Alternate Fuels and Energy Au2022

VEL TECH VEL TECH MULTI TECH VEL TECH HIGH TECH
UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
PART – A
1. What is the need for Alternate fuels?
Necessities for the search of Alternative fuels are:
1. To ensure that when the short fall in crude oil occurs, there can be a smooth transition to
other fuels.
2. To provide long – term security of supply because well over half of the world’s crude oil is
in the Middle East.
3. To improve air quality because the alternative fuel may give cleaner exhaust gases as, for
example is claimed for methanol as a replacement for gasoline. However, the
improvements in exhaust emissions resulting from the use of reformulated gasolines will
delay the general introduction of alternative fuel such as methanol.
4. To overcome the absence of an indigenous crude oil supply together with an adverse
balance of payments situation. An example has been the use of ethanol as an automotive
fuel in brazil, where expensive crude oil had to be imported but ethanol could be
manufactured relatively cheaply (when world sugar prices were low) by fermenting sugar
cane.
2. List down the criteria in the selection of Alternative fuels?
Selection criteria of alternative fuels are:
1. It must be cheap and should be available everywhere.

2. It must burn clean and produce less emission.
3. It must have high calorific value.
4. It should be easy and cheaper to produce.
5. It should need less modification in existing I.C. engines.
6. It should increase the engine life.
7. It should require less engine maintenance.
8. It should be easy to handling and store.
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3. List out potential alternative fuels for I.C. engines?
I. Liquid fuels
1. Alcohols
a. Methanol or Methyl Alcohol (CH3 OH)
b. Ethanol or Ethyl Alcohol (C2H5OH)
c. Di – MethyI Ether (DME) (CH3OCH3)
d. Di – Ethyl Ether (DEE) (C2H5OC2H5)
e. Methyl Tertiary – Butyl Ether (MTBE) [CH3OC(CH3)3]
2. Bio diesec (Bio fuels liquid) – Ester made from fats or oils.
II. Gaseous fuels
1. Hydrogen (H2).
2. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) (Methane) (CH4)
2A. LNG
3. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
4. Producer Gas (CO) (from Coal or Coke)
4A. Wood gas
5. Biogas (CH4 and CO)
6. Ammonia
7. Nitrgen8
III. Alternate Renevable Energy Sopurces – Solar, Wind, Hydropower
All come the sun directly or indirectly.
4. Write short notes on Alcohol?
Alcohol:
Alcohols are an attractive alternate fuel because they can be obtained from both natural and
manufactured sources. Methanol (methyl alcohol) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol) are two kinds of
alcohols that seem most promising. The advantages of alcohol as a fuel are:
i. It can be obtained from a number of sources, both natural and manufactured.

ii. It is a high octane fuel with anti – knock index numbers (octane number) of over 100.
Engines using high – octane fuel can run more efficiently by using higher compression
ratios. Alcohols have higher flame speed.
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iii. It produces less overall emissions compared to gasoline.

iv. When alcohols are burned, it forms more of exhaust gases, which gives higher pressure and
more power in the expansion stroke.
v. It have high latent heat of vaporization (h fg) which results in a cooler intake process. This
raises the volumetric efficiency of the engine and reduces the required work input in the
compression stroke.
vi. Alcohols have low sulphur content in the fuel.
5. What is meant by LPG?
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG):
Propane and butane are obtained from oil and gas wells. They are also the products of the
petroleum refining process. For automobile engines, two types of LPG are used. One is propane
and the other is butane. Sometimes, a mixture of propane and butane is used as liquid petroleum
gas in automobile engines. Liquid petroleum gases serve as fuel in place of petrol. They are used
widely in buses, cars and trucks. Liquid petroleum gases are compressed and cooled to form
liquid. This liquid is kept in pressure tanks which are sealed.
6. Write the short notes on “Hydrogen” as fuel?
A number of automobile manufacturers have built with prototype or modified engines

which operate on hydrogen fuel. The advantages of hydrogen as an IC engine fuel include.
 Low emissions. Essentially no CO or HC in the exhaust as there is no carbon in the fuel.

Most exhaust would be H2O and N2 and NOx.
 Fuel availability. There are a number of different ways of making hydrogen, including
electrolysis of water.
 Fuel leakage to environment is not a pollutant.
 High energy content per volume when stored as a liquid. This would give a large vehicle
range for a given fuel tank capacity, but see the following.
7. Write short notes on “Ammonia” as fuel?
Ammonia (NH3):
Ammonia is normally a gas with a characteristically pungent odour. Ammonia is

commonly used as a fertilizer. It is used commercially and is often called as anhydrous ammonia.
This term emphasizes absence of water in the material. Ammonia shares the advantage of H 2
(which results from its non hydrocarbon composition) and has the additional advantage of non –
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cryogenic storage as a liquid which actually results in a greater energy density than liquid
hydrogen.
8. Briefly mention Compressed Natural Gas CNG
Petroleum and natural gas are obtained by the process of drilling wells. As already known
crude petroleum is composed of hydrocarbons. It contains some amount of water, sulphur and
other impurities. Petroleum when mixed with natural gas produces a highly volatile liquid. This
liquid is known as natural gasoline. When this petroleum – natural gas mixture is cooled, the
gasoline condenses.
The natural gas can be compressed and then it is called compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
CNG is used to run an automobile vehicle just like LPG. The CNG fuel feed system is similar to
the LPG fuel feed system. CNG conversion kits are used to convert petrol – driven cars into CNG
– driven cars. These kits contain auxiliary parts like the converter, mixer and other essential parts
required for conversion.
9. Briefly explain Bio diesel/ Vegetable oils?
Initial, it was believed that vegetable oils could be used directly with minimal processing
and preparation. However, extensive engine testing proved that while diesel engines operated
satisfactorily on “raw” vegetable oils, combustion residues and deposits would quickly cause
problems with fuel injectors, piston rings, and oil stability. By reacting the oils with methanol or
ethanol, esters are formed which have much improved characteristics as fuels. These esterified
versions of vegetable oils have been given the generic label of “biodiesel”.
10. Write shorts notes on “Biogas”?
Biogas:
Biogas is another alternate fuel tried in diesels. Biogas can be produced by anaerobic
digestion of organic matter. Potential raw materials available on a large scale are cow dung,
municipal wastes, and plants specially grown for this purpose like water hyacinth, algae, certain
types of grasses. The main advantages of bio – gas is that it can be produced in rural areas from
readily available materials. Bio gas consists mainly of methane and carbon dioxide. Its calorific
value is low but its knock resistance (octane number) is high and ignition quality (cetane number)
is low. In dual fuel type diesel engine, the gas is mixed with the incoming air and ignited by pilot
diesel fuel injection. Similar to the behavior of alcohol diesel oil dual fuel engines, this gas engine
also suffers a fall in efficiency at part loads, compared to the diesel engine, but has good efficiency
at full power output.
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PART – B
1. List out the properties of fuels?
FUEL PROPERTIES:
1. Auto Ignition Temperature:
Auto ignition temperature is a minimum temperature of a substance to initiate self

sustained combustion independent of any ignition source.
2. Boiling Temperature:
Boling temperature is a temperature at which the transformation from liquid to vapor

phase occurs on a substance at a pressure of 14.7 psi (atmospheric pressure at sea level). Fuels that
are pure compounds (such as methanol) have a single temperature as their boiling points, while
fuels with mixtures of several compounds (like gasoline) have boiling points of each individual
compound in the mixture. For these mixtures, the 10% point of distillation is often used as the
boiling point.
3. Cetane Number:
The ignition of a diesel fuel measured using an engine test specified in ASTM methods
D613. Cetane number is determined using two pure hydrocarbon reference fuels: cetane, which
has a cetane rating of 100; and heptamethylnoname (also called isocetane) which has a cetane
rating of 15. Density – mass per 2 methyl napthalene unit volume, expressed in kg / 1 or IB / gal.
4. Electrical Conductivity:
Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct an electrical

charge.
5. Flame Spread Rate:
Flame spread rate is a rate of flame propagation across a fuel pool.
6. Flame Visibility:
Flame visibility is a degree to which combustion of a substance under various conditions

can be seen.
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7. Flammability Limits:
Minimum and maximum concentrations of vapor on air below and above which the
mixtures are unignitable a vapor – air concentration below the lower flammable limits is too lean
to ignite, while a concentration above the upper flammable limit is too rich to ignite.
8. Flash Point and Fre Point:
Flash point is the minimum temperature of a liquid at which sufficient vapor as produced
to form a flammable mixture with air.
9. Freezing Point:
Freezing point is the temperature where a liquid can exist as both a liquid and a solid in
equilibrium.
10. Heating Value:
The heat released when a fuel is combusted completely corrected to standard pressure and
temperature. The higher heating value is complete combustion with the air in the exhaust gases
condensed. The lower heating value is when the water vapor in the exhaust is in the vapor phase.
11. Latent Heat of Vaporization:
Latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat absorbed by a fuel on passing between
liquid and gaseous phases. The condition under which latent heat of vaporization is measured is
the boiling point and atmospheric pressure, 101.4 kpa.
12. Molecular Weight:
The sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule.
13. Octane Number:
Octane number is a measure of the resistance of a fuel to combustion knock using

standardized engine tests. The research and motor octane number is determined using ASTM
Method. The antiknock Index is the average of the Research and motor numbers. Octane
numbers are determined using n – heptanes that has an octane number of 0, and isooctane that has
an octane number of 100.
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14. Odor Recognition:
Degree of smell associated with that fuel vapor.
15. Specific Gravity:
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of water.
16. Specific Heat:
The ratio of the heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance one degree compared to
the heat needed to raise the same mass of water one degree.
17. Stoichiometric Air – Fuel Ratio:
The exact air – fuel ratio required to completely combust a fuel to water and carbon
dioxide.
18. Viscosity:
Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to flow.
19. Water Solubility:
Water solubility is a maximum concentration of a substance that will dissolve in water.
20. Cloud Point
21. Pour Point
22. Oxidation stability
23. Anti foaming
24. Anti guming
25. Detergent
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Figure: PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
2. What are the disadvantages of Alcohol as a fuel?
The disadvantages of alcohol as a fuel are:
1. Alcohols have a low energy content or in other words the calorific value of the fuel is
almost half. This means that almost twice as much alcohol as gasoline must be burned to
give the same energy input to the engine. With equal thermal efficiency and similar engine
output usage, twice as much fuel would have to be purchased, and the distance which
could be driven with a given fuel tank volume would be cut in half. Automobiles as well as
distribution stations would require twice as much storage capacity, twice the number of
storage facilities, twice the volume of storage at the service station, twice as many tank
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trucks and pipelines, etc. Even with the lower energy content of alcohol, engine power for
a given displacement would be about the same. This is because of the lower air – fuel ratio
needed by alcohol. Alcohol contains oxygen and thus requires less air for stoichiometric
combustion. More fuel can be burned with the same amount of air.
2. Combustion of alcohols produces more aldehydes in the exhaust. If as much alcohol fuel
was consumed as gasoline, aldehyde emissions would be a serious exhaust pollution
problem.
3. Alcohol is much more corrosive than gasoline on copper, brass, aluminum, rubber, and
many plastics. This puts some restrictions on the design and manufacturing of engines to
be used with this fuel. Fuel lines and tanks, gaskets, and even metal engine parts can
deteriorate with long – term alcohol use (resulting in cracked fuel lines, the need for special
fuel tank, etc). Methanol is very corrosive on metals.
4. It has poor cold weather starting characteristics due to low vapor pressure and evaporation.
Alcohol – fuelled engines generally have difficulty in starting at temperatures below 10 0 C.
Often a small amount of gasoline is added to alcohol fuel, which greatly improves cold –
weather starting. However, the need to do this greatly reduced the attractiveness of any
alternate fuel.
5. Alcohols have poor ignition characteristics in general.
6. Alcohols have an almost invisible flame, which is considered dangerous when handling
fuel. A small amount of gasoline removes this danger.
7. There is the danger of storage tank flammability due to low vapor pressure. Air can leak
into storage tanks and create a combustible mixture.
8. There will be less NOx emissions because of low flame temperatures. However, the
resulting lower exhaust temperatures take longer time to heat the catalytic converter to an
efficient operating temperature.
9. Many people find the strong odor of alcohol very offensive. Headaches and dizziness have
been experienced when refueling an automobile.
10. There is a possibility of vapor lock in fuel delivery systems.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of LPG?
Advantages and Disadvantages of LPG:
Liquefied petroleum gas has higher potential as an alternate fuel for IC engines. The
advantages and disadvantages of using LPG are
Advantages:
(i) LPG contains less carbon than petrol. LPG powered vehicle produces 50 per cent less
carbon monoxide per kilometre, though only slightly less nitrogen compounds. Therefore
emission is much reduced by the use of LPG.
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(ii) LPG mixes with air at all temperatures.

(iii) In multi – cylinder engines a uniform mixture can be supplied to all cylinders.
(iv) Since the fuel is in the form of vapour, there is no crankcase dilution.
(v) Automobile engines can use propane, if they have high compression ratios (10:1).
(vi) LPG has high antiknock characteristics.
(vii)Its heat energy is about 80 per cent of gasoline, - but its high octane value compensates
the thermal efficiency of the engine.
(viii) Running on LPG translates into a cost saving of about 50%.
(ix)The engine may have a 50 per cent longer life.
Comparison of Petrol and LPG
Petrol Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Fuel consumption in petrol engine is less when Compared to petrol, running the engine on LPG
compared to LPTG. results in around a 10% increase in
consumption.
Petrol has odour. LPG is odourless.
Octane rating of petrol is 81. Octane rating of LPG is 110.
Petrol engine is not as smooth as LPG engine. Due to higher octane rating, the combustion of
In order to increase octane number petrol LPG is smoother and knocking is eliminated
required lead additives. and the engine runs smoothly.
The mixture of petrol and air always leaks past When LPG leaks past the rings into the
the piston rings and washes away the crankcase, it does not wash oil from cylinder
lubricating oil from the upper cylinder wall walls and does not generate black carbon.
surfaces in the process. This results in lack of Hence, the lubricating layer is not washed
lubricant which causes more wear. It also away. Thereby, the engine life is increased by
carries with it unburnt fuel components (black 50%
carbon) and falls into the engine oil. Thus the
life of petrol engine is shorter.
Due to formation of carbon deposits on the Due to absence of carbon deposits on the
spark plugs, the life of the spark plugs is electrodes of the spark plugs, the life of the
shortened. spark plugs is increase.
Carburetor supplies the mixture of petrol and The vaporizer functions as the carburetor when
air in the proper ratio to the engine cylinders for the engine runs on LPG. It is a control device
combustion. that reduces LPG pressure, vaporizes it and
supplies to the engine with a regular flow of gas
as per the engine requirement.
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Disadvantages:
(i) Engines are normally designed to take in a fixed volume of the mixture of fuel and air.
Therefore LPG will produce 10 per cent less horse power for a given engine, at full
throttle.
(ii) The ignition temperature of LPG is somewhat higher than petrol. Therefore running on
LPG could lead to a five per cent reduction in valve life.
(iii) A good cooling system is quite necessary, because LPG vaporizer uses engine coolant to
provide the heat to convert the liquid LPG to gas.
(iv) The vehicle weight is increased due to the use of heavy pressure cylinders for storing
LPG.
(v) A special fuel feed system is required for liquid petroleum gas.
4. What are disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel?
 Requirement of heavy, bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service stations.
Hydrogen can be stored either as a cryogenic liquid or as a compressed gas. If stored as a
liquid, it would have to be kept under pressure at a very low temperature requiring a
thermally super – insulated fuel tank. Storing in a gas phase would require a high pressure
vessel with limited capacity.
 Difficult to refuel and the possibility of detonation.
 Poor engine volumetric efficiency. Any tiem a gaseous fuel is used in an engine, the fuel
will displace some of the inlet air and poorer volumetric efficiency will result.
 Fuel cast would be high at present – day technology and availability.
 High NOX emissions because of high flame temperature.
5. Write briefly as “Ammonia” as automobile fuel?
Ammonia has been demonstrated as a Practical fuel for engine applications. Apart from
being an unstored fuel, absence of carbon which results in absence of two major pollutants HC
and CO in the exhaust are its added advantage Ammonia’s density is lighter than that of air and
thus dissipates rapidly.
An Investigation to accomplish compression ratio of 35 is necessary to accomplish Ignition

of NH3. This is not possible therefore, with normal compression ratio of 18:1 a supplementary
sparkplug and associated distributor system is used. The second method of ignition is to use little
amount of diesel to initiate ignition. Another method to used NH 3 as fuel to use dissociate which
cracks a partial of it into H2 and N2 and N2 Prior to its introduction into the cylinder.
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The performance characteristics of engine using NH 3 as fuels are similar to performance

