cost is one of the important issues of the link design.
 The cost has three components, components, installation and maintenance.
 The component and the installations cost are the initial costs. Generally the installation cost is
much higher than the component cost for long links. This is especially true for laying the
optical cable. It is therefore appropriate to lay the cables keeping in view the future needs.
 The optical link is suppose is supposed to work for at least 25years. The maintenance costs
are as important as the initial cost. An initial cheaper system might end up into higher
expenses in maintenance and therefore turn out to be more expensive as a whole.
ALGORITHM:
1. Initialize and give the input values for LED output power, number of Connectors,Loss at each
Connector, Length, Attenuation, number of Splices, Loss at each Splice,the System Margin,
Receiver Sensitivity.
2. Use formula to calculate the link parameters
3. Get the result for Total Loss,Power Received,Total Loss

PROGRAM CODE:
clc;
clear all;
Ps=input('Enter the LED output power: ');
PsdBm=10*log10 (Ps/0.001);
disp (PsdBm);
C=input('Enter the number of Connectors: ');
Closs=input ('Enter the Loss at each Connector: ');
Lc=C*Closs;
L=input ('Enter the Length: ');
a=input ('Enter the Attenuation: ');
CL=L*a;
S=input ('Enter the number of Splices: ');
Sloss=input ('Enter the Loss at each Splice: ');
Ls=S*Sloss;
SM=input ('Enter the System Margin: ');
TL=CL+Lc+Ls+SM;
Pr=input ('Enter the Receiver Sensitivity: ');
fprintf('\nTotal Loss:%f',TL);
fprintf('\nPower Received:%f\n',Pr);
Pt=PsdBm-Pr;
fprintf ('Total Loss:%f',Pt);

SAMPLE INPUT AND OUTPUT:

INPUT:
Enter the LED output power: 0.0001 -10
Enter the number of Connectors: 2
Enter the Loss at each Connector: 1
Enter the Length: 4.8
Enter the Attenuation: 3
Enter the number of Splices: 4
Enter the Loss at each Splice: 0.2
Enter the System Margin: 6
Enter the Receiver Sensitivity: -32
OUTPUT:
Total Loss:23.200000
Power Received:-32.000000
Total Loss:22.000000

Upgradeability
 The optical fiber technology is changing very rapidly and the data rates are increasing
steadily.
 The system should be able to adopt new technology as we should be able to accommodate
higher data rates with least possible changes.
Commercial availability
 Depending upon which part of the world one is, the availability of the components and the
systems may be an issue.

Industrial Purpose:

 LASER and LEDs applications.

Troubles & Trouble Shooting:

 Verify the source codes and logics.

 Whether and input is given properly. And output is executed without errors.

RESULT;
Thus the optical fiber link budget calculation is simulated by using MATLAB.
Ex No:9
SIMULATION OF VARIOUS PROPAGATION MODELS
DATE:

AIM:
To simulate the various propagation models using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB

THEORY:
Okumura's Model:
Okumura's model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas.
This model is applicable for frequencies in the range 150MHz to 1920 MHz (although it is typically
extrapolated up to 3000 MHz) and distances of 1 km to 100 km. It can be used for base station
antenna heights ranging from 30 m to 1000 m.
Okumura developed a set of curves giving the median attenuation relative to free space (Amu),
in an urban area over a quasi-smooth terrain with a base station effective antenna height (hte) of 200
m and a mobile antenna height (hre) of3 m. These curves were developed from extensive
measurements using vertical omni-directional antennas at both the base and mobile, and are plotted as
a function of frequency in the range 100 MHz to 1920 MHz and as a function of distance from the
base station in the range 1 km to 100 km. To determine path loss using Okumura's model, the free
space path loss between the points of interest is first determined, and then the value of Amu(f, d) (as
read from the curves)is added to it along with correction factors to account for the type of terrain. The
model can be expressed as
L50(dB) = LF + Amu(f, d) -G(hte) - G(hre) - GAREA
where L50 is the 50th percentile (i.e., median) value of propagation path loss, LFis the free space
propagation loss, Amu is the median attenuation relative to freespace, G(hte) is the base station antenna
height gain factor, G(hre) is the mobile antenna height gain factor, and GAREA is the gain due to the
type of environment. Note that the antenna height gains are strictly a function of height and have
nothing to do with antenna patterns.