characteristics obtained with petroleum fuels with NH3 as fuel the following results are obtained.
1. Liquid NH3 can be used satisfactorily as a fuel in diesel engines at compression ratio of 16
-18 by using spart ignition.
2. At comparable A:F ratio, the engine develops 10 – 15% less power when operated using
NH3 as fuel when compared with diesel fuel.
3. The specific fuel consumption for NH3 is 2.5 times greater than that for diesel oil.
4. Performance of engine is extremely sensitive to the spark advance.
5. When running on NH3 the engine can be successfully operated at A/F ratio close to
stoichiometric.
6. The maximum thermal efficiency with NH3 fuel is 51% verses 45% with diesel fuel.
Use of ammonia as engine fuel is necessary under fuel situation like military operation where
use of NH3 is very much justified since operation of NH3 fuel from locally available as of water.
6. Explain the usage of LNG as automobile fuel?
Liquefied Natural Gas:
The advantage of LNG in terms of energy storage density is readily evident from Table 2 -6
and is the reason over – the – road truckers prefer LNG to CNG. (LNG fuel systems also are
lighter per unit volume of fuel storage compared with CNG fuel systems). LNG is a very clean
fuel since no water vapor or sulfur compounds can survive the liquefaction process. (This is why
LNG is not odorized). Higher hydrocarbons such as ethane and propane can be present, though
this is usually undesirable because of phenomenon called “weathering”. LNG is stored at very
low temperatures ( - 120 to – 1620 C [ - 195 to – 2600 F]). While the insulation of LNG storage tanks
is very good, LNG still experiences a net gain of heat because of the difference between the fuel
temperature and the ambient temperature. As heat is gained by the LNG, vapor is generated
which must eventually be released from the storage tank to avoid over – pressurization because
LNG tanks are not designed to maintain high pressures (if they were, they would lose the
advantages in tank weight which come from storing natural gas as a liquid rather than a gas). The
methane content of the vapor released from the fuel is higher than that of the fuel itself because
most of the other compounds contained in natural gas have higher boiling points than methane,
and methane typically makes up 95% or greater of the composition of natural gas. The non –
methane components of natural gas are predominantly ethane and propane, though nitrogen and
carbon dioxide may also be present. Of these, nitrogen is the only one with a boiling point lower
than methane. The loss of high – methane content vapor during storage causes the methane
content of the LNG to decline over time. The loss of methane vapor and the deterioration of
methane content in the LNG is referred to as “LNG” weathering”.
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The energy density of LNG is about 67% that of gasoline and 59% that of diesel fuel. This
suggests that it takes 1.5 liter of diesel fuel. Like CNG, LNG tanks have a smaller fuel storage
volume compared to total exterior volume than the typical diesel fuel tank because of the
insulation required to keep the LNG cold.
7. Explain the usage of vegetable oils as fuel?
Vegetable Oils:
The interest in using vegetable oils as alternative fuels originated within the agricultural
community as a fuel for agricultural tractors and equipment. In 1982, the American Society of
Agricultural Engineers held the International Conference on Plant and Vegetable Oils as Fuels
[1.28]. This conference made the point that vegetable oils could be viable alternative fuels for use
in diesel engines. About the same time, vegetable oils were being studied in Austria, France,
Germany, and Italy [1.29]. In Europe, vegetable oils were tested in engine dynamometer, and field
tests were conducted in tractors, trucks, and diesel engine passenger cars.
The most popular types of crops from which vegetable oils can be extracted include
soybeans, sunflowers, peanuts, rapeseed, and Chinese tallow tress. Dozens of candidate plants
can yield significant oil yields per acre [1.30].
Initial, it was believed that vegetable oils could be used directly with minimal processing
and preparation. However, extensive engine testing proved that while diesel engines operated
satisfactorily on “raw” vegetable oils, combustion residues and deposits would quickly cause
problems with fuel injectors, piston rings, and oil stability. By reacting the oils with methanol or
ethanol, esters are formed which have much improved characteristics as fuels. These esterified
versions of vegetable oils have been given the generic label of “biodiesel”. Manufacturers of
biodiesel have been targeting transit bus fleets to use a blend typically containing 20% biodiesel
with diesel fuel, known also as “B20”. The favorable emissions properties of biodiesel reduce
smoke, particulates, and gaseous emissions when used in the typical transit but. The major
impediment to use of such blends of biodiesel and diesel fuel is the cost of biodiesel compared to
some other alternative fuels that could be used, and with emission control hardware for older
transit buts engines. Biodiesel is not the only alternative fuel facing unfavorable economics
relative petroleum fuels; however, it remains a viable contender as an alternative fuel for diesel
transportation engines.
The initial interest in using biodiesel was based on energy security for the agricultural
segment. This interest remains, but there are several favorable environmental reasons for using
biodiesel. Besides lower gaseous emissions, biodiesel contains no toxins (other than perhaps very
small amounts of unreacted methanol in methyl ester biodiesels) and quickly biodegrades when
spilled on the ground or in the water. An example of this interest in Europe is that chainsaw
lubrication oils must be 80% biodegradable, which biodiesel satisfies readily.
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8. Write Briefly about Electric Vehicle?
An electric vehicle figure is a simple mechanical system consisting of a battery to supply

energy, a drive motor to transmit it to the wheels and electronic controls to regulate the whole
system. It has a limited number of components, which require no tuning and very little
maintenance. Consequently, electric cars offer very high operating reliability. Electric vehicles are
constantly evolving.
Figure: An electric vehicle
Electric vehicle are an emerging promising technology, which could help solve pollution
problems in urban areas. They could also limit traffic congestion because they are small in size,
thus they require limited space for parking and are technically suitable for urban traffic. Energy
savings are also possible depending on the characteristics of the power generation system.
Despite of lack of real market, the potential of EV s is ample in terms of technology and
performance. Recent governmental initiatives in various countries like France, Italy and USA have
promoted these systems, opening new and more real perspectives for wider applications.
Concerns still remain about the need for a large infrastructure system to carry out the recharging
of batteries and the maintenance of the vehicles.
The analysis of the mission requirements of present car parks in Europe demonstrates that
market niches are currently accessible by the technical performance of commercially available EVs.
The market niches have been long investigated by means of demonstration activities, which have
high – lighted technical and also economical benefits of the introduction of EVs. EVs have been
introduced and accepted.
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9. Briefly explain Hybrid Drives?
Combined Power Source Vehicles (Hybrid Drives):
Internal combustion engines produce polluting emissions as well as deliver poor efficiency
at part load. Electric drives on the other hand produce “no” emissions but have a limited range.
The concept of hybrid drive is to combine the best aspects of each and minimize the worst. The
principle of the hybrid drive system is shown in figure.
Figure: Principle of the hybrid drive system
One way of combining these two drives is to use the electric drive in slow traffic and towns,
and to use the IC engine on the open road. This is most effective way of reducing pollution in
towns. Sophisticated control systems can permit even better usage, like under certain conditions
both the electric motor and the engine can be used.
10. Briefly explain the functions of Fuel Cell?
Fuel Cells:
The energy of oxidation of conventional fuels, which it usually manifested as heat, may be
converted directly into electricity, in a fuel cell. The process of oxidation involves a transfer of
electrons between the fuel and oxidant and in a fuel cell works on this principle where the energy
is directly converted into electricity. All battery cell involve an oxide reduction at the positive pole
and an oxidation at the negative pole during some part of their chemical process. For the
separation of these reactions in a fuel cell an anode, cathode and electrolyte are required. The
electrolyte is fed directly with the fuel. When hydrogen fuel is combined with oxygen it is found
to be a most efficient design. Fuel cells are very reliable and silent in operation, but at present are
very expensive to construct. Figure shows a simplified representation of a fuel cell.
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In one type of fuel cell hydrogen is passed over an electrode (the anode) of porous nickel,
which is coated with a catalyst, and the hydrogen diffuses into the electrolyte. This causes
electrons to be stripped off the hydrogen atoms. These electrons then pass through the external
circuit. Negatively charged hydrogen anions (OH ) are formed at the electrode over which
oxygen is passed, such that they also diffuse into the solution. These move through the electrolyte
to the anode. The electrolyte used is a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH). Water is formed
as the by – product of a reaction involving the hydrogen ions, electrons and oxygen atoms. If the
heat generated by the fuel cell is used, then an efficiency of over 80% is possible together with a
very good energy density figure.
Figure: Simplified representation of fuel cell
The working temperatures of these cells vary but about 573 K is typical. High pressure is
also used and this can be in the order of 3 × 10 6 N/m2. The pressures and storage of hydrogen are
the main problems to overcome with fuel cells before they can be realistic alternatives to other
form of storage for the mass market.
11. Briefly Explain solar powered vehicle?
Solar Powered Vehicle:
The present trend of a steady increase in the population is causing rapid depletion in the
reserves of fossil fuels due to increase in energy consumption. Therefore utilization of alternate
energy sources like solar photovoltaic cells has come up.
Photo – voltaic Cells:
Photovoltaic cells (often called solar cells) are semi – conductor devices, which are capable
of converting sunlight directly into electricity. All photovoltaic cells are individual generating
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units and are small in linear dimension. These are connected in series and parallel to obtain the
required values of current and voltage for electric power generation. Photovoltaic devices are
available with a large range of efficiencies and voltages. Some cells are designed to withstand
high solar intensities and high operating temperatures, while others are designed to minimize
manufacturing costs.
The conversion of sunlight into electrical energy is a solar cell involves three major
processes: (a) absorption of the sunlight in the semiconductor material, (b) generation and
separation of free positive and negative charges to different regions of the solar cells, creating a
voltage in the solar cell, and (c) transfer of these separated charges through electrical terminals to
the outside application in the form of electric current.
When the light is absorbed in the semiconductor, a negatively charged electron and
positively charged hole are created. The heart of the solar cell is the electrical junction, which
separates these electrons and holes from one another after they are created by the light. An
electrical junction may be formed by the contact of (a) metal to a semiconductor (this junction is
called a Schottky barrier) (b) a liquid to a semiconductor to form a photo – electrochemical cell or
(c) two semiconductor regions (celled a p – n junction).
The fundamental principal of the electrical junction can be illustrated with the silicon p – n
junction. Pure silicon to which a trace amount of a fifth column element such a phosphorous has
been added is an n – type semiconductor, where electric current is carried by free electrons. Each
phosphorus atom contributes one free electron, leaving behind the phosphorus atom bound to the
crystal structure with a unit positive charge. Similarly, pure silicon to which a trace amount of a
column three element such as born has been added is a p – type semiconductor, where the electric
current is carried by free holes. The interface between the ‘p’ and ‘n’ type silicon is called ‘p-n’
junction. The fixed charges at the interface due to the bound boron and phosphorus atoms create
a permanent dipole charge layer with a high electric field. When photons of light energy from sun
produce electron hole pairs near the junctions, the built – in electric field forces the holes to the ‘p’
side and the electrons to the ‘n’ side. This displacement of free charges results in a voltage
difference between two regions of the crystal. When a load is connected at the terminals, and
electron current flows and useful electric power is available at the load.
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UNIT – II
PART – A
ALCOHOLS
1. Discuss “ALCOHOL” as alternate fuel?
ALCOHOL FUEL:
There is nothing new in the use of alcohol as a motor fuel. In 1872, when Nikolaus Otto
invented the internal combustion engine, gasoline was not available. Ethyl alcohol at 180 – 190
proof was the specified fuel. The model “T” Ford was designed to run on the available crude
gasoline, alcohol, or any combination of the two.
Alcohols in general and ethanol, in particular, make excellent motor fuels. The reason
alcohol fuel has not been fully exploited is that, up until now; gasoline has been cheap, available,
and easy to produce. However, crude oil is getting scarce, and the historic price differential
between alcohol and gasoline is getting narrower.
Currently there is a big push to find and develop alternative sources of energy so that
dwindling reserves of crude oils and other fossil fuels may be conserved. As Edward Teller, one of
this country’s leading physicists points out: “No single prescription exists for a solution to the
energy problem. Energy conservation is not enough. Petroleum is not enough. Coal is not
enough. Nuclear energy is not enough. Solar and geothermal energy are not enough. New ideas
and developments will not be enough by themselves. Only the proper combination of all of these
will suffice”.
2. Write shortly about “Alcohol” fuels for SI engines?
The rapid depletion of petroleum fuels and their ever increasing costs have led to an
intensive search for alternative fuels. The most promising substitutes for petroleum fuels are the
alcohols – mainly methanol and ethanol. These alcohols can be readily made from a number of
non – petroleum sources. Methanol or methyl alcohol (CH 3OH) can be produced from coal, a
relatively abundant fossil fuel. Ethanol or ethyl alcohol (C 2H5OH) can be produced by
fermentation of carbohydrates which occur naturally and abundantly in some plants like
sugarcane and from starchy materials like corn and potatoes. Hence these fuels can be produced
from highly reliable and long lasting raw material sources.
It has been known since the invention of the internal combustion engine that alcohol could
be used as a motor fuel. Alcohols were used in vehicles in the early part of this century, until low
18
cost gasoline nearly forced them off the market. Since world war II the use of alcohol as a motor
fuel has been reduced to less than one – tenth of the pre – world war – II levels except in countries
like Brazil, Cuba and the Philippines where there is large supply of sugar cane. Racing cars have
always preferred and continue to prefer methanol as a fuel because of the increased power
obtainable from the same engine over gasoline.
3. Write shortly the combustion properties of alcohol?
Combustion Properties:
One of the most important properties of a fuel is the amount of energy obtained from it
when it is burned. Referring to figure note that the hydrocarbon octane, which represents an
“ideal” gasoline, contains no oxygen. In comparison, all of the alcohols contain an oxygen atom
bonded to a hydrogen atom in the hydroxyl radical. When the alcohol is burned, the hydroxyl
combines with a hydrogen atom to form a molecule of water. Thus, the oxygen contained in the
alcohol contributes nothing to the fuel value.
Figure: Physical Properties of ALCOHOL and GASOLINE
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The relative atomic weights of the atoms involved are: hydrogen, 1; carbon, 12; and oxygen,
16. Since methyl alcohol has an atomic weight of 32, half the molecule cannot be “burned” and
does not contribute any fuel value. An expected, methanol has less than half the heat value
(expressed in Btu / lb) of gasoline. Ethanol, with 35% oxygen, is slightly better with 60% of the
heat value of gasoline.
If the heating value of methyl and ethyl alcohol were considered alone, they would appear
to be poor choices as motor fuels. However, other redeeming qualities such as “latent heat of
vaporization” and anti – knock values make alcohol fuels superior, in some ways, to gasoline.
4. What is the major advantage of Ethanol in petrol blend?
Advantages alcohol blended petrol:
1. Alcohol has an octane value of about 90 while petrol has octane value of 60 -70.
Consequently, addition of alcohol to petrol increases its octane number. Hence alcohol
blended petrol possesses better anti knock properties.
2. Alcohol petrol blends have lesser starting difficulties.
3. The greater advantages of adding alcohol to petrol is that, alcohol is capable of absorbing
any traces of moisture present, which may otherwise find its way into the petrol system.
5. Discuss any two important properties of methanol with conventional fuels for use in IC
engines?
Methanol higher octane qualities allow the use of high compression ratios, and their ability
to burn at rich mixture strengths coupled with their high latent heat of vaporization enables them
to produce more power than is possible with gasoline.
Methanol has a latent heat of vaporization nearly 3.4 times that of gasoline on a mass basis.
Since it takes approximately twice as much methanol as gasoline, the overall effect in nearly seven
times as high. This is an advantage to the power output of spark ignition engines because the
latent heat cools the intake air, making it denser.
6. What is the chief problem with alcohol gasoline blends?
1. Alcohols have low energy content or in other words the calorific value of the fuel is almost
half.
2. Combustion of alcohols produces more avolarile fluid with suffocaling small in the exhaust.
3. Alcohols are much more corrosive than gasoline on copper, brass, aluminum, rubber, and
many plastics.
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4. It has poor cold weather starting characteristics due to low vapor pressure and evaporation.
5. Alcohols have almost invisible flames, which are considered dangerous when handling
fuel.
6. There is a possibility of vapor lock in fuel delivery systems.
7. There is the danger of storage tank flammability due to low vapor pressure.
7. Why alcohols are considered as good S.I. engine fuels?
1. It is a high octane fuel with anti knock index numbers of over 100. Engines using high –
octane fuel can run more efficient by using higher compression ratios.
2. Alcohols have higher flame speed.
3. It produces less overall emissions when compared with gasoline.
4. When alcohols are burned, it forms more moles of exhaust gases, which gives higher
pressure and more power in the expansion stroke.
5. It has high latent heat of vaporization which results in a cooler intake process. This raises
the volumetric efficiency of the engine and reduces the required work input in the
compression stroke.
6. Alcohols have low sulphur content in the fuel.
8. What do you understand by fumigation?
Fumigation is a process of introducing alcohol into the diesel engine (up to 50%) by means
of a carburetor in the inlet manifold. At the same time, the diesel pump operates at a reduced
flow. In this process, diesel fuel is used for generating a pilot flame. And, alcohol is used as a
fumigated fuel.
PART – B
1. Describe the basic fuel theory and chemical composition of hydrocarbons?
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CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Alcohol and gasoline, despite the fact that they are from different chemical classes, are
remarkably similar. Gasoline is mostly a mixture of “hydrocarbons”. Hydrocarbons are a group
of chemical substances composed exclusively of carbon and hydrogen atoms. This is a very large
chemical class containing many thousands of substances. Most of the fuels we use such as coal,
gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, butane, propane, etc. are chiefly hydrocarbons. Referring to figure, the
simplest member of this group is methane which consists of a single carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms. Next comes ethane with two carbons and six hydrogen’s. Propane has three
carbons and butane has four. The substances just names are gases under ordinary conditions. As
we add more carbons to the hydrocarbon molecule, the chemicals formed become liquids:
pentane, hexane, heptane, octane and so on. As we continue with even more complex molecules,
the substances get progressively oilier, waxier and finally solid.
Figure: CHEMICAL STRUCTURES
CH4 C2H5OH C8 H8
C4H10 C8 H18
CH3OH C2 H5OH C3 H7OH
Alcohols can be thought of as hydrocarbons in which one of the hydrogen

C16 H33OHatoms has been
replaced by a “hydroxyl group” which consists of a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom.
Thus methane becomes the simplest alcohol, methanol. Ethane becomes ethanol; propane
22
becomes propanol and so on. Like hydrocarbons, there are many alcohols of ever increasing
complexity.
2. Explain the manufacture of methanol from lignite or coal with schematic diagram?
Methanol can be produced from a wide range of abundantly available raw materials lignite
or coal, municipal solid wastes and waste or specifically grown biomass. Of course methanol can
also be produced from natural gas but there is no point in it because the basic objectives is to
conserve petroleum gases or liquids.
(a) Methanol from lignite or coal. A schematic diagram of a plant for producing methanol from
lignite or coal is shown in figure. Pulverized lignite or coal is fed to steam/oxygen – blown
gasifiers (partial combustors) to produce a synthesis gas consisting of CO and H 2.
Figure 9.1: Schematic diagram for methanol production form coal or lignite.
H 2 O + C � CO + H2 (1)
Gasification also produces acidic contaminants such as H 2S and CO2. All H2S and most of
the CO2 are removed by scrubbing the synthesis gas with an amine solution. The H 2S is later
recovered as elemental sulphur. Subsequently, part of the clean synthesis gas undergoes a CO
shift conversion to adjust the H2|CO|CO2 ratios to the necessary values. This conversion
produces additional CO2, which partly removed by amine scrubbing, and then the shifted gas is
mixed with the remainder of the synthesis gas. Methanol synthesis, via the low pressure process
with the Cu/Zn/Cr catalyst, is the final step. The theoretical reaction is
23
CO + 2H 2 � CH 3OH (methanol) (2)
The raw methanol is then purified to remove water. Currently, aldehydes and higher alcohols are
also removed after methanol synthesis, but this is not necessary for methanol to be used as a
motor fuel.
3. Explain the manufacture of methanol from municipal solid waste with schematic diagram?
Methanol from Municipal Solid Wastes: The waste can be converted to methanol. Figure shows
a schematic diagram. The wastes are first shredded and then passed under a magnet to remove
ferrous materials. The iron free wastes are then gasified with oxygen. The product synthesis gas
is cleaned by water scrubbing and other means to remove any particulates, entrained oils, H 2S and
CO2, CO – shift conversion for H 2|CO|CO2 ratio adjustment, methanol synthesis, and methanol
purification are accomplished in a manner similar to that for lignite feed.
Figure 9.2: Schematic diagram for methanol production, from municipal solid wastes.
4. Explain the manufacture of methanol from grains by fermentation with schematic diagram?
The process of production of ethanol form sugar or grain is well known. In contrast with
methanol production, the process does not require extreme temperature and pressure and thus
very small units are possible. Basically, the starch in grain is converted to sugar by means of
enzymes and the sugar is then fermented with yeast to produce a dilute alcohol solution.
Distillation is used to separate and purify the alcohol solution. Distillation is used to separate and
purify the alcohol to a maximum of about 190 proof. If 200 proof (anhydrous) is required an
additional operation usually distillation with benzene is required.
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(a) Ethanol from Grains: Ethanol can be manufactured from any feed stock containing
carbohydrates such as corn, wheat, sugar-beets, potatoes, sugarcane and other grains.
Production of ethanol from grains such as corn is shown schematically in figure. The grain
is first ground and cooked with water to convert the starch to sugar with the enzyme analase. The
sugar is then fermented with yeast to produce raw ethanol and a high protein material commonly
known as distillers dried grain (DDG). The raw ethanol is distilled to remove impurities such as
higher alcohols and to remove most of the water. Ethanol forms an azeotrope with 5 percent
water, and the last step in producing anhydrous ethanol is an extractive distillation with benzene.
The DDG is dried and recovered for sale as a cattle feed. The optimum capacity of an ethanol
fermentation plant is small because of the difficulties in controlling and storing raw materials and
typically would be about 1.4 million barrel per stream day.
Figure 9.3: Schematic diagram for ethanol production from grain by fermentation,
5. Explain the manufacture of ethanol from sugarcane with schematic diagram?
Ethanol from sugarcane: Production of ethanol from sugarcane requires only simple, well
established process since the fermentable sugar is obtained directly from the sugarcane. The cane
is first cut and ground, and the cane juice is extracted by maceration. After clarification by
filtration and concentration through evaporation, the juice is fermented with yeast to yield raw
ethanol. A series of distillation steps, including a final extractive distillation with benzene are
used to obtain anhydrous ethanol.
Ethanol is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by the Gay Lussac relation
C6 H12 P6 � 2C 2 H5 OH + 2CO (3)
25
In this process 180 gm of carbohydrate are converted to liquid fuel ethanol weighing only
92 gm with almost no loss of energy. About 1.5 kg of sugar yields a litre of ethanol. Figure (a)
shows schematically the conversion of sugarcane to ethanol in a sugar factor via the molasses
route and figure by direct fermentation of cane juices.
Figure: Conversion of sugarcane to alcohol. (Top schematic shows the indirect route where
alcohol is a byproduct of sugar. Direct conversion is shown in the bottom schematic.
Molasses contain a large percentage of sugar, 30% or higher and most of the nutrient
content that was in cane such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous.
The normal yield of ethanol is about 8.73 litres of alcohol per tonne of cane processed in a
sugar factory. Even taking yield to be as low as 4 litres per ton the potential of ethanol production
in India is about 475 million litres per year.
6. Compare the properties of gasoline methanol and ethanol and put up in Tabular form
All the alcohols have a common feature. Their molecular structure includes an OH, or
hydroxyl radical, which gives them certain characteristics, high solubility in water. Their water-
26
like characteristics are most apparent in the alcohols of low molecular weight, methanol and
ethanol, because the OH radical predominates over their short hydrocarbon chains. They are least
apparent in the alcohols of high molecular weight, tertiary butyl or heavier alchols, because their
longer hydrocarbon chains predominate over the OH radical.
The properties of a typical gasoline used as I.C. engine fuel and two alcohols, namely
methanol and ethanol, are given in table.
Table 9.1: Important properties of gasoline, methanol and ethanol
Property Gasoline Methanol Ethanol

1. Chemical formula mCnH2n * CH3OH C2H5OH
2. Molecular weight 112 32.0 46.0
3. Composition by weight -%
Carbon 84.0 37.5 52.0
Hydrogen 16.0 12.5 13.0
Oxygen Nil 50.0 35.0
4. Specific gravity at 15.5C 0.7 to 0.75 0.796 0.794
5. Boiling point or range C 30.0 65.0 78.0
6. Latent heat of vaporization
Keal/kg 70 – 100 264.0 204.0
7. Vapour pressure at 58C, per 0.8 0.32 0.21
8. Lower Calorific value Kcal/kg 10,500 4700.00 6400.0
9. Mixing heating value Kcal/kg
air 714 734.00 711.0
10. Stoichiometric Air/Fuel ratio 14:1 6:4 9:0
11. Ignition limit Air/fuel ratio, kg
air/14 fuel 6.0 to 22.0 2.15 to 12.8 3.57 to 17
12. Self ignition temperature C 300 – 400 478 420
13. Octane numbers
(a) Research 91 (Regular) 114 111
(b) Motor 82 (Regular) 94 94
14. Cetane number 8.14 3 8
 The value of gasoline would vary to some extent depending on the composition of a particular
sample of gasoline.
Air fuel ratio: Because of the fixed oxygen the quantity of air required for a stoichiometric
combustion of the alcohols is considerably lower than that required for petrol.
7. Explain the spark ignition technique of using alcohol in diesel engine. Discuss its merits and
27
demerits?
When a spark plug is used, diesel engine can be converted to Otto cycle engine. In this
case, compression ratio should be reduced, from 16:1 to 10.5:1. There are two types about this
kind of conversion. They are as follows:
Type 1: The original fuel injection system is maintained. Alcohol needs additive for
lubricity (Nitride glycol). Besides, both distributor and sparkplug need to be installed, thus
leading to a high cost of conversion. It is critical to adjust an ideal injection and spark time for this
kind of conversion.
Type 2: Original fuel injection is eliminated. But, a carburetor, a spark plug and a
distributor need to be installed, which increases the cost of conversion. In this conversion, spark
timing is critical.
Both the type 1 and type 2 conversion have a lower thermal efficient than that of diesel. In
this kind of spark assisted diesel engines huge in crease in engine torque is available at lower
engine speeds, which should increase the engine’s flexibility and response in use.
8. Discuss the concept of surface ignition of ethanol and the factors that effect the ignition
process?
Alcohol can ignite with hot surfaces. For this reason, glow plugs can be utilized as a source
of ignition for alcohol. In this system, specific fuel consumption depends on glow-plug positions
and temperatures. It must be noted that the temperature of glow-plugs must vary with load.
However, the glow-plug becomes inefficient at a high load. In addition, the specific fuel
consumption is higher than that of diesel.
Ignition characteristics of ethanol affected by fuel amount, injection timing, position and
length of glow plug, glow plug temperature and water content in ethanol. Engine speed, fuel
injection timing and position of the glow plug temperature and water content in ethanol. Engine
speed, fuel injection timing and position of the glow plugs have a strong effect on the ignition
characteristics. Combustion difficulties appear as the load decreases, making idling impossible.
9. What do you understand by fumigation? Explain the performance and emission

characteristics of using alcohol by fumigation technique?
Fumigation is a process of introducing alcohol into the diesel engine (up to 50%) by means
28
of a carburetor in the inlet manifold. At the same time, the diesel pump operates at a reduced
flow. In this process, diesel fuel is used for generating a pilot flame. And, alcohol is used as a
fumigated fuel.
Two points should be noted in using this method. At low loads, quantity of alcohol must be
reduced to prevent misfire. On the other hand, at high loads, quantity of alcohol must be also
reduced to prevent pre-ignition.
Alcohol fumigation of diesel engines causes increased HC and CO emissions and reduced
NOx. The HC tend to increase because of the quench layer of unburned fumigated alcohol present
during fumigation. The ethanol fumigation of diesel engine tends to decrease the smoke in the
exhaust gas.
10. Mention the important changes that take place by the addition of alcohol to diesel?
The physical properties of diesel fuel are changed when ethanol is added in solution. The
addition of ethanol causes the kinetic viscosity of a diesel fuel to change. As the addition of
ethanol increases the kinetic viscosity decreases.
Also the addition of ethanol in solution with diesel fuel causes the cetane rating to drop.
Because ethanol has a lower mass specific heating value than diesel fuel, solutions of ethanol and
diesel fuel have lower heating values that straight diesel fuel. The maximum power output of the
diesel engine was decreased by the addition of up to 30% ethanol in solution.
11. Describe the method of using alcohol with ignition improvers in diesel engines ?
For a fuel to burn in a diesel engine, it must have a high cetane number of ability to self
lignite at high temperatures and pressures. There exists a significant difference among gasoline,
diesel and alcohol in terms of cetane number and auto ignition. A high cetane number leads to a
short ignition delay period, where as a low cetane number results in a long ignition delay period.
As alcohols have lower cetane number than that of diesel it is not desired when diesel engines are
converted to alcohol.
Fortunately, some additives, an example of which is nitrate glycol, can increase the cetane
number of alcohols. This means that ignition delay period will become short, which will reduce
tendency to cause a diesel knock. However, too short ignition delay period will cause a lower rate
of heat release which is not wanted.
12. ENGINE PERFORMANCE WITH PURE ALCOHOLS
For use of pure alcohols some engine modifications are necessary. The high octane number
alcohol fuels should be utilized by appropriate high engine compression rations in order to
29
achieve maximum output and economy. The pure alcohol engines have unsatisfactory cold
starting and warm-up behaviour. If can be improved by fuel additives with a low boiling point.
Methanol Engines: Figure compares the performance of automotive petrol, diesel and methanol
engines. It shows that a pure methanol engine has about 20% greater output compared to that of
the standard petrol engine due to higher compression ratio and the more efficient thermodynamic
process. The methanol engine has also greater thermal efficiency as shown by lower specific
consumption. However, the mass of fuel consumed is about 10% more at wide open throttle due
to the lower calorific value of methanol compared to petrol.
Ethanol Engines: Figure 9.8 shows the comparison of petrol and ethyl alcohol (198 proof) engines
based on Ricardo’s experiments of a variable compression ratio single cylinder engine.
The increased mean effective pressure of ethanol at all mixture ratios is the most noticeable
difference between two fuels. This increase in mean pressure is due principally to the greater
volume efficiency. This results from the high latent heat of vaporizations of ethanol and the
greater mass of fuel per unit mass of air.
Figure: Wide open throttle characteristics of a 4-cylinder pure methanol engine.
30
Figure: Engine performance with ethyl alcohol and gasoline.
The intake manifold temperature is reduced, with resulting increase in the air density and engine
volumetric efficiency. Much of the ethanol is probably evaporated during the compression stroke
with resulting reduction of work on compression. It is interesting that for alcohols the mean
effective pressure is maximum with mixture having upto at least 40% excess fuel, whereas for
gasoline the maximum pressure is reached with 20% excess fuel. To obtain maximum power,
therefore, there would be temptation to use a greater percent of excess fuel with alcohol. But this
would result in incomplete burning and consequent reduced thermal efficiency.
The figure shows that gasoline and ethanol have about the same lean mixture limitation.
Both fuels develop their maximum thermal efficiency with about 15% excess air. With mixtures
leaner than this, the burning velocity for both is reduced and offsets other advantages of lean
mixture.
The small increment of increased thermal efficiency of ethanol in relation to gasoline is

mainly due to the evaporative cooling effect of the alcohol. This reduces the specific heats of the
gases as well as the heat losses.
13. Exhaust Emissions:
Figure 9.9 (a), (b), (c) shows that exhaust emission of methanol engines. The lower flame
temperature of a methanol flame results in substantially lower NO x emissions particularly with
fuel air equivalence ration less than 0.9. The CO emissions, using improved fuel preparation
methods, may be comparable in methanol and gasoline engines. The CO emissions are very low
in the lean region and rise rapidly emissions are lower in methanol engines.
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Figure 9.9 (a) Exhaust emission of methanol engines.
Figure: (b) HC emission of an air-cooled, single cylinder engine, C.R. = 8.2, 2000 rpm, will load,
maximum power spark timing rpm 15 = 15% methanol gasoline blend.
32
Figure: (c) NOx emission of an aircooled, single cylinder engine. C.R. = 8.2. 2000 rpm, full load
maximum power spark timing.
In both ethanol and methanol engines high levels of aldehyde emissions is, there, chiefly
formaldehyde in the case of methanol and acetaldehyde in the case of ethanol. By means of a
simple oxidation catalyst the aldehyde emissions of alcohol engines can be reduced to petrol
engine levels. This would not be difficult since alcohol engines normally run on a lean mixture,
which means that there is sufficient oxygen in the exhaust gas to facilitate subsequent oxidation.
In addition, the fuel contains neither lead nor any other catalyst poison.
14. Change in the Properties of Alcohol-Petrol Blends:
(1) Change in distillation curve. The distillation curve of several blends of alcohol and gasoline
are shown in Figure. 9.10. Most of the alcohol vaporize at its boiling point (65 oC) for methanol and
78oC for ethanol, giving the so-called “alcohol flat“in the distillation curves.
33
Figure: 9.10. Change in distillation by admixture of methanol and ethanol.
It should cause in the blended fuels increase in the quantity of evaporated fuel in the temperature
range of 60-80oC, leading to better cold starting, but in practice opposite may happen. There is
limited amount of heat available to vaporize in the warm-up phase. This may lead to increased
proportion of liquid fuel in the intake system and deterioration in performance when cold.
2. Increase in the Volumetric Fuel Consumption. For 15% methanol blends the volumetric fuel
consumption is 9% greater than conventional gasoline.
3. Separation: Water tolerance of alcohol blends has already been discussed in article 9.4.6.
Separation is liable to happen in the case of methanol-blended S.I. fuels with a high water content
and at low temperatures. An aqueous methanol-layer containing hydrocarbons settles at the
bottom of the fuel tank because of its higher specific gravity. As the methanol content increases,
so does the blend’s stability in the event of water infiltration.
Aromatics are useful in preventing separation.
4. Fuel Vapour Lock: Methanol blends are more volatile than normal gasoline. In order to avoid
hot start problems and pick-up problems. Caused by fuel-vapour locks, intensive fuel circulation
may be resorted to. The choke and warm-up devices have to be adapted to take account of the
higher vaporization heat of the blended fuel.
5. Leaning Effect: Figure 9.11 gives the leaning effect of alcohol admixture to gasoline.
Admixture upto 15-20% methanol may be tolerated in engines otherwise using rich mixture.
34
6. Increase in Octane Number: Addition of methanol has got a good response on the Research
Octane Number (RON) of motor gasoline and each 5 per cent addition results in an increase of 3.0
to 3.4 octane units. As expected, increase in octane number primarily due to high sensitivity
(RON-MON) of methanol. A significant improvement in the antiknock quality of motor gasoline
is achieved through blending with 10 to 15 per cent methanol as shown in Figure 9.12.
7. Attack on Rubber and Plastic Parts: The alcohol components in blended gasoline attack some
of the rubber and plastic parts. This can be prevented by using resistant materials.
8. Power and Efficiency Curves. Figure 9.13. shows the increase in power over gasoline by using
M 15 blend (gasoline with 15% methanol) and methanol. Figure 9.14 shows the increase in
efficiency, when using methanol instead of gasoline.
Figure: 9.11 Leaning effect of alcohol admixture to petrol.
35
Figure: 9.12. Antiknock quality of methanol gasoline blends.
Figure: 9.13. Power output of an air-cooled single cylinder engine, C.R. 8.2, 2000 rpm, full load,
maximum power sparking timing.
36
15. Alcohols as Diesel Fuels:
While S.I. engines can use alcohol fuel with minimal modifications to their fuel delivering
systems the diesel engine has not been a good candidate for alcohols. Basically alcohols are
unsuitable as diesel fuels for the following reasons:
(a) The cetane number of alcohol fuels is very low (of the order of zero to eight), which prevents
their ignition by compression.
(b) Alcohol fuels have low lubricating qualities causing trouble in injection pumps and nozzles.
Figure: Efficiency of an air-cooled single cylinder engine C.R. 8.2, 2000 rpm, Full load,
maximum power spark timing.
(c) There are material problems caused by the harsh reaction of methanol towards various
plastics and metals.
Because of very low compression ignition quality, alcohols cannot be used alone as fuels for
diesel engine without some in cylinder assistance, like sparkplug, glow plug or other heated
surface. Chemical ignition accelerators (usually organic nitrates) may be added to alcohol fuels to
given acceptable ignition quality (i.e. increase the cetane number). 5 to 20% additives are required
for knock free operation. But additives are expensive and because they contain nitrogen they also
increase the NOx emission.
37
Another method of use of alcohols is in conjunction with conventional diesel oil pure
ethanol is completely miscible with diesel fuel at temperatures in excess of about 30 oC. At lower
temperatures, or when the ethanol contains water, miscibility is limited Co. Solvents, such as
ethyl acetate, may be added to increase the range of miscibility. Methanol, even when dry, is
almost completely immiscible with diesel fuels. The ignition properties of fuel mixtures
containing more than about 25%of light alcohol are not generally fund to be adequate.
Another method of using alcohol in diesel engines is by dual injection. The alcohol can be
injected into the cylinder by a second high pressure system, or into the inlet manifold by a low
pressure system.
16. Explain the methods of utilization of alcohol fuels in engine with their advantages and
disadvantages?
Alcohol fuels may be utilized in three basic ways: as a blend with gasoline; as a straight,
unblended fuel; or as an alcohol/water mixture in an injection system. Each method has certain
advantages and disadvantages.
Alcohol blends have the advantage that up to a 10, 20 or even 25% concentration of alcohol
may be used without modification to the engine. The actual concentration that may be used varies
with each engine type, but generally a four-cylinder engine will tolerate a stronger blend than a
six or eight. Small single-cylinder engines, such as lawn mowers, can often be run on pure alcohol
by merely adjusting the mixture control screw. Even with larger engines, slight modification such
as adjusting the carburetor and, perhaps, advancing the timing a little may allow the use of blends
in the 25-40% range. If you are producing your own blend, you have the advantage of being able
to use the cheapest gasoline available and ending up with a good, high octane fuel.
The disadvantage is that the alcohol you use must be perfectly dry. As will be discussed in
the section on distillation, the highest concentration of alcohol that can be achieved by ordinary
methods is 190 proof or 95%. In order to blend the alcohol with gasoline, the remaining 5% water
must be removed. Several methods of removing this residual water will be discussed in chapter
12, and one of them may be practical for you. However, drying the alcohol does require a separate
manufacturing step and the expenditure of additional energy.
PURE ALCOHOL
The advantages of burning relatively pure 80-95% alcohol are several. First of all, because
the drying step is unnecessary, you should be able to produce the fuel for less than the cost of
gasoline. Secondly, there will be little, if any performance penalty, and by leaving 5 – 15% or more
water in the alcohol you also gain the benefits of water injection. The only disadvantage is the
38
trouble and expense of modifying your engine(s) to burn alcohol and the lack of dual-fuel
capability.
The principle engine modification is the enlargement of the carburetor jet(s). if you are a
reasonably competent mechanics, you should be able to do to job in a couple of hours at a very
small cost. In addition to the carburetor jets, there is also the problem of cold starting. As
mentioned earlier, alcohol has a higher latent heat of vaporization than gasoline and requires
more manifold heat to keep the mixture in the vapour state. With most engines there will be no
problem that can’t be solved by installing a higher temperature thermostat since the engine runs
fine as soon as it is warmed up. However, the engine will be difficult to start, especially in cold
weather. The easiest solution to this problem is simply to start the engine on gasoline and, after it
has warmed up, switch to alcohol. To accomplish this, merely install a small gasoline tank
located, perhaps, under the hood and a selector valve mounted in some convenient location near
the driver.
It is my experience that it is also desirable to replace the automatic choke with a manual
control. Also, switching back to gasoline prior to shutting down the engine will aid in restarting.
A more complex solution to this problem would be to install a priming pump and manifold heater
glow plugs similar to those found on diesel engines. Other alternatives are to preheat the fuel or
squirt an easily volatized liquid such as pentane into the carburetor. The addition of about 8%
pentane directly to the alcohol in the fuel tank will also solve starting problems in below zero
weather.
Another problem, also related to latent heat, is that of fuel distribution. Larger engines are
more likely to encounter this problem than small ones. What happens is that there is insufficient
heat to keep the fuel vaporized and some of its liquefies before it reaches the outer cylinders. This
causes misfires and general poor performance. Simple solutions include insulating the intake
manifold or installing a higher temperature thermostat. The ultimate solution, is usually, to install
carburetors and a short path manifold. However, you are likely to encounter this problem only in
engines that are by some design fault, prone to the same poor fuel distribution with gasoline.
It must be stressed that, although most engines are easily converted to alcohol, each engine
is different. Some people have been able to successfully run Volkswagens and Hondas on alcohol
merely by adjusting the jets and playing with the timing a little. Others, especially those with
older, ultra-high performance V-8 engines, have had to resort to more extensive modifications.
Alcohol engine modification is a relatively “rediscovered” field. To the best of my knowledge,
there is no comprehensive information on the modification of specific modern engines, and there
are no manufacturers making conversion kits. With all the interest in alcohol fuels, however, this
should change in the near future. At present, though, it seems that modifications must be made on
an individual basis.
39
For those with special engines, there is good news and bad. Turbocharged engines present
no special conversion problem once the jets, etc. have been enlarged. Alcohol and turbochargers
then work very well together. Fuel injected engines are another matter. To convert them can be a
simple adjustment of the metering pump, or it can be virtually impossible. Very little data seems
to be available in this area.
17. Briefly explain DME and DEE?
A radical alternative to diesel fuel which has scope for clean combustion is DME. DME is
currently produced by the dehydration of methanol. It can be also being produced directly from
Natural gas. It is thus a route for using natural gas in diesel engine. DME has a cetane number
above 55. Since its normal boiling point is -25C, it has to be pressurized to about 5 bars for
storage at ambient temperatures. The storage requirements are comparable to LPG (used in S.I.
engine) and its energy density is about 60% of that of diesel fuel.
The small molecular size and presence of the oxygen atom lead to a complete absence of
particulates, thus fuel level can thus be increased, giving scope for about a 10% increase in output.
The lower combustion temperature lead to about a halving NO x and the higher cetane rating
reduces the ignition delay period to give quieter combustion,
DME is less expensive to produce than liquefied natural gas (LPG) and is easier to
transport. So there is the possibility of DME being produced at remove natural gas fields and
being transported in preference to LNG which had to be stored at -162C. With DME as fuel no
major engine modifications are needed the fueling system elastomers need to be compatible with
DME and fuel injection system might dictates the use of additives to compensate for low lubricity
of DME.
DIETHYL ETHER (DEE) (C2H5OC2H5)
DEE is alternative fuel for the diesel engine. Since its ignition temperature is between 180
to 190 DEE is best suitable for C.I. engines.
DEE is a very volatile fuel. It is used with other fuels to increase the volatility blend.
18. Briefly explain alcohol blends?
Although alcohol blends can be made from both ethanol and methanol, the primary
interest seems to be in the direction of ethanol. Methanol and gasoline have a limited miscibility
(mix ability) while ethanol and gasoline can be mixed in all proportions. Economic reasons also
dictate the interest in ethanol since it is more readily made from renewable resourced. In addition,
ethanol is a slightly superior motor fuel alternative under most conditions. Economics aside, a
40
major advantage of blends is that up to a certain concentration (somewhere between 10 and 20%)
they can be used with absolutely no modification of the engine.
Many studies on how the various blends affect engine performance are contradictory. The
recent “Two Million Mile” test in Nebrasks, claims slightly higher fuel economy. Other tests claim
a slight decrease. Some tests claim slightly better emissions, others claims no significant change.
In relation to power output, the tests are equally ambiguous. However, when all the data is sifted,
the overall conclusion is that in the areas of fuel economy, emission, and performance there just
isn’t any real difference.
Figure, as discussed under Octance Ratings, illustrates another major advantage of alcohol
blends, namely the ability of alcohol to raise the anti-knock quality of the gasoline with which it is
mixed. This means, of course, that lower, cheaper grades of gasoline can be used to obtain a fuel
with the desired octane rating, and the use of pollution producing additives can be eliminated.
This is a significant advantage from the economic standpoint because the manufacture of high-
octane blending stocks is expensive. Also, as previously mentioned, it is possible to raise the
octane rating of unleaded gasoline so that it can be used in engines that previously required high-
test leaded gasoline.
19. Briefly explain alcohol injection?
Alcohol injection is a third alternative for the utilization of alcohol fuel. It is similar to
water injection except that alcohol or an alcohol water mixture is injected into the engine. Since
the water/alcohol injection mixture ratio can be as low as 50/50%, first run product from a simple
still can be used. This is a considerable saving because most of the energy used in alcohol
production is expended in the distillation stage to obtain 95% alcohol. Another advantage is that
engines with an injection system still retain complete dual fuel capability. Finally, alcohol
injection can be used with fuel-injected, turbocharged, and even diesel engines.
41
Figures: BASIC INJECTION SYSTEM
Figure is a schematic of a simple injection system. The alcohol/water mixture is contained