Hata Model:
The Hata model [HatSO] is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided
by Okumura, and is valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz.Hata presented the urban area propagation
loss as a standard formula and supplied correction equations for application to other situations. The
standard formula for median path loss in urban areas is given by
 L50(urban)(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc —13.86 log hie — α(hte) + (44.9-6.55 log
hte)
Where fc is the frequency (in MHz) from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz, hie is the effective
transmitter (base station) antenna height (in meters) ranging from 30 m to200 m, hre is the effective
receiver (mobile) antenna height (in meters) ranging from 1 m to 10 m, d is the T-R separation
distance (in km), and a(hre) is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which is a
function of the size of the coverage area.

ALGORITHM:
1. Initialize the values of loss factors,distance,attenuation constant,
2. Use the formula to calculate loss in COST 231 model
L50(dB) = LF + Amu(f, d) -G(hte) - G(hre) - GAREA
3. Use the formula to calculate loss in HATA model
L50(urban)(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc —13.86 log hie — α(hte) + (44.9-
6.55 log hte)
4. Plot the graph for loss in dB Vs distance in Km for both models
PROGRAM CODE:
% Okumura/Hata v/s COST231
% Comparision 2
clc;
close all;
clear all;
%common parameters
d = 1:0.001:5;
fc1 = 1000;
fc2 = 1500;
fc3 = 2000;
hm = 3;
hb = 50;
% Okumura/Hata
ahm = 3.2*(log10(11.75*hm)).^2 - 4.97;
Lhata_1 = 69.55 + 26.16*log10(fc1) + (44.9 - 6.55*log10(hb))*log10(d) - 13.82*log10(hb) - ahm;
Lhata_2 = 69.55 + 26.16*log10(fc2) + (44.9 - 6.55*log10(hb))*log10(d) - 13.82*log10(hb) - ahm;
Lhata_3 = 69.55 + 26.16*log10(fc3) + (44.9 - 6.55*log10(hb))*log10(d) - 13.82*log10(hb) - ahm;
% COST 231
W = 15;
b = 30;
hr = 30;
phi = 90;
dhm = hr - hm;
dhb = hb -hr;
kd = 18 - 15*dhb/dhm;
ka = 54;
kf1 = 4 + 0.7*((fc1/925)-1);
kf2 = 4 + 0.7*((fc2/925)-1);
kf3 = 4 + 0.7*((fc3/925)-1);
Lcost_1 = 32.4 + 20*log10(d) + 20*log10(fc1) + -16.9 - 10*log10(W) + 10*log10(fc1) +
20*log(dhm) + 4 - 0.114*(phi-55) + -18*log10(11+dhb) + ka + kd*log10(d) + kf1*log10(fc1) -
9*log10(b);;
Lcost_2 = 32.4 + 20*log10(d) + 20*log10(fc2) + -16.9 - 10*log10(W) + 10*log10(fc2) +
20*log(dhm) + 4 - 0.114*(phi-55) + -18*log10(11+dhb) + ka + kd*log10(d) + kf2*log10(fc2) -
9*log10(b);
Lcost_3 = 32.4 + 20*log10(d) + 20*log10(fc3) + -16.9 - 10*log10(W) + 10*log10(fc3) +
20*log(dhm) + 4 - 0.114*(phi-55) + -18*log10(11+dhb) + ka + kd*log10(d) + kf3*log10(fc3) -
9*log10(b);
figure(1);
plot(d, Lcost_1, 'r', d, Lcost_2, '--r', d, Lcost_3,':r');
hold on;
L50(urban)(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc —13.86 log hte — α(hre) + (44.9-6.55 log hte)
plot(d, Lhata_1, 'b', d, Lhata_2, '--b', d, Lhata_3,':b');
hold on;
legend('COST231 f=1000 MHz' ,'COST231 f=1500 MHz' ,'COST231 f=2000 MHz','Hata f=1000
MHz' , 'Hata f=1500 MHz' ,'Hata f=2000 MHz');
grid on;
xlabel('d [Km]');
ylabel('L [dB]');
title('Comparision of Okumura/Hata Model and COST231 model ');

OUTPUT:

Comparision of Okumura/Hata Model and COST231 model

220
COST231 f=1000 MHz
COST231 f=1500 MHz
210
COST231 f=2000 MHz
Hata f=1000 MHz
Hata f=1500 MHz
200
Hata f=2000 MHz

190

180
L [dB]

170

160

150

140

130

120
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
d [Km]
Industrial Purpose:

 Mobile, Satellite Communication applications.