in a separate tank and is fed, under a couple pounds pressure, to a misting nozzle located at the
throat of the carburetor. The mixture is metered into the carburetor air stream where it mixes with
the air and is taken into the engine. There are many ways of metering the alcohol/water mixture.
For example, it can be done by mechanically linking metering valve to the throttle. Other
methods include using combinations of vacuum and/or manifold pressure. Whatever system is
used, the metering system should work in parallel with the throttle. That is, the flow of
alcohol/water mixture should increase as the load increases. Figure 2 diagrams a similar system
for turbocharged engines. This is an extremely simple system. The alcohol/water tank is
pressurized by bleed air from the compressor on the turbocharger. The mixture is metered into
the turbocharger air stream by an orifice.
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Figure: INJECTION of TURBO ENGINES
The size of the orifice is determined by individual engine requirement. The metering
system operates with the turbocharger. As the boost increases, more pressure is supplied to the
tank and, thus, more mixture to the engine. On a diesel tractor rated at 125 horsepower and
consuming 8-1/2 gallons of fuel per hour, the injection system produced the same power with only
six gallons of diesel fuel and two gallons of a 50% the same power with only six gallons of diesel
fuel and two gallons of a 50% alcohol/water mixture. This is an overall saving of 6% in fuel
consumption and a saving of almost 30% in diesel fuel. Other benefits include trouble-free,
automatic operation increase in available power, lowering of engine operating temperatures, and
prolonged engine life.
Alcohol blends do have one relatively minor drawbacks. The presence of even small
amounts of water in the blend will cause a portion of the alcohol and gasoline to separate. At
room temperature, less than 1% water can do the damage. As the temperature is lowered,
amounts as small as 0.01% can cause separation. However, various substances such as benzene
(benzol), acetone, and butyl alcohol can be added to the blend to increase water tolerance. Closed
fuel systems, now in use, prevent moisture from forming inside the gas tank. Oil companies,
given the proper incentive, could dry out their storage facilities and pipelines. Also, extensive the
use of alcohol blends over the past 50 years is ample evidence that the problem can be solved.
43
UNIT – III
PART – A
1. of reformed Gas What do you understand by reformed gas? Give the major constituent.
Reformed gases are combustible gases, such as hydrogen or methane. When they are
added with air and supplied to the engine reduces the exhaust emissions of the engine and allows
the engine to operate at lean mixtures.
As a fuel for reformation into gas, methanol is more suitable than gasoline and it can also
perform in the role of main fuel for the alcohol engine in the alternative-fuel age of the future. The
major constituents of reformed gas are hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
o
300 C , 150 atm
CH 3OH ��
Endothermic Reaction
� 2H 2 + CO
Methanol Reformed Gas
2.What is reformed gas State its advantages2.What is reformed gas State its advantages.
Instead of using hydrocarbon fuels or methanol in liquid phase, we can use these fuels in
gaseous phase in the engines. Then this gaseous phase hydrocarbon fuels or methanol is called
reformed gas.
A catalytic reforming systems has been devised in which a liquid fuel is reformed with a
catalyst into a combustible gas containing compounds such as H 2 and CO and fed to the engine.
Advantages of Reformed Gas
1. Reduction of exhaust emissions, especially CO and NOx.

2. Stabilization of Lean-Mixture Combustion.
3. Extension of Lean-Operation Range.
3. What are the advantages of hydrogen as SI engine fuel?
1. Its calorific value is about 19% larger in combustion energy density on a mass basis.
2. The combustion characteristics of Hydrogen are best suited to 1.C. engines. Its wide
flammability (4 to 74% by volume) allows its utilization over extremely wide range of air
fuel ratio without misfire.
3. Its gaseous form eliminates the problem of atomization, vaporization, evaporation, mixing
and recondition.
4. Its low ignition energy allows utilization of spark, hot wire and diesel ignition with equally
44
good performance.
5. Hydrogen is easily ignites and has a very high flame velocity. As a result combustion as to
approach the instant combustion idealization of the Otto cycle.
6. Its low emissivity allows less heat losses to cylinder walls, thereby increasing thermal
efficiency of the engine.
7. Its self ignition temperature (857oK) allows higher compression ratios to be used with out
detonation.
8. It is extremely clear fuel, less toxic and no carbonization in the engine.
4. What are demerits of using hydrogen as fuel in S.I. engines?
1. Any hot spot can cause a violent flash back into the inlet manifold. The wide ignition limits
and low ignition energy of hydrogen are responsible for this.
2. There is a high rate of pressure rise.
3. Substantial potion of the energy of the hydrogen is consumed in compression or
liquefaction.
4. Storage and handling of hydrogen is difficult.
5. Higher flame speed leads to pre ignition.
6. Hydrogen has an extremely low density. This necessitates a large volume to store enough
hydrogen. And also the low energy density of hydrogen air charge makes power output
lower.
7. Hydrogen is currently more expensive than most conventional or alternative fuels.
8. A problem with an I.C. engine running on hydrogen is that NOx are produced, and because
they are very toxic pollutants, this causes significant emissions.
5. What safety persecution have to be taken while using hydrogen as fuel in I.C. engines?
From the perspective of safety, storing and transporting hydrogen safely is very similar to
handling natural gas or propane. A safe hydrogen infrastructure will include a system of
detectors to pinpoint leaks, alarms in order notify of leakage, and a system of cut-off points, all of
which will be regularly tested.
Due to the highly explosive nature of hydrogen flame traps and flame arresters of the wet
or dry variety, have to be provided between the hydrogen tank and engine. Crank case has to be
positively vented to the atmosphere. Open flame and loose electrical connections have to be
avoided where air surge tanks are used for air flow measurement, Bursting diaphragm have to be
provided to vent accidental explosion.
45
7. Discuss combustion properties of hydrogen

?
The feature of hydrogen combustion that should be noticed first is that its calorific value is
about 2.7 times as higher than gasoline when compared on a mass basis, but the latter is about
19% larger is combustion energy density on a volume basis of stoichiometric mixtures because of
volume proportion of hydrogen in the mixture is greater than gasoline vapor.
Hydrogen has a wider flammability range and a higher burning velocity. When compared
under the same running conditions, the time required to reach the maximum energy release rate
after ignition is about 50% less in a hydrogen air engine than in a gasoline-air engine. Hydrogen
engines can be successfully operated with lean combustion mixtures of more than twice the
theoretical air. However back fire can occur near stoichiometric air-fuel ratios.
Hydrogen has a very high flame speed (3.24 – 4.40 m/s), wide flammability limits (4.0 – 75
vol%), low ignition energy (0.017 mJ), high auto ignition temperature (520C), and flame
temperature of 2050 C. Hydrogen has a very high specific energy (120.0 MJ/kg), making it very
desirable as a transportation fuel.
7. How the hydrogen is produced?
Hydrogen is produce from the steam reformation of natural gas, though it can be produced
from almost any source containing hydrogen in its composition. Hydrogen can also be produced
from the electrolysis of water.
8. List down the major constituents of natural gas giving their ranges.
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) is usually around 70-90% methane with 10-20% ethane, 2-
8% propane’s, and decreasing quantities of the higher HCs up to butane.
9. What are the limitations of using natural gas as I.C Engine fuel?
The major disadvantage of compressed gas is the reduced range. Vehicles may have
between one to three cylinders (25 MPa, 90-120 litre capacity), and they usually represent about
50% of the gasoline range.
As natural gas pipeline do not go everywhere, most conversions are dual-fuel with
gasoline. The ignition and stoichiometry are significantly different, but good conversions will
provide about 85% of the gasoline power over the full operating range, with easy switching
46
between the two fuels. Concerns about the safety of CNG have proved to be unfounded.
10. Illustrate the methods of using natural gas in C.I. engines.
Natural gas is used in diesel engines in two methods. In one method the diesel engine is
made to work on dual fuel mode. In the other method it works in full natural gas mode.
In dual fuel mode the engine runs with diesel as well as natural gas. The engine starts and
ideals as normal diesel engine. And after some speed and load the engine switches to dual fuel
mode automatically.
In full natural gas mode the diesel engine is converted to a spark ignited engine. This
requires replacement of diesel fuel system by spark ignition system, fitment of gas carburetor, and
reduction in compression ratio. However, switch back to diesel operat5ion is not possible.
11. What are the engines modifications required to be carried out for using natural gas as fuel in
existing diesel engines?
To run existing diesel engines in natural gas some modifications to be done. They are:
1. Removal of Diesel fuel injection system.

2. Introduction of Spark ignition system
3. Fitting spark plugs Instead of injectors.
4. Connecting Gas carburetor to engine.
5. Fitment of turbo charger
12. What are the engines modifications required to be carried out for using natural gas as fuel in
existing petrol engines?
To run existing petrol engines in natural gas some modifications to be done. The
conversion kit is available in the market it consist of following items. They are:
1. CNG storage tank

2. Pressure regulator
3. Gas carburetor
4. Fuel selection switch
5. Gas filling valve
6. Petrol solenoid
So these are the new components to be installed in the existing petrol engine to run the
47
engine either by CNG or petrol. Hardly will it take an hour to modify the existing petrol engine to
CNG operated engine.
13. Compare the properties of natural gas with conventional fuels.
The auto ignition temperature of methane is about twice as high as that of gasoline,
suggesting less chance o ignition due to contact with hot surfaces.
The flammability limits of methane are higher and wider than those of gasoline or diesel
fuel.
The stoichiometric ratio of methane is higher than gasoline or diesel fuel because methane
has a higher percentage of hydrogen.
Methane flames are visible under all conditions, just like gasoline and diesel fuel flames,
which make them easy to detect.
The octane number of methane is greater than 120.
14. What are the additives added with LPG?
1. Hydrogen (H2)
2. Methane (CH4)
3. Methanol (CH3 OH)
4. Carbon monoxide (CO)
15. What are the advantages of using LPG in engines?
Advantages LPG
1. Propane has low cold-start emissions due to its gaseous state.

2. Propane has lower peak pressure during combustion than conventional fuels, which
generally reduces noise and improves durability.
3. LPG fuel systems are sealed and evaporative losses are negligible.
4. Propane is easily transportable and offers stand-alone storage capability with simple and
self-contained LPG dispensing facilities, with minimum support infrastructure.
5. LPG vehicles do not require special catalysts.
6. Propane contains negligible toxic components.
7. LPG has lower particulate emissions and lower noise levels relative to diesel, making
propane attractive for urban areas. Noise levels can be less than 50% of equivalent engines
using diesel.
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8. Propane’s emissions are low in greenhouse gases and low in NOx, thus they are low in
ozone precursors.
9. Increases in future demand for LPG can be easily satisfied from both natural gas fields and
oil refinery sources.
10. Emissions of PAH and aldehydes are much lower than those of diesel-fuelled vehicles.
11. It is cheaper than gasoline.
12. It gives better manifold distribution and mixes easily with air.
13. It is highly knock resistant.
14. Residue and oil contamination is small, as it burns cleanly.
15. Crankcase oil dilution is small, thereby resulting in increased engine life.
16. What are the limitations of using LPG as I.C. Engine fuel?
Although LPG has a relatively high energy content per unit mass, its energy content per
unit volume is low which explains why LPG tanks take more space than diesel fuel tanks of the
same energy storage capacity.
1. Propane tanks are pressure vessels and thus weight more than the equivalent diesel tank.
2. Propane is heavier than air, which requires appropriate handling.
3. Propane vapor flammability limits in air are wider than those of petrol, which makes LPG,
ignite more easily.
4. Propane has a high expansion coefficient so that tanks can only be filled to 80% of capacity.
5. Propane in liquid form can cause cold burns to the skin in case of inappropriate use.
6. Due to its faint odor, leakage cannot be easily detected.
7. LPG is advantageous only in engines working under high compression ratios.
8. Its octane number is quite low and the load sensitivity is very high.
17. What are the engines modifications required to be carried out for using LPG as fuel in
existing diesel engines?
To run the existing diesel engine in LPG the diesel engine is to be fitted with the LPG
conversion kit. The LPG conversion kit consists of a fuel cylinder, a solenoid valve, a regular (also
called vaporizer), and a gas carburetor.
In this system the pilot injection of diesel ignites the LPG air mixture to start the
combustion.
18. What are the major constituents of LPG with range?
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is predominantly propane with iso-butane and n-butane.
49
LPG fuel is mainly a mixture of propane and butane stored in steel cylinders in liquid form
under a pressure of approximately 7 kg/cm2.
19. Give the general composition of Bio Gas produced from farm wastes.
Methane CH 4 = 55% to 70%

Carbon dioxide CO 2 = 27% to 44%
Hydrogen H 2 = 1%
Hydrogen Sulfide H 2S = 1% to 2%
20. What do you understand by biomethanation?
Biomethanation is the process of conversion of organic matter in the waste (liquid or solid)
to biogas and manure by microbial action in the absence of air.
21. Discuss any two important properties of Gober Gas with conventional fuels for use in I.C.
engines.
Biogas has a higher octane number (120) compared to 87 of gasoline. The auto ignition
temperature (650oC) is higher than petrol (257oC) which makes it a safer fuel. Since calorific value
of biogas (19550 kJ/kg) is lesser than gasoline (4200 kJ/kg), and has higher octane number it is
possible to use higher compression ratio for same size of engine to generate same amount of
power.
Also other properties of biogas are, its stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is 6.68:1 and
Flammability limit is 5 to 15% volume in air gas mixture. Density of biogas is 1.1 kg/m 3.
PART – B
1. What are the three methods of using hydrogen in S.I. engines? Discuss.
Three general fuel delivery systems have been used in hydrogen engines. These are:
carburetion, inlet manifold injection, and direct cylinder injection. The first two techniques
involve forming the fuel-air mixture during the intake stroke, either through the carburetor, or
through the intake manifold. By directly injecting fuel into the cylinder, fuel delivery can be
controlled to take place after the closure of the intake valve.
Carburetion
The simplest method of delivering fuel to a hydrogen engine is via a carburetor. Although
carburetion is no longer a viable technology for modern vehicles, there were several advantages to
50
using a carburetor for carburetor for early hydrogen engine developments. This system is similar
to that used for carbureted gasoline engines, which made it easy to convert a standard gasoline
engine to a duel fueled gasoline/hydrogen or simply a hydrogen engine. This application does not
require a sophisticated high pressure injector either. The disadvantage to this technique is that
engines which use carburetors are more susceptible to irregular combustion due to pre ignition
and back fire problems. Additionally, the power output of an ideal hydrogen engine with a
carburetor is about 15% lower than that of a comparable gasoline engine.
Inlet manifold injection:
Troubled by the dual problems of lower power output and continual pre ignition problems,
a number of researches began exploring alternatives to carburetion. One solution to this problem
is a technique called inlet manifold injection. This technique involves injecting fuel directly into
the intake manifold rather than drawing fuel through the carburetor. Typically, the timing of the
fuel injection is controlled so that the hydrogen is not injected into the manifold until after the
beginning of the intake stroke, at a point where conditions are much less severe and the
probability for premature ignition is reduced. The air, which is injected separately at the
beginning of the intake stroke, dilutes the hot residual gases and cools off ant hot spots.
Direct injection
As hydrogen engines continued to progress, direct injection into the combustion cylinder
stroke became more commonly used. Utilizing this technique, premature ignition during the
intake stroke and backfire can be completely avoided if the fuel is injected after the intake valve is
closed. The power output can also potentially be increased with this method to be 20% more than
that of a gasoline engine and 42% more than that of a premixed gaseous hydrogen mixture.
2. Explain the methods of storing and handling of hydrogen?
Methods of storage and handling of hydrogen
There are generally three ways to store hydrogen in an automobile: as a gas dissolved in a
metal (metal hydride), as a cryogenic liquid or as a compressed gas. Hydride storage is the
simplest and the safest, but it increases vehicle weight and results in a severe fuel economy
penalty.
Liquid hydrogen is light, but due to its low energy density occupies three times as much
volume as gasoline. Storage as a compressed gas is inexpensive and provides for case of operation
but its weight and bulk is the main problem.
51
High pressure tank:
A high-pressure cylinder presently available for 7 m3 of gas at standard pressure and

temperature but stored at 150 atm weighs about 55g. The calorific value of hydrogen that can be
accommodated in it equals that of 2.3 L of gasoline. This means the total weight of this fuel and
tanks on a calorific basis is 25 times as large that of gasoline. However, this method would be
promising if new materials are developed that can withstand 1000atm pressure with the same
weight.
Metal hybrids (mh):
Various new alloys have been developed for adsorption of hydrogen gas. Tife has a
hydrogen storage density of 1.95% (practically 1.5%). It is usually packed in a large number of
rigid pipes several tens of millimeters in inside diameter because of the high pressure required for
hydrogen charging and the need for heat exchange.
As a result, it requires a tank 1.3-1.5 times as heavy as the MH itself, the same level of
weight needed for storage as in the high pressure tank describe above. Mg 2 Ni, whose hydrogen
storage density is 3.65% has been studied as a lightweight MH, but hydrogen liberation requires a
high temperature that cannot be attained by the engine’s exhaust gas, Upon charging hydrogen
gas, MH generates heat amounting to 15% for TiFe and 27% for Mg 2 Ni, of the calorific value of
hydrogen and adsorbs the same amount of heat upon liberation of hydrogen (endothermic
reaction); hence, cooling water and hot exhaust gas are used for hear absorption and supply.
When hydrogen is charged in the MH tank at a place where the generated heat can be
utilized in some way, it offers an economic advantage to this system. With MH capable of
liberating hydrogen near normal temperature, such as TiFe, it would be possible to use the heat of
absorption for cooling the car interior.
New developments are underway in hydrogen occlusion systems using nonmetal using
nonmetal substances. These include graphite interchelate complexes C 2 M (M=K, Cs,RB) that can
be store hydrogen at liquid nitrogen temperature (-196 oC) at 1/300 its room temperature volume
and liberate it at normal temperature and an alkali ion exchanged zeolite (CS 3Na9A) that can
occlude about half its volume if hydrogen at 200-300oC and 25-930 atm. These devices will
stimulate innovations in hydrogen fuel applications.
Liquid hydrogen (LH2):
52
Liquid hydrogen of the same calorific value can be stored in much the same manner a
gasoline if a light weight, low pressure aluminium tank is used. As described later, this system
makes it possible to perform fuel injection into engine cylinders and to cool the wall of the
combustion chamber, which provides great advantages in improving engine output and thermal
efficiency, lowering NOx level, and minimizing backfire.
On the other hand, the LH2 system has the following disadvantages.
(1) Special construction is required for the fuel tank to maintain the low temperature of
253oC.
(2) The specific gravity of LH2 is 0.071, one-tenth that of gasoline, and hence a volume 3.8
times as large is required for the same calorific value. The tank must be a double wall,
insulated structure weighting 4-5 times as much compared with that for gasoline, a
weight similar to that in the MH system.
3. Compare the properties of hydrogen with conventional fuels.
1. Hydrogen has a wide range of flammability in comparison with other fuels. So, hydrogen
can run more effectively on excessively lean mixtures than gasoline engines. For gasoline,
the lowest percentage of fuel per volume of air that can be used to obtain combustion is 1%.
Given that this value is not significantly less than the stoichiometric value of 1.76%, the
ability of gasoline engines to run on lean mixtures is limited. For hydrogen, on the other
hand as little as 4% hydrogen by volume with air produces a combustible mixture,
compared to the 29.53% needed for stoichiometric operation.
2. For hydrogen, the minimum energy required for ignition is about an order of magnitude
less than that required for gasoline. This enables hydrogen engines to run well on lean
mixtures and ensures prompt ignition. Unfortunately, since very little energy is necessary
to ignite a hydrogen combustion reaction and almost any hydrogen/air mixture can be
ignited due to the wide limits of flammability of hydrogen, hot gases and hot spots on the
cylinder can serve as sources of ignition, creating problems of premature ignition and
flashback.
3. The high self-ignition temperature of hydrogen allows larger compression ratios to be used
in hydrogen engine without increasing the final combustion temperature beyond the self-
ignitions temperature and causing premature ignition.
4. The flame speed of hydrogen is nearly an order of magnitude higher than that of gasoline.
This means that, for stoichiometric mixtures, hydrogen engines can more closely approach
53
the thermodynamically ideal engine cycle.
5. Hydrogen’s diffusivity, or its ability to disperse in air, is considerably greater than

gasoline’s. the high diffusivity of hydrogen is advantageous for two main reasons. First, it
facilitates the formation of a uniform mixture of fuel and air. Secondly, if a hydrogen leak
does develop, the hydrogen will disperse rapidly. Thus, unsafe conditions can either be
avoided or minimized.
6. Hydrogen has an extremely low density. This creates two problems. A very large volume
is necessary to store enough hydrogen to give vehicle an adequate driving range, and the
energy density of a hydrogen air charge, and hence the power output, is reduced.
4. Explain the steps that are involved in conversion of a C.I engine to use hydrogen.
The self ignition temperature of hydrogen is 853 K. this means it is very difficult to ignite
hydrogen by the compression ignition process. Due to this property, hydrogen is an extremely
unsuitable fuel for conventional diesel engines. An attempt by several research workers has
confirmed this expectation. At the same time, it would be highly desirable to develop a way to use
hydrogen in diesel engines since them for a sizable portion of the engines used in transportation
power generation, agricultural machinery, etc. attempts have been made to inject hydrogen under
pressure into compressed air as in the normal diesel engine. The aid of glow plugs or very high
compression ratios has been found to be necessary to initiate compression ignition.
The two methods used in feeding hydrogen into a diesel engine are the induction of
hydrogen through the suction process and direct injection of hydrogen into the combustion
chamber.
This method consists of inducting hydrogen along with the air into a diesel engine and
employing a pilot spray of diesel oil to ignite the mixture. This dual-fuel method has the virtue of
simplicity and flexibility since existing diesel engines can be easily converted to work on this
method.
Brake thermal efficiency of the dual fuel engine is approximately the same as that of the
diesel engine through out the range of operation. With lower diesel flow rates, there is a
significant rise in thermal efficiency when hydrogen induction starts.
Engine output rises smoothly when hydrogen is inducted. There is, however, a noticeable
point, that of knocking setting in at low diesel flow rates when hydrogen is increased beyond a
54
certain limit. At the highest diesel flow rates tried, the thermal efficiency remains practically
unaltered when hydrogen is inducted. Hence, overall, the hydrogen dual fuel engine behaves
similar to the normal diesel engines.
With a relatively low diesel flow rate the peak pressure rises gradually. With higher diesel
flow rate is increased beyond a critical region of diesel oil hydrogen ratio in which the combustion
is very rapid. There is an almost total absence of back flash in the inlet manifold in this type of
engine. The main problem area is the onset of knocking well before stoichiometric region. This
requires further work for rectification.
5. Discuss the emission characteristics and performance characteristics while using hydrogen in
S.I engines.
Emissions:
The most important advantage of hydrogen vehicles is that they emit fewer pollutants than
comparable gasoline vehicles. For a hydrogen engine, the principle exhaust products are water
and some nitrogen oxides (NO x). Emissions of unburned hydrogen carbons, carbon monoxide
(CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of sulfur (SOx), and smoke from hydrogen vehicles are either
not observed or are much lower than those from gasoline vehicles.
If a hydrogen engine burns excess oil, hydrogen and CO emissions can become significant,
but they are still less than the emissions can become significant, but they are still less than the
emissions from a gasoline engine on a relative scale. Small amounts of hydrogen peroxide have
also been observed in the exhaust of hydrogen engines that were operated very inefficiently. Such
inefficiencies should not occur in a properly functioning engine, however. Hydrogen itself can
also be emitted form an engine, but this is not a problem since hydrogen is nontoxic and not
involved in any smog producing reactions.
NOx are the most significant emissions of concern from a hydrogen vehicle. Unfortunately,
NOx emissions can have an adverse affect on air quality through the formation of ozone or acid
rain. The NOx level can be brought down using several methods. Hydrogen engines can be run
on very lean mixtures to reduce the combustion temperature, for example. NOx emissions can
also be lowered by cooling the combustion temperature, for example. NOx emissions can also be
lowered by cooling the combustion environment using techniques such as water injection, exhaust
gas recirculation.
Thermal Efficiency:
The overall thermal efficiency of a hydrogen engine is typically greater than that of a
55
gasoline engine. The thermal efficiency can be improved by increasing either the compression
ratio or the specific heat ratio. In hydrogen engines, larger compression ratios, than those used in
gasoline engines can be used since the self ignition temperature of hydrogen is so high. Hydrogen
engines can also operate more effectively under lean mixtures. This means that the temperature of
the burnt gases can be lowered resulting in higher specific heat ratios. Thus, the combined effect
of larger compression ratios and larger specific heat ratios increases the thermal efficiency for
hydrogen fueled engines.
Power Output:
A comparison of the heat output of hydrogen and gasoline engines is shown in figure for
various conditions. A stoichiometric mixture of gasoline and air and gaseous hydrogen and air
pre mixed externally occupy 2% and 30% of the cylinder volume, respectively. Under these
conditions, the energy of the hydrogen mixture is only 85% that of the gasoline mixture, resulting
in about a 15% reduction in power. The problem is compounded even further when the engine is
operated on lean mixtures or experiences pre ignition.
The power output of hydrogen can be improved using more advanced fuel injection
techniques or liquid hydrogen as shown in figure. If liquid hydrogen is premixed rather than
gaseous hydrogen, the amount of hydrogen that can be induced into the combustion cylinder can
be increased by approximately one third and the power output increased by about 37%. The
output can be further increased by directly injecting hydrogen into the cylinder under high
pressure. Using this technique, the maximum amount of both air and hydrogen are introduced
into the combustion chamber resulting in a 20% increase in power compared to a gasoline engine
using a carburetor and a 42% increase in power compared to a pre mixed gaseous hydrogen
mixture. It should be noted that the pressure provided by a hydrae storage system would be
insufficient for high pressure injection.
The gap between the power output of a gasoline engine and a hydrogen engine can also be
reduced with engine modifications, such as a blower or a turbocharger, or by using a larger
displacement engine.
56
Figure: Comparison of maximum calorific value (output) of a fuel-air mixture in a 1000 cc