Troubles & Trouble Shooting:

 Verify the source codes and logics.

 Whether and input is given properly. And output is executed without errors.

RESULT;
Thus the various propagation models are simulated by using MATLAB.
Ex No:10
SIMULATION OF RADIATION PATTERN OF AN ANTENNA
DATE:

AIM:
To simulate the radiation pattern of Horn antenna using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB

THEORY
Horn antennas are made for the purpose of controlling one or more of the fundamental
antenna properties: gain, antenna pattern, and radiation resistance. A horn antenna works in
conjunction with a waveguide—a tube that channels energy from one location to another. Horn
antennas can have several shapes, depending on their function. Several are shown in Figure 10.

Rectangular –Waveguide Horns (a) Pyramidal (b) Sectoral H-plane (c) Sectoral E-plane (d)
Diagonal

The pyramidal horn in Figure 10a is used to maximize the gain, since the antenna is flared in
both the H-plane and E-plane. This obviously gives the antenna a fixed directivity, and it will radiate
principally in the direction of the horn’s axis. Figures 10b and 10c are special cases of the pyramidal
horn, where either the H-plane or E-plane is flared thus and maximized.

ALGORITHM:
1. Initialize and get the values for Diagonal distance of Antenna, Operating Frequency (GHz),
Transmitted Power (dB), Received power at LOS for E plane (dB), Received power at LOS for H
plane (dB), Wavelength, Minimum Distance, Gain for E plane, Gain for H plane.
2. Find out gain in both E and H planes in various directions
3. Plot the radiation pattern for horn antenna in both E and H-planes.
PROGRAM CODE:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
d=input('Diagonal distance of Antenna (cm): ');
f=input('Operating Frequency (GHz): ');
pt=input('Transmitted Power (dB): ');
pre=input('Received power at LOS for E plane (dB): ');
prh=input('Received power at LOS for H plane (dB); ');
w=3/(f*10);
disp('Wavelength: ');
disp(w);
Rmin=(2*(d*d))/(w*100);
disp('Minimum Distance: ');
disp(Rmin);
ge=4*pi*(Rmin*(10^(-2))/w)*(sqrt(10^(pre/10)/10^(pt/10)));
gaine=10*log10(ge);
disp('Gain for E plane: ');
disp(gaine);
gh=4*pi*(Rmin*(10^(-2))/w)*(sqrt(10^(prh/10)/10^(pt/10)));
gainh=10*log10(gh);
disp('Gain for H plane: ');
disp(gainh);
for i=1:100
theta(i)=pi*(i-1)/99;
Ge(i)=abs(pre)*sin(theta(i))^8;
Gh(i)=abs(prh)*sin(theta(i))^8;
end
figure(1)
polar(theta,Ge);
title('E plane');
figure(2);
polar(theta,Gh);
title('H plane');
SAMPLE INPUT AND OUTPUT:
INPUT:

Diagonal distance of Antenna (cm): 9

Operating Frequency (GHz): 9.296
Transmitted Power (dB): -21
Received power at LOS for E plane (dB): -32
Received power at LOS for H plane (dB); -35.9
Wavelength:
0.0323
Minimum Distance:
50.1984
Gain for E plane:
17.4107
Gain for H plane:
15.4607

OUTPUT:
E plane
90
40
120 60

30

150 20 30

10

180 0

210 330

240 300

270

H plane
90
40
120 60

30

150 20 30

10

180 0

210 330

240 300

270
Industrial Purpose:

 Antennas are used as direction finder.

 Used as transceiver.
 Satellite uplink and downlink budget calculations.

Troubles & Trouble Shooting:

 Verify the source codes and logics.

 Whether and input is given properly. And output is executed without errors.

RESULT;
Thus the radiation pattern of Horn antenna is simulated by using MATLAB.