displacement volume engine.
6. Illustrate with a schematic conversion kit that is required for the use of natural gas in C.I
engines. Also discuss its performance and emission characteristics.
Because of its characteristics, natural gas can be used in spark ignition engines, but in
compression ignition engines a proportion of diesel fuel is usually required to trigger ignition.
Alternatively, diesel engines can be converted to spark ignition for natural gas use.
For diesel engines, the conversion to a compression ignition dual (Mixed) fuel configuration
involves use of a pilot supply of diesel to ignite the natural gas. This requires the addition of a gas
fuel system alongside the existing diesel fuel system, together with a mechanism for regulating the
proportion of diesel and gas for the engine speed and load conditions.
The engine efficiency for this configuration is about the same as that for a diesel engine.
The efficiency of dual (mixed) fuel systems can be equal to or higher than for diesel at high loads,
but lower at part loads. For this reason, the overall efficiency in service is lower than for diesel.
This chapter deals with single fuel vehicles so that dual fuel vehicles have not been examined. It is
to be expected, based on results of LPG dual fuel vehicles, that emissions reductions from dual
fuel vehicles will not be as large as those from single fuel vehicles.
Conversion of diesel engines to spark ignition engines running solely on natural gas
requires more extensive modification, in that the diesel fuel injectors in the cylinder head will be
replaced by spark plugs, and an ignition system added to the engine. A compression ratio lower
than that of the diesel is likely to be required. Also, a larger cylinder capacity than that required
for a dual (mixed) fuel system may be needed, to provide the same energy content.
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Most components of the kit are common for both CI and SI engines except that CI engine
kit has a festo valve, rack limiter and airline are also added. The engine is started as a diesel
engine and gradually, proportionally to the load, the engine starts using natural gas at a particular
speed called change over speed. A small quantify of diesel fuel (pilot fuel) is used as ignition
source. In order to achieve more power, the natural; gas addition to the intake air is increased.
The gas is metered by the venture through a load regulator.
Conversion kits for the diesel engine to use dual fuel
I. CNG Tank: Cylindrical tanks designed for storage of CNG at a pressure of 200 abr. A
typical tank capacity is 60 liters and 4 such tanks give a range of 200 km.
II. Refueling Connection: Multistage pressure regulator in which the gas pressure is reduced
from the CNG filling station to the CNG tanks.
III. CNG pressure regulator: Multistage pressure regulator in which the gas pressure is
reduced from the CNG tank pressure to a pressure just below the atmospheric pressure.
Thus natural gas flow from this pressure regulator, which the engine is not running has
overcome by its design.
IV. Over speed limiter: Pneumatically operated safety valve which will close the gas supply to
the engine if the engine speed reaches maximum allowable speed.
V. Load Regulator: Gas valve linked to the accelerator pedal which controls the gas flow as per
engine load.
VI. Diesel fuel limited: Allows full load diesel flow up to a certain speed and reduce diesel flow
to the pilot valve (about 30% of the full load) beyond the speed called changeover speed.
VII. Venturi: Gas air mixing and metering device located at the downstream of the engine air
filter. This meters the gas flow proportionate to the engine speed.
VIII. Change over switch: Actuate the electrical circuits in the system to automatically change
the mode of operation from diesel to pilot injection mode at the changeover speed of the
engine.
Performance of CNG engine:
The efficiency of at full load is usually equal or better than that of the original diesel engine.
At part load, the efficiency is lower, but still better than that of a spark ignited (Otto) engine. The
58
use of 20% to 25% pilot diesel fuel is preferable to avoid poorer part load efficiency and
overheating of injectors.
2. Illustrate with a schematic conversion kit that is required for the use of natural gas in S.I.
engines. Also discuss its performance and emission characteristics.
The CNG Kit
The kit required for the conversion from petrol generally contains various valves,
connectors and gauges.
1. The Cylinder: The cylinder the used to store CNG at a working pressure of 200 bar. It is
fitted with a shut-off valve and a safety burst disc. The cylinders are type approved by the
Chief Controller of Explosives, Government of India.
2. The Vapor Bag: Fitted onto the cylinder, the Vapor Bag is used to enclose the cylinder valve
and the pipes connecting it and is vented out of the car
3. The High Pressure Pipe: This High Pressure Pipe connects the refueling valve to the CNG
Cylinder and Pressure Regulator
4. The Refueling Valve: The Refueling Valve is used to refuel the CNG cylinder
5. The Pressure Regulator: The Pressure Regulator has a Solenoid Valve to shut-off gas
supply to the engine. The CNG stored at a high pressure in the cylinder is reduced to just
below atmospheric pressure by this unit. This negative pressure is also a safety feature that
will not allow gas to pass through when the engine is not running.
6. The Gas-Air Mixer: The Gas-Air Mixer is a unique component, specially designed to suit
each engine model. It precisely meters gas fed into the engine.
7. The Petrol-Solenoid Valve: The Petrol-Solenoid Valve is used to cut off petrol supply to the
engine when it is run on CNG.
8. The Selector Switch: The Selector Switch is fitted at the dashboard, enabling the CNG mode
or the petrol mode of operation. The electronics built into this unit also ensures safety by
switching off the gas solenoid whenever the engine is switched off. It also serves as a fuel
indicator for the quantity of CNG available in the cylinder.
Performance and Emission characteristics:
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The brake power for the CNG operation is less at all speeds compared to petrol operation.
The loss in power output is about 10% at all speeds. This may be attributed to the decrease in
volumetric efficiency as a result of CNG being a light gaseous fuel, displaces air during operation
and the temperature drop due to fuel vaporization as in the case of petrol is absent in the case of
CNG.
The specific energy consumption is lower than that of petrol at particular speeds is possible
due to complete combustion of the CNG fuel. Carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbon and
Oxides of Nitrogen emissions are found to be lower in the case of CNG operation. The low
pollution characteristics of natural gas spark ignition engines are due in part to the controlled and
uniform mixing of the fuel and air giving more complete combustion hence reduce hydrocarbons
emissions.
Natural gas may have an octane rating too high for use in an unmodified petrol engine and
hence would ideally require an increase in compression ratio. This will lead to a significantly
higher thermal efficiency and thus either a petrol engine fully modified or a purpose built
dedicated CNG engine with a high compression ratio will be able to take full advantage of the
fuels higher octane rating. This would result in the higher reductions in emissions.
Figure:
7. State the important properties of LPG as engine fuel and emission from such engine. With a
neat sketch explain LPG admission in an automotive S.I engine.
As the octane number of LPG is 100 to 104, LPG can be used as a petrol replacement in
modern vehicles with no major engine modifications (except of course, the addition of LPG
storage tanks and fuel metering systems etc). Retuning the engine and possibly advancing the
timing is all that is needed.
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The fuel system of the LPG engine consists of a fuel cylinder, a solenoid valve, a regulator
(also called vaporizer), and a carburetor. LPG is stored in liquid form in the fuel cylinder, and the
solenoid valve functions to prevent unwanted gas leaks. The solenoid valve opens only when the
engine ignition switch is turned on to allow LPG to be supplied form the fuel cylinder to the
regulator, wherein it is heated by air or hot water and vaporized LPG is then mixed uniformly
with air in the carburetor before the mixture is induced to the combustion chamber.
LPG combustion implementation occurs with a neatly uniform fuel air mixture that reduces
deposit of the products incomplete combustion, such as soot, on the combustion chamber walls.
Furthermore, LPG does not cause fuel dilution of engine oil, which is often a problem with the
gasoline engine.
LPG engine have the advantage of reduced cylinder wear and extended engine oil life.
Advantage of the uniform mixture combustion realized by LPG is the reduced fuel consumption
(by weight). The net calorific value of LPG ranges 11,080-10,750 kcal/kg, as against approximately
10,500 kcal/kg of gasoline.
LPG consumption is as much as 10% less than gasoline. The reason for this is that LPG
generates the maximum engine torque at a higher air fuel ratio, a leaner mixture condition, than
gasoline. The stoichiometric air fuel ratio is 15.6 for propane and 14.7 for gasoline. LPG air fuel
mixture more uniformly distributed in the combustion chamber compared to gasoline.
In the LPG engines the fuel is preheated and vaporized in a heat exchange pressure
regulator before it is mixed with air in the carburetor, resulting high mixture temperature and a
low mixture. And also the weight of the LPG fuel supplied to the combustion chamber is less than
gasoline.
Further, it calorific value (885 kcal/m3) is less than gasoline (928 kcal/m 3). So, lower power
output is the result. By increasing the compression ratio the lower power problems can be
overcome.
Emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide at idling and low loads are much less
than from a gasoline vehicle. This is due to the fact that LPG forms a uniform mixture with air in
the combustion chamber. Emissions of NOx are slightly more than gasoline engines but can be
sufficiently decreased by injecting water or water – methanol mixtures into LPG air mixtures.
8. What are the engines modifications required for using in LPG in existing diesel engines?
Discuss the performance characteristics of LPG diesel dual fuel engine.
In the case of using LPG as a diesel replacement, a difficulty arises as it has a low certain
61
number and thus the auto-ignition temperature is considerably higher than that of diesel. To
achieve ignition temperatures, the compression ratio must be increased to impractically high
levels (25:1). To overcome this it is necessary to convert the engine to spark ignition which also
requires decreasing the compression ratio to 13:1, hence also reducing the thermal efficiency and
increasing the greenhouse emissions as compared to a diesel only system.
Alternatively using a relatively complicated dual-fuel system in which a small quantity of

diesel (15% of the total fuel blend by volume) is injected into the cylinder to act as a source of
ignition for the LPG. In this way the benefits of improved efficiency and reduced emissions from
the higher compression ratios can be captured while using LPG.
Diesel engines can be converted to run partly on LPG, partly on diesel. This method uses
the combustion of the diesel to ignite the LPG. The benefits include large increases in power and
reduction in emissions, particularly the black smoke often associated with diesels. Typically a
ratio of 30% LPG to 70% diesel is possible.
No adjustments are required to the diesel injection system and fuel savings come from the
fact that throttle openings are lower due to the greatly increased power, which basically means
you do not have to press the accelerator as hard to get the same performance. Fuel savings
upwards of 30% are possible with the increased power levels seen as a major benefit to users.
9. Discuss the performance and emission characteristics of using LPG in engines.
Performance characteristics:
The air: fuel volumetric ratio affects the quantities of fuel and oxygen that independently
enter the combustion chamber which in turn affects both the engine power output and the tailpipe
emissions.
Under given conditions of atmospheric pressure, ambient temperature, engine speed etc, a
modern vehicle engine designed to operate on petrol inducts air into the combustion chamber
(cylinder) and the fuel is injected as a mist either into the inlet manifold or directly into the
combustion chamber.
When the engine is converted to operate on LPG, the gas is normally metered into the inlet
manifold which has two main effects.
Since the volume of gas is considerably larger than that of the liquid fuel otherwise injected,
it will displace a significant proportion of the air volume and thus reduce the total air: fuel
mixture resulting in a significant loss of power.
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Improved mixing of the air: LPG mixture may load to a slight improvement in combustion
and hence engine efficiency.
Emission characteristics:
The main constituent of LPG is propane. Lower carbon-to-hydrogen ratio, higher octane
rating and its ability to form a homogeneous mixture inside the combustion chamber enable it to
produce lesser emissions compared to conventional fuels. Table gives a comparative emissions
status from diesel and LPG fuel.
Pollutants Euro-II Diesel+ULS/CRT LPG %Change

HC (g/km) 0.143 0.027 -81%
CO(g/km) 0.212 0.013 -94%
NOx/10 (g/km) 1.254 0.54 -57%
Particulates (g/lm) 0.028 0.017 -39%
CO2/1000 (g/km) 1.344 1.309 -4%
10. in engine List down the various systems that are required for the use of biogas.
Gas carburetor
A gas carburetor, especially designed for biogas, was used to mix the gas and the air. It
contains a control valve and a T-tube with a venture throat. Figure shows its schematic diagram.
The amount of biogas was controlled by the throttle valve of the carburetor to improve the
properties of biogas and air mixture. Figure presents a schematic diagram of the gas supply
system. The gas carburetor was installed in the inlet manifold. In this way, the biogas was first
mixed with air from air filter inside venturi throat of the gas carburetor. And then, the mixture of
biogas and air was introduced to the combustion chamber of the engine.
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Figure:
Installing a spark ignition system
The original fuel injection system was eliminated. A spark plug was installed in the
position of the original diesel injector orifice. The spark plug should be considerably chosen so
that its electrodes could be located at a proper position of the combustion chamber.
Appending a biogas control apparatus
A conical valve was used in order to control the amount of biogas admitted to the gas
carburetor. In addition, a linkage which connects the conical throttle of the gas carburetor and
governor of the engine was mounted on the engine. Moreover, a main valve was used for
controlling the flow of biogas. A gas flow meter was used for measuring the flow rate of biogas.
And a U-shape manometer was used for measuring the pressure of biogas, and a pressure
regulator for maintaining pressure of biogas was installed on the engine.
11. Explain typical biogas plant with neat sketch. State the advantage of Gobar gas Plant with
neat sketch.
BIO GAS
Biogas is produced by the degradation of biological matter by the bacterial action (of
anaerobic bacteria’s) in the absence of free oxygen. Probably the cheapest and easily obtainable
biogas is gobar gas (or dung gas), which is produced by the anaerobic fermentation of cattle dung.
Biogas can also be produced from the sewage waste and other organic wastes.
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GOBAR GAS:
The raw material for the gas is called dung, which is subjected to anaerobic fermentation
(i.e., fermentation in the absence of free air, caused by fresh cattle dung and water, is poured.
Anaerobic bacteria’s (i.e., which can survive and function in the absence of free air), present in the
dung, digest this slurry forming mainly methane and carbon dioxide. The optimum temperature
for this fermentation is 34-48oC. The gas generated is collected in a steel gas is holder, placed on
the top of digestion tank. The average composition of gobar gas is: CH 4 = 55%; H2 = 7.4%; CO2 =
35.0%, N2 = 2.6%; and traces of H2S. Its average gross calorific value is 1200 kcal/m3.
Figure:
The essentials of gobar gas plant are:
(i) A ‘digester’, a well constructed of masonry work, dug and built usually below the
ground level:
(ii) A ‘gas holder’, made up of weld steel sheets, which covers digester,
(iii) A pipeline.
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Advantages:
1. It has been found that 4.25 kg of fresh cattle dung (or 1kg dry cattle dung) gives
approximately 160 liters of gobar gas, which can supply 188 kcal of heat. On other hand, 1
kg of dry dung or direct burning gives only 23.4 kcal of effective heat. Thus, gobar gas
production is highly economical.
2. The gas has all the advantages of gaseous fuel (such as flexibility, optimum utilization of
waste, cleanliness of utensils and surrounding areas, absence of smoke, dust, dirt, etc.).
3. It does not contain the poisonous gas, carbon monoxide, as an ingredient.
4. It can provide the flame temperature of 540oC, with proper burners.
5. Gobar gas also gives simultaneously excellent yield of good manure. The nitrogen content
of the manure is 2% as against 0.75% in farm yard manure.
12. Explain how Bio gas is used in diesel engines. Discuss the performance characteristics.
The biogas can be used in C.I engine as a dual fuel. The biogas can be introduced in the
engine with air during suction stroke and compressed. A small quantity of diesel fuel (15 – 20%)
is injected towards the end of compression, to initiate the combustion of biogas – air mixture. The
diesel fuel ignites first and heat released by combustion leads to the combustion of biogas air
mixture. The air flow rate is kept constant as in normal diesel engine and gas flow rate is
regulated to achieve different outputs. Diesel fuel injected is always fixed amount. The gas flow
rate is controlled by a throttle and diesel fuel flow rate by rack in the fuel pump. These two are
linked together by an automatic governor.
Figure:
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In dual fuel C.I. engine, biogas can substitute for about 80% of the normal diesel fuel
consumption. Existing diesel engines in the rural areas like power pumping sets and small
generators can be easily modified as biogas diesel dual fuel engines.
A small valve controlled pipe can introduced biogas into the inlet manifold of diesel engine.
Initially the engine is started as a diesel engine and brought up to the required output. Then the
gas vlave slowly opened manually, allowing the gas to flow into inlet manifold, and mix with air.
If a speed governor is fitted in the engine, it automatically educes diesel flow rate. (If there is no
speed governor, diesel flow is reduced manually) Gas flow rate can be gradually increased until
diesel flow rate is just above minimum required.
Before stopping engine, gas flow is gradually reduced and shut off and engine is run on
diesel fuel alone for few minutes. This is to prevent gas from remaining in the inlet manifold.
Load Performance of the engine:
The load performances of the engine at three compression ratios were tested. The results
are shown in Figure Specifically, when the engine using biogas alone operated at 2000 RPM with
39.2o rank angle of spark timing and compression ratio being 17.4: 1, its load performance data are
shown in Table.
Figure: The load performances of the engine at three compression ratio
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Biogas Specific biogas

Power
Force (kg) consumption consumption
(HP)
(m3/hr) (m3/hp.hr)
2 2.45 5.43 2.22
4 4.89 5.85 1.20
6 7.34 6.06 0.83
8 9.79 6.27 0.64
9 11.02 6.89 0.63
10 12.24 7.52 0.62
The load performance of diesel engine using biogas
From the figure and the Table, it can be seen that the maximum power of the engine
operating on biogas alone was about the 90 percent that of the engine’s original power. The
temperature of the exhaust gases were ranged within 550 oC to 610”C, which was slightly higher
than the usual temperature level. The heat consumption rate was 3000 kcal/hp .hr.
Stability of engine performance at low speed
The engine using biogas alone showed a stable operation at a low speed. No vibration
occurred. And the engine running with biogas alone performed well at low speed (around 100-
500 RPM).
Start performance
The engine biogas alone could be started well as other gasoline engines do. No other fuels
were needed to start the engine.
Discussion
The compression ratio ahs a great effect on thermal efficiency and combustion performance
of the engine. High compression ratio means a high thermal efficiency. However, too big in an
increase of the compression ratio may cause detonation of the engine. It was unknown what the
maximum compression ratio was. However, according to experiments, when the compression
ratio reached 17.4: 1, no server combustion and detonations were observed. From the figure, it can
be seen that the specific biogas consumption was not very high within a very wide load range 1
when the combustion ratio was 17.4. And the power was also not lower than that of engine’s
original power. This suggests that biogas has a higher anti detonation value. Therefore, to
increase compression ratio is an effective way for improving the performance of the engine
operating on biogas alone.
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13. Briefly explain the availability of Natural gas its constituents and its production.
Natural Gas
Natural gas is one of the world’s most abundant fossil fuels and currently supplies over
25% of the energy demand in the U.S. as shown in Figure. The primary uses of natural gas in the
U.S. are fro space heating, electricity generation, and industrial processes. Natural gas is a very
good spark-ignition internal-combustion engine fuel and it was used as a fuel in the very early
days of engine development. However, relative to liquid petroleum fuels, the ability to store
sufficient amounts of natural gas for onboard vehicles has presented a significant barrier to its
broad use as a transportation fuel. Significant advances have been made in high-pressure
cylinders that can store natural gas at high pressures (up to 3600 psi) that are made of lightweight
materials including aluminium and carbon fiber. Compressed natural gas (CNG) is the preferred
method of natural gas storage on vehicles. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is gaining favor for use in
heavy-duty vehicles where use of CNG would still entail space and load-carrying capacity
penalties. Storing natural gas as LNG enables heavy-duty vehicles to have the same operating
range as when using liquid petroleum fuels. Typically, storing natural gas as LNG instead of
CNG results in a fuel storage system that is less than half the weight and volume of a CNG
system. Regardless of the method of storage, the cost and emission advantages of natural gas
make it a very popular alternative fuel.
Figure: U.S. Energy Consumption, %, by Source,

(Source: Energy Information Administration, “Annual Energy Outlook, 1996”)
Production
Natural gas is present in the earth and is often produced in association with production of
crude oil. However, wells are also drilled for the express purpose of producing natural gas.
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The main constituent of natural gas is methane, the lightest and simplest hydrocarbon,
composed of one carbon and four hydrogen atoms. Ethane is typically the only other
hydrocarbon found in significant amounts in natural gas though often less than 10 volume
percent. Natural gas may also include carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and very small amounts of
hydrogen and helium?. The composition of natural gas is important because its heating value and
physical properties may change which can affect combustion.
The properties of natural gas are dominated by methane. Methane is widely

acknowledged to be from four sources: (1) organic matter that is decomposed in the presence of
heat; 2) organic matter that is converted through the actions of microorganisms; 3) oil and other
heavy hydrocarbons that produce methane in the presence of heat; and 4) coal which releases
methane over time. There is a theory that methane is present in large quantities deep within the
earth, from which it migrates upward via cracks and fissures. This theory, known as the abiogenic
theory, is not proven but if found true would suggested that very large reserves of methane exist
in the earth.
Very large reserve of natural gas are believed to lie at depths of 4600-9200 meters (15,000-
30,000 feet), called “deep gas”. Since methane remains stable up to its auto ignition temperature
of 550oC (1022oF), it is found at depths where oil is not found, presumably because oil will be
transformed in part to methane at lower temperatures. Deep gas is expensive to drill for, but the
quantities are estimated to be very large. Technology has been developed to enhance recovery of
deep gas when it is found.
Very little processing needs to be done to natural gas to make it suitable for use as a fuel.
Water vapor, sulfur, and heavy hydrocarbons are removed from natural gas before it is sent to its
destination, usually via pipeline. Compared to liquid hydrocarbon and alternative fuels, natural
gas before it is sent to its destination, usually via pipeline. Compared to liquid hydrocarbon and
alternative fuels, natural gas contains much less energy per unit volume. For this reason,
transport over long distance and across oceans is not practical except when liquefied. Liquefied
natural gas is created when natural gas is cooled to -127 oC (-260oF), using a variety of techniques.
Even when liquefied, LNG contains only approximately 60% the energy of gasoline per unit
volume, and while the technology of insulating containers has advanced significantly, loss of LNG
due to heat transfer into the containers eventually occurs. Even so, LNG is the only practical way
remote sources of natural gas can be transported long distances and across oceans. 8
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A UNIT – IV
PART A
1. What is Biodiesel?
Biodiesel (or biofuel) is the name for a variety of ester-based fuels (fatty esters) generally
defined as the monoalkyl esters made from vegetable oils, such as soybean oil, or sometimes from
animal fats through a simple transesterification process. This renewable source is as efficient as
petroleum diesel in powering unmodified diesel engine.
2. Name the vegetable oils for use of I.C. engine fuel?
 Rape seed oil

 Sunflower oil
 Soybean oil
 Jatropha curcus oil
 Karanji oil.
3. What is meant by Esterification?
Esterification is a process in which vegetable oil is reacted with alcohol at relatively modest
reaction temperature of 60C, in presence of base type catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide,
sodium carbonate, which reduces molecular size there by reducing the viscosity and boiling point.
4. What is meant by Transesterification?
The main reaction for converting oil to biodiesel is called transesterifiation. In the
transesterification process an alcohol (like methanol) reacts with the triglyceride oils contained in
vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled greases, forming fatty acid alkyl esters (biodiesel) and
glycerin. The reaction requires heat and a strong base catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide.
The simplified transesterification reaction is shown below.
NaOHKoH
Triglycerides + Free Fatty Acids (<4%) + Alcohol ��D
� Alkyl esters + glycerin
71
PART – B
1. What are the advantages of Bio diesel?
1. Biodiesel reduces emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) by approximately 50% and carbon
dioxide by 78.45% on a net lifecycle basis because the carbon in biodiesel emissions is
recycled from carbon that was already in the atmosphere, rather than being new carbon
from petroleum that was sequestered in the earth’s crust. (Sheehan, 1998).
2. Biodiesel contains fewer aromatic hydrocarbons: benzofluoranthene: 56% reduction;
Benzoprenes: 71% reduction.
3. It also eliminates sulfur emissions (SO2), because biodiesel does not include sulfur.
4. Biodiesel reduces by as much as 65% the emission of particulates, small particulates of solid
combustion products.
5. Biodiesel does produce more NOx emissions than diesel, but these emissions can be reduced
through the use of catalytic converters. The increase in NO x emissions may also be due to
the higher cetane rating of biodiesel. Properly designed and tuned engines may eliminate
this increase.
6. Biodiesel has a higher cetane rating than diesel, and therefore ignites more rapidly when
injected into the engine.
7. Reduction of all major measures of air pollution (except nitrous oxides which show slight
increases.
8. Because it is a 100% organic product, biodiesel is biodegradable under normal
environmental conditions when spilled (yet very stable when stored properly).
9. Superior lubricating ability of biodiesel will improve life of moving parts in diesel engines
and result in reduced maintenance costs, which can be significant benefit to trucking fleet
operations.
10. Significant use of biodiesel nationally could reduce future needs for imported oil to
manufacture regular diesel fuel.
11. Cost of biodiesel is likely to remain more stable than fossil fuel costs in the future as fossil
fuel supplies decrease over time.
12. Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended at any level with petroleum diesel to
create a biodiesel blend.
13. It can be used in compression-ignition (diesel) engines with little or no modifications.
14. Biodiesel is simple to use, biodegradable, nontoxic and essentially free of sulfur and
aromatics.
15. The use of biodiesel can extend the life of diesel engines because it is more lubricating, and
furthermore, power output are relatively unaffected by biodiesel.
2. What are the problems of using vegetable oils in diesel engines?
72
The high viscosity of vegetable oils tends to alter the injector spray pattern inside the engine
causing fuel impingement on the piston and other combustion chamber surfaces. This leads to
cold starting difficulties and formation of carbon deposits in the engine that eventually result in
problems such as stuck piston rings with subsequent engine failures that would not occur when
using diesel fuel. These characteristics make vegetable oils impractical for use as transportation
fuels in most climates and in most engines.
The poor volatility makes vegetable oils difficult to vaporize and ignite. This leads to
thermal cracking resulting in heavy smoke emission and carbon deposits in the combustion
chamber. This tendency may be partly due to higher fuel viscosity/
In the exhaust emission the amount of carbon residue is more than diesel fuel.
3. What are the engine modifications requied for using Biodiesel (Vegetable oil) in existing
diesel engines?
Almost all modern diesel engines will run biodiesel quite happily provided that the
biodiesel is of high enough quality. Generally speaking biodiesel requires much less engine
modification.
RUBBER SEALS
With some older vehicles rubber seals used in the fuel lines may require replacing with
non-rubber products such as VITONTM. This is due to the way biodiesel reacts with rubber. If a
low blend is used (5% biodiesel for example) then the concentration of biodiesel isn’t high enough
to cause this problem.
COLD STARTING
Cold starting can sometimes be a problem when using higher blends. This is due to
biodiesel thickening more during cold weather than fossil diesel. Arrangements would have to be
made for this, either by having a fuel heating system or using biodegradable activities which
reduces the viscosity. This effect is only a problem with higher blends.
It was noticed that during many field trials that engines running on biodiesel tended to
require more frequent oil changes. This was generally the case with blends about 20%. During an
ALTENER project where two Mercedes Benz buses were run on diesel and biodiesel it was found
that the bus running on biodiesel required on oil change after 12,000 km compaired to 21,000 km
for the bus running fossil diesel. It is worth noting however that the engine had not been
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significantly affected in any adverse manner.
ENGINE TIMING
For higher blends engine performance will be improved with a slight change to engine
timing, 2 or 3 degrees for a 100% blend. The use of advanced injection timing and increased
injection pressure has been known to reduce NOx emissions. It is worth noting that catalytic
converters are just as effective on biodiesel emissions as on fossil diesel.
4. What is meant by esterification?
The basic process of converting vegetable oil to biodiesel is called esterification. Carboxylic
acids react readily with alcohols in the presence of catalytic amount of mineral acids to yields
compounds called esters. The process is called Esterification.
RCOOH + R 2 OH � RCOOR 2 + H 2 O
The mechanism of the acid-catalyzed esterification is as follows.
The carbonyl oxygen is protonized so that the carbon can be more likely attacked by the
relatively weaker alcohol nucleophile.
Figure:
The second step is the rate determining step: the alcoholic oxygen attack the carbonyl carbon to
form a tetrahedral intermediate.
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Figure:
After proton transfer, the water molecule is released.
Figure:
Finally, the proton catalyst is regenerated.
Figure:
Steps (1), (3), (5) are rapid proton transfer steps – simple acid base reactions. Although bare
protons are shown in each case, they are actually solvated by some Lewis bases, which may be
ethanol or water. In steps (2) and (4), C-O bonds are formed or broken. These steps have higher
activation energies that the proton-transfer steps.
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Practically, there are three steps in the process:
1. Reflux – heating a mixture of ingredients in a vessel.

2. Separation – separating the organic layer from the aqueous layer.
3. Purification – obtaining the pure ester, which in this case is biodiesel.
5. Discuss the Emission Characteristics of the Biodiesel fuel engine.
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
The exhaust emissions of carbon monoxide (a poisonous gas) from biodiesel are on average
48 percent lower than carbon monoxide emissions from diesel.
HYDROCARBONS (HC)
The exhaust emissions of total hydrocarbons (a contributing factor in the localized

formation of smog and ozone) are on average 67 percent lower for biodiesel than diesel fuel.
NITROGEN OXIDES (NOX)
Nitrogen Oxides emissions from biodiesel increase or decrease depending on the engine
family and testing procedures. NOx emissions (a contributing factor in the localized formation of
smog and ozone) from pure (100%) biodiesel increase on average by 10 percent. However,
biodiesel’s lack of sulfur allows the use of NOx control technologies that cannot be used with
conventional diesel. Additionally, some companies have successfully developed additives to
reduce NOx emissions in biodiesel blends.
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Figure:
PARTICULATE MATTER
Breathing particulate has been shown to be a human health hazard. The exhaust emissions
of particulate matter from biodiesel are about 47 percent lower than overall particulate matter
emissions from diesel.
SMOG
The ozone forming potential of the speciated hydrocarbon emissions is 50 percent less than
that measured for diesel fuel.
SULFUR EMISSION
The exhaust emissions of sulfur oxides and sulfates (major components of acid rain) from
biodiesel are essentially eliminated compared to diesel.
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
Biodiesel emissions show decreased levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and
nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (nPAH), which have been identified as potential cancer
causing compounds. In Health Effects testing, PAH compounds were reduced by 75 to 85 percent,
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with the exception of benzon(a)anthracene, which was reduced by roughly 50 percent. Targeted
nPAH compounds were also reduced dramatically with biodiesel, with 2-nitrofluorene and 1-
nitropyrene reduced by 90 percent, and the rest of the nPAH compounds reduced to only trace
levels oils.
6. Explain transesterification process methods of modifying the properties of vegetable
Figure: TRANSESTERIFICATION PROCESS BESCRIPTION
1. ACID ESTERIFICATION:
Oil feed stocks containing more than 4% free fatty acids go through an aid esterification
process to increase the yield of biodiesel. These feed stocks are filtered and preprocessed to
remove water and contaminants, and then fed to the acid esterification process. The catalyst,
sulfuric acid, is dissolved in methanol and then mixed with the pretreated oil. The mixture is
heated and stirred, ad the free fatty acids are converted to biodiesel. Once the reaction is
complete, it is dewatered and then fed to the transesterification process.
2. TRANSESTERIFICATION:
Oil feed stocks containing less than 4% free fatty acids are filtered and preprocessed to
remove water and contaminants and then fed directly to the transesterification process along with
any products of the acid esterification process. The catalyst, potassium hydroxide, is dissolved in
methanol and then mixed with and the pretreated oil. If an acid esterification process is used,
then extra base catalyst must be added to neutralize the acid added in that step. Once the reaction
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is complete, the major co-products, biodiesel and glycerin, are separated into two layers.
3. METHANOL RECOVERY:
The methanol is typically removed after the biodiesel and glycerin have been separated, to
prevent the reaction from reversing itself. The methanol is cleaned and recycled back to the
beginning of the process.
4. BIODIESEL REFINING:
Once separated from the glycerin, the biodiesel goes through a cleanup or purification
process to remove excess alcohol, residual catalyst and soaps. This consists of one or more
washings with clean water. It is then dried and sent to storage. Sometimes the biodiesel goes
through an additional distillation step to produce a colorless, odorless, zero-sulfur biodiesel.
5. GLYCERIN REFINING:
The glycerin by-product contains unreacted catalyst and soaps that are neutralized with an
acid. Water and alcohol are removed to produce 50%-80% crude glycerin. The remaining
contaminants include unreacted fats and oils. In large biodiesel plants, the glycerin can be further
purified, to 99% or higher purity, for sale to the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.
7. Discuss the engine performance with vegetable oils.
TORQUE AND POWER
The wide-open-throttle torque and power curves for diesel, B20, and B100 are show below.
Note the power axis is on the right side.
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Figure: Comparison of Torque and Power with different Fuels
There appears to be little difference in performance between regular diesel and the B20
mixture. The B100 displays about a 5% reduction in power from diesel, actually less than the
expected 10% reduction.
FUEL CONSUMPTION:
The B100 fuel has a 17% higher fuel flow rate than diesel, and 25% higher specific fuel
consumption. This means that more fuel is consumed, and less power is output. This is to be
expected, as the lower heating value of biodiesel is about 10% less than that of dieel. For B20, the
fuel flow rate is 9% higher and the specific fuel consumption is 6.8% higher than when using
diesel.
The thermal efficiency is 29.6% when using diesel, is 28.8% when using neat biodiesel, and
is 28.3% when using the B20 blend.
8. Discuss the properties of vegetable oils with conventional fuels?
In some respects the properties of vegetable oils are very close to those of diesel oil but in
others they ate quite different.
1. The densities of the vegetable oils are slightly higher compared to diesel fuels.
2. The calorific value is slightly lower on mass basis.
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3. Viscosities at room temperature are much higher compared to diesel oil.

4. The cetane number is slightly lower than diesel oil.
5. The flash point is very high making them quite safe to store.
6. Volatility is quite low.
7. Carbon residue is very high.
It can be seen that vegetable oil have very poor volatility. This fact rules out their use in
spark ignition engines. By their main properties vegetable oils are more suited to diesel engines
than to spark ignition engines. Vegetable oils also mix freely in any proportion with diesel oil and
hence can be used as diesel supplements also. The most serious drawbacks of vegetable oils,
however, are their high viscosity and the high carbon residue. The high viscosity makes it very
difficult to pump in diesel engines. Their exhaust is smokier than diesel oil.
9. Discuss the Vehicle Emissions Characteristics with the use of Vegetable oils?
Early testing of vegetable oils and biodiesel focused on engine power, reliability, and
durability; emissions were rarely measured. Those proposing to use biodiesel in blends with
diesel fuel have performed some emissions tests, and from these tests some generalizations about
the emissions characteristics of biodiesel can be made.
Straight biodiesel (soy methyl ester) has a cetane rating significantly higher than typical
NO. 2 diesel fuel, slightly lower heating value, slightly higher viscosity, and contains
approximately 10 mass percent oxygen. The lower heating value will cause a small loss in
maximum power if the engine fuel system is not recalibrated. In a prechamber diesel engine using
a transient eight – mode test, straight soy methyl ester showed a significant reduction in
hydrocarbon emissions, no significant change in carbon monoxide emissions, a slight reduction in
oxides of nitrogen emissions, reduced particulate emissions, and lower mutagenicity of the
particulate matter formed. These results may be less favorable if the engine ware recalibrated to
the same maximum power output as when using No. 2 diesel fuel. Additional benefits of using
soy methyl ester include reduced toxic emissions, very low sulfate emissions, and a much more
pleasant exhaust odor. These beneficial emissions effects were attributed to the high cetane value
of the soy methyl ester that caused reduced ignition delay, earlier energy release, and probably
reduced peak flame temperatures.
When biodiesel is blended with diesel fuel, the emissions results change some what. A
significant decrease in hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions is typical, no change or a
small increase in oxides of nitrogen emissions, and significant reduction in particulate emissions.
Emissions of toxins would also decrease according to the percentage substitution of diesel fuel.
Clean diesel” is a term that applies to diesel fuel that has low sulfur and aromatic content, along
with other characteristics that facilitate low emissions from diesel engines.
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10. Enumerate the Vehicle Performance Characteristics with the use of vegetable oils?
On a mass basis, neat biodiesel has approximately 13% less energy than typical diesel fuel.
This loss in energy is caused by the oxygen content of biodiesel of approximately 10%. Biodiesel’s
higher specific gravity of approximately 0.88 compared to approximately 0.82 for diesel fuel
regains some of the loss in energy on a mass basis for an overall impact of approximately 7% loss
in energy per unit volume. Thus, an engine adjusted for diesel fuel should experience a loss of
power of approximately 7% when using neat biodiesel (blends should experience power losses
proportionate to the blend level). Engines readjusted to increase fuel injection quantities at full
power should not experience any loss in power.
Because of the lower energy per unit volume, vehicles using neat biodiesel should
experience a loss in fuel economy of about 7% on average.
Biodiesel has higher viscosity and higher pour points compared to typical diesel fuel,
which could affect operation in very cold temperatures. Like diesel fuels, pour point additives are
effective at decreasing pour point.
Engine oil dilution is a potential problem with biodiesel since it is more prone to oxidation
and polymerization than diesel fuel. The presence of biodiesel in engine oil could cause thick
sludge to occur with the consequence that the oil becomes too thick to pump. Special
formulations of engine oil are being developed to minimize the effects of dilution with biodiesel.
UNIT V
Part – A
1. What is an electric vehicle? Briefly mention its advantage in pollution control?
The search for vehicles with environmental benefits and energy prospects is a consequence
of numerous changes, which have occurred in the society, and consequently transport systems.
Today, this much is beyond controversy that the electric vehicle is the only motorized individual
means of transport available, which leaves no exhaust fumes during operation an hardly creates
any noise either. The electric vehicle is superior to both the gasoline engine and the diesel engine
when it comes to emissions of nitrogen oxide (NO x), carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons
(HC). For the particularly controversial greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide (CO 2), the values for the
electric vehicle are around a quarter lower than those of the combustion engine. Therefore, the
introduction of the electric vehicle will reduce pollution at not only the load level but also the
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global level. Figure represents contribution of electric vehicle to local and global pollutions as well
as towards the production of green house gas.
2. Compare the exhaust emission in SI, CI E engine and EVS?
3. What are the types of batteries

Specific power, Operating
available for EVS Tatrute thena Cycle life
W/ kg temperature, 0C
Battery
Lead acid 80 – 100 Ambient 500 – 1000
Sodium sulphur 100 – 200 300 – 350 > 1000
Sodium nickel chloride 100 – 200 290 – 330 > 1000
Lithium aluminium iron disulphide 400 – 450 400 – 450 > 750
Lithium solid polymer electrolyte 250 – 400 120 300
4. What is an hybrid vehicle?
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Internal combustion engines produce polluting emissions as well as deliver poor efficiency
at part load. Electric drives on the other hand produce “no” emissions but have a limited range.
The concept of hybrid is to combine the best aspects of each and minimize the worst. The
principle of the hybrid drive system is shown in figure.
One way of combining these two drives is to use the electric drive in slow traffic and towns,
and to use the IC engine on the open road. This is most effective way of reducing pollution in
towns. Sophisticated control systems can permit even better usage, like under certain conditions
both the electric motor and the engine can be used.
Figure: Principle of the hybrid drive system
5. What are the types of Hybrid drives?
Hybrid Drives:
The hybrid drive concept can be applied in a number of ways as shown in figure. Also it is
possible to adapt different types of engine, like petrol, diesel or gas turbine engines. Both series
and parallel arrangements of the drives can be used. In series layout engine drives a generator
that operates a motor, which in turn drives the wheels. In parallel layout both engine and motor
drive the wheels. In parallel layout both engine and motor drive the wheels. In parallel layout
both engine and motor drive the wheels. This system permits the engine to recharge the battery
while powering the vehicle. The parallel arrangement provides greater flexibility. The series
arrangement however permits the fossil fuel engine to run at a constant speed while driving the
generator. This makes the combustion engine to run more efficiently, however the double energy
conversion process (mechanical to electrical to mechanical ) is less efficient than direct
transmission of the vehicle. Additional advantage provided by the series connection is that is
avoids the use of transmission (gear box).
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Figure: Principle of hybrid drives
6. What is the need for solar powered vehicles?
The present trend of a steady increase in the population is causing rapid depletion in the
reserves of fossil fuels due to increase in energy consumption. Therefore utilization of alternate
energy sources like solar photovoltaic cells has come up.
7. Briefly explain Photo – Voltaic Cells?
Photo – voltaic Cells:
Photovoltaic cells (often called solar cells) are semi – conductor devices, which are capable
of converting sunlight directly into electricity. All photovoltaic cells are individual generating
units and are small in linear dimension. These are connected in series and parallel to obtain the
required values of current and voltage for electric power generation. Photovoltaic devices are
available with a large range of efficiencies and voltages. Some cells are designed to withstand
high solar intensities and high operating temperatures, while others are designed to minimize
manufacturing costs.
8. What are the materials used in Solar cells?
The photovoltaic cells may use the following materials

 Mono crystalline silicon
 Polycryastalline silicon
 Cadmium and copper sulphide
 Amorphous silicon
 Indium phosphide and gallium arsenide
 Semiconductor oxides on silicon.
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9. Mention the limitations of Solar cells?
The fundamental limit on the performance of all these cells arises from the fact that (a) light
photons, lacking the energy required to lift electrons from the valence to the conduction bands,
cannot contribute to photovoltaic current, (b) the energy given to electrons, which exceeds the
minimum excitation threshold cannot be recovered as useful electrical current. Most of the
unconverted photon energy is dissipated in heating the cell.
Part – B
1. Draw a block diagram representing the battery powered electric vehicle and explain.
The drive train of the RAV4EV, figure consists of the battery pack, the electric motor and the
control pack. Although it is a cumbersome installation as compared with that of an internal
combustion engine powered vehicle, at least it has neither an exhaust system nor a conventional
transmission: the electric motor transmits its drive through a simple reduction gear to the road
wheels. By virtue of optimization of every aspect of this drive train, and the use of the
regenerative braking, a range of 124 miles per charge has, it is claimed, been attained.
Nissan’s Altra represents a major advance. It is powered by a water cooled, permanent

magnet, synchronous electric motor developing 62 kW and 159 Nm torque at 13000 rev/min. A
key feature of this motor is the use of the highly efficient nodimium – iron – boron (Nd – Fe – B)
magnet. The outcome is a motor weighing 39 kg giving a power weight ratio of 1.6 W/kg.
Incidentally, its speed is considerably higher than the average, which is 8000 to 9000 rev / min.
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Figure: Block diagram representing the layout of the Toyota battery powered RAVA electric
vehicle
The lithium – iron battery pack was developed by Sony. Its nominal output is 345 V from
12 modules each comprising 8 cells. The output from each cell is 36 V fully charged and 20 V
discharged. With a gross weight of 350 kg, the energy density is 90 Wh/kg and power density 300
W/kg. A nominal life of 1200 cycles, based 5% reduction in energy density, is claimed, but lives
been obtained during tests.
The batteries, mounted on a tray carried beneath the floor, approximately mid – way
between the front and rear axels, have a dedicated cooling system with a fan.
Nissan has developed a water – cooled controller, which embodies twin CPUs to make the
system fully redundant. Its input range is 216 to 400 V. Its input is data on the state of charge of
the batteries, temperatures, driving history, use of the regenerative braking system and the
auxiliary systems. On the basis of this information, it can make accurate predictions of range of
operation remaining available. It also controls relays in the battery cooling system, and
determines the battery charging strategy.
The batteries are topped up by an external inductive charger plugged into a port in front of
the car, which cannot be driven if the port is not closed afterwards. A full charge takes 5 hours,
and gives a maximum range of 193 km in ideal conditions, or 135 km in busy urban conditions.
For regenerative braking, the system cuts in when the driver lifts his foot off the accelerator
pedal. If the driver then applies the brakes, it provides a considerably higher level of assistance.
An electric power assisted steering system is employed, but is gives assistance only when really
needed. The auxiliary systems are powered by a 12 V lead acid battery, which is charged from the
main battery system by a water – cooled DC / DC transformer.
2. Briefly explain the major assemblies to electric vehicle and compare the energy flow between
EV and IC engine vehicle?
Description of Electric Vehicle:
The major assemblies of a basic electric vehicle are

1. Body
2. Chassis
3. Drive motor
4. Propulsion batter
5. Controller, and
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6. Auxiliaries and instrumentation
The electric vehicle has a DC series motor with shunt limiting winding in place of the IC
engine. The rest of the transmission system is an in the conventional internal combustion vehicle.
The speed of the motor is varied by varying the voltage across the motor smoothly and steplessly
through the accelerator controlled reference signal. The vehicle incorporates a fuse to protect the
system in case of a fault, a current limiter to limit the current to present values, a thermistor to
sense the motor winding temperature and to trip the system if the winding temperature exceeds
the preset safe value. Micro processors are being used in some of the speed controllers for optimal
efficiency control of the drive system, for logic and sequencing, for indicating state of charge, self
diagnostics etc. The advances in semiconductor device technology, particularly the availability of
high power transistors and high power gate turn off thyristors make the use of the AC drives in
battery vehicles a realistic possibility.
Range per charge is the maximum distance that the electric vehicle can cover before
recharging the batteries or giving a boost charge. The maximum range per charge attained till
recent time is 300 km (using zinc – air battery) with a top speed of 100 kmph. The electric vehicle
can be designed for higher acceleration and for higher grade climbing ability for any specific
requirement but at increased cost. In cold and poor weather conditions the range of some electric
vehicle may be significantly reduced.
Considerable work is in progress in many parts of the would on the development of high
energy density batteries for electric vehicles to increase their range per charge. Some of the near
term high density batteries for electric vehicle are improved lead – acid, nickel – metal – hydride,
zinc – air, lithium – ion etc.
Figure provide the comparison of energy flow between the internal combustion and the
battery vehicle. The comparison on the basis of their characteristics is presented in table.
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Figure: Comparison of energy flow between EV and IC engine vehicle
A number of factors are considered while designing the electric vehicle, but the most
important among them are
(i) The type of batteries, and

(ii) The type of drive system.
The great advantage of lead acid batteries is the existing mature technology, which is
commonly used in the vehicle industry. The disadvantage is the relatively low specific power.
Although the sodium sulphur battery seems to be the best contender but at present it is very costly
and requires further developments to cope with the operating conditions such as the high
temperature. Table summarizes the choice of batteries.
Table: Comparison of characteristics between EV and IC engine vehicles
Item Battery vehicle IC engine vehicle

Investment cost 1.5 to 1.8 times 1.0 time
Running cost 0.2 to 0.4 times 1.0 time
Maintenance cost Negligible High
Power plant utilization Increased Nil
Life High Low
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Resale valve High Low

Atmospheric pollution Nil Very high
Noise pollution Nil Very high
Foreign exchange expenditure Negligible High
There are several choices of the type of drive. The basic, however, is choice either an AC or DC
motor. The AC motor provides many control advantages but requires the DC produced by the
batteries to be converted using an inverter. The DC shunt wound motor, rated at about 45 kW,
appears to be one of the popular choices for the smaller electrical vehicles.
3. What are the limitation of electric vehicles?
Limitations of Present Day Electric Vehicle:
The commercial success of electric vehicle depends on the following major factors:
1. The end price of the electric vehicles

2. The replacement cost of the population battery
3. The maximum range per charge of the electric vehicle
The end price of the electric vehicle can be brought very close to that of the conventional
diesel / petrol vehicle if, favourable tax rebate or subsidy is provided by the government.
The high cost of installation of the population battery affects the sale of electric vehicle as
this has to be replaced at the end of its life period, which is currently about 4 to 5 years
The maximum distance that can be travelled at a stretch is the major limitation of today’s
electric vehicle. The range can be increased about 100 km by using higher density batteries. Also,
the range can be increased further if a boost charge is given in the non – continuous mode of
operation in between runs. This process of charging the batteries when the electric vehicle is not
in use is called as “Biberonnage” charging. For this purpose an extensive network of electrical
outlets for battery charging is required in all the places where the electric vehicles are parked.
4. Brief the advantages of Electric vehicle?
Operational Advantage of Electric Vehicles:

Control of Maximum Acceleration:
In any automobile’s driving pattern, the consumption of fuel in accelerating mode of
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operation forms the major contributor to the fuel consumption. In a conventional automobile, it is
difficult to set a limit to the acceleration, but it is very simple in a battery vehicle, where the
dependence on the driver for acceleration limit or control is eliminated.
In a conventional vehicle, lesser fuel consumption under light loading condition is not
reflected in the running costs per km as the driver normally utilizes the effect of the light loading
to accelerate faster. This situation is eliminated in battery vehicle, where the advantages of light
loading can be realized as reduced running cost.
Stability of Factory Setting for Optimum Performance:
The factory settings for optimum performance like fuel consumption, acceleration limits,
etc., can be maintained without deviation for many years in battery vehicles, which is not
practicable in conventional vehicles.
Stability to Sophisticate Electronic Controls and Protection:
In these days automotive manufacturers in the technologically advanced countries are

using microcomputers and other electronic circuitry to optimize the performance and to
incorporate many protective features in the automobiles. The battery vehicle can be easily
interfaced with these sophisticated equipments at much lower cost as compared to that of an
internal combustion vehicle.
Driving Comfort:
It is well known that increase in driver’s comfort improves the efficiency of driving, which
is normally reflected in lower running cost. The battery vehicle offers very high driver’s comfort
compared to a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle. The factors improving the
driver’s comfort in the battery vehicle are:
 Noiseless operation
 Low vibration level
 FRP body in battery vehicle offers higher thermal insulation compared to conventional mild
steel and aluminium bodies. It keeps the interior of the cabin very cool. Moreover, FRP
body needs low maintenance and is economical too.
5. Tabulate and explain the different high energy density batteries?
Sodium Sulphur Battery:
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Research in underway to improve battery technology to have a higher energy density for
electric vehicles. A potential contender however is the sodium sulphur (NaS) battery, which has
reached the production state in near past. Table compares the potential energy density of four
types of battery.
Battery energy densities
Battery type Energy density, Wh/kg

Lead acid 30
Nickel – iron 45
Sodium – sulphur 90
Zinc – air 180
Hydrogen – oxygen fuel cell 500
All the batteries listed in table exhibit much potential although all of them have specific
drawbacks. For example storing and carrying hydrogen is one problem of fuel cells.
6. Explain the construction of any one high power density battery?
The sodium sulphur (NaS) battery uses a cathode of liquid sodium into which a current
collector, a solid electrode of B – alumina is placed. The complete assembly is surrounded by a
metal can , which is in contact with the anode, a sulphur electrode. A running temperature of 573
to 623 K is necessary with NaS system, which is the major problem. A heater in the capacity of a
few hundred watts forms part of the charging circuit, which maintains the battery temperature
when the vehicle is not running. The battery temperature is maintained when it is in use due to
losses in the battery.
Each cell of this battery is very small, using only about 15 gm of sodium. This is a safety
feature because if the cell is damaged the sulphur on the outside cases the potentially dangerous
sodium to be converted into poly – sulphides, which are comparatively harmless. The additional
advantage is that the cells be located around the car. The capacity of each cell is about 10 Ah with
an output voltage of about 2 V. These cells fail in an open circuit condition and hence this must be
taken into account. Figure shows a sodium sulphur battery.
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Figure: Sodium sulphur battery
A problem yet to be solved with this system is its casing material, which is prone to fail due
to the very corrosive nature of the sodium. Presently an expensive chromised coating is used.
This type of battery combined with an electric motor, seems, to be very good competitor to
the internal combustion engine. The servicing and charging infrastructure needs to be developed
but looks promising. It is estimated that the cost of running an electric vehicle may be little
around 15% of the petrol version, which may absorb the extra cost of production.
7. Explain the various concepts battery technology for electric vehicles?
Concepts in Battery Technology for Automobiles:
Like size of the fuel tank in a gasoline or diesel engine vehicles, the energy stored in the
volume occupied by the battery in the case of electric vehicle determines the range of the vehicle.
The higher the volumetric energy density in watt hours per litre, Wh/L, the greater is the range.
The gravimetric energy density watt hours per kilogram, Wh / kg, determines how much energy is
available in relation to the weight of the battery. Therefore, with all battery systems, it is necessary
to know how for the battery can be discharged (in order to determined the range), or, how much
of the nominal maximum energy is really available for vehicle operation. This measurement is the
lowest discharge limit given as a percentage of nominal capacity.
A further influence on the range is self – discharge. This is given in percent per day or in
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association with another time unit. In practice, the range is determined by the driving style, just
like combustion – engine vehicles. With battery power, the “lead weight” has some
disadvantages. Frequent acceleration phases should be avoided, especially when the battery has
been partly run down.
The “refueling” time of the battery should also be considered for EVs application. Many
batteries, however, need several hours for recharging. In general, short recharging times are only
offered by alkaline systems like nickel – metal – hydride. These can be recharged by up to 80
percent of nominal energy in 10 minutes.
The specific power density of the battery, expressed in W/kg, effects acceleration, as well as
the period of time during which battery power is demanded.
The service life of a battery is essentially described by the number of recharges and
discharges, the so – called number of cycles. The reliability of a battery depends on its behavior
when subjected to shocks and vibrations. The vital importance is the uniform temperature in all
cells of a battery in all operating states. Apart from this the cells must be protected against cell
reversal, overcharging and excessively low discharge levels. The relationship between vehicle
characteristics and battery specifications are given in table.
Relationship between vehicle and battery

Vehicle characteristics Battery specifications
Range Gravimetric energy density (specific – energy) in Wh / kg.
Volumetric energy density in Wh/L.
Self – discharge in percent per day.
Level of discharge as a percentage of nominal capacity
Refueling Recharge time, rapid recharge capability
Acceleration Specific power in W / kg
Service life of battery Number of recharges and discharges
Number of cycles according to ECE test specifications.
Reliability Behavior when subjected to shock and vibration.
Effect of temperature.
Protection against overcharging and excessive discharge.
8. Draw and explain the series hybrid system?
Hybrid Power:
For many experiments have been carried out with diesel – or petrol – electric hybrid power
units. All suffer the disadvantage that two power units are required: an internal combustion
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engine and an electric motor. The implications therefore are of complexity, high initial cost, two
power units that could malfunction, and large bulk. In the past, controlling two power units for
economical operation was difficult. However, the introduction of electronic engine management
systems virtually eliminated this problem. Despite the high costs of these vehicles, it is possible
that road users may be indirectly pressurized by legislation into buying them.
Several strategies can be employed for the management of such power combinations. With
an internal combustion engine as the primary source of power, batteries are not essential, although
the whole system becomes much more flexible with batteries. In any case, at least one battery is
needed for starting the engine and serving the electric equipment in general. Currently, the most
economical and practicable arrangements are those in which a diesel engine drives in series a
generator to charge the batteries which drive the electric motor.
9. Draw and explain the parallel hybrid drive system?
In a parallel hybrid system, figure the electronic power management system can be
employed to switch the drive from the batteries
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Figure: In the series hybrid system, the motor drives the generator which powers the motor that
drives the wheels
The parallel hybrid drive is so called because, under appropriate conditions, both the engine and
the electric motor simultaneously drive the wheels alone, over to combined battery and electric
drive for acceleration or climbing hills. The diesel or gasoline engine can be stopped for operation
at light load, and automatically started again when either the batteries must be recharged or the
torque output has to be supplemented by either direct power form the generator, or by power
from both the batteries and generator or internal combustion engine, or even from all three
simultaneously.
10. Draw the layout and explain the working of fuel cell powered vehicle
A system for producing hydrogen from methanol and water on a vehicle, figure was
introduced by Toyota in 1987. The vehicle has a range of 250 – 310 miles (400 – 500 km) on a
single tank of methanol, which would be refueled from a forecourt pump, in the conventional
manner. Some CO2 is produced during the reforming process but, because methanol contains less
carbon than gasoline fuel, the equantity produced on the vehicle is half that from one with a
gasoline engine of comparable output. The volumes of CO, HC and NO x produced are one – tenth
of those of the gasoline engine, and therefore meet the requirements of the American ULEV
regulations.
The methanol reformer unit is illustrated in figure and the system is shown
diagrammatically in figure. A mixture of water and methanol is piped to the unit, where it
immediately enters the vaporizer. The vapour is then passed through the catalyser. Here the
96
methanol is reformed in two stages into H 2 and CO2, the latter being released to atmosphere and
the former recycled to replace that taken from the tank in the first place. The chemical process is
represented as follows:
CH2OH+H2O = 3H2 + CO2
Figure: Layout of the Toyota fuel cell powered vehicle in which the hydrogen is produced by
methanol reformation
Figure: The methanol reformation unit
97
Figure: Diagram showing the stages of reformation, from the input of methanol and water to
the output of the hydrogen and CO2 gases
From this it can be seen that one molecule of methanol and one of water are converted into
three molecules of hydrogen.
In 1997, after developing fuel cell vehicles for about 4 years, Daimler – Benz, or Daimler –
Chrysler since it marged with Chrysler, bought a 25% stake in Ballard Power Systems and
unveiled the Necar 3 (New Car 3) based on the Mercedes A – class car. This was the first Daimler
– Benz car to rely upon a tank of methanol as the source of hydrogen. The fuel cell comprised a
proton – conducting plastics (PEM) foil proton exchange membrane, or electrolyte, coated with the
platinum catalyst, and with grooved graphite plates on each side serving as electrodes.
Hydrogen is passed through the grooves on one side and compressed air on the other. Three
hundred of these cells are connected in series.
Incidentally, Necar 1 was based on the MB 100 van and Necar 2 on the V – class people
carrier. Both were fuelled by hydrogen stored at high pressure. Five kilograms of hydrogen were
stored in a tank of 50 litres volume, giving a range of about 250 km (155 miles).
An alternative to methanol is dimethylether, DME, which is a gas at room temperature. Its

chemical formula is CH3 OCH3, and it is used as an environmentally friendly propellant in spray
cans. Currently, it is produced from natural gas, but it could be made from renewable raw
materials in an energy efficient process that would not contribute to global warming.
Incidentally, stored at low pressure on a vehicle and injected as a liquid into the cylinders,
DME can also be used to fuel diesel engines. Emission levels are lower than those from a
conventionally fuelled diesel engine by as much as 58% NO x, 93% HC and 96% CO and
particulates have been claimed, or about 50% and 90% lower than the Euro 2 requirement.
However, at the time of writing, research and development are still ongoing. As with natural gas,
a major hurdle to be overcome before it could be widely used is the setting up of a retail
98
distribution infrastructure.
11. Explain the Battery charging with photovoltaic systems?
Battery charging with Photovoltaic Systems:
The solar cells in the form of the modules can be directly mounted on the car roof and
bonnet for direct charging of the batteries or on roofs of houses serving as stationary plants
exclusively for charging of circulation batteries. These schemes have only restricted use. In
another concept solar cells are mounted at suitable points including the roofs of houses for every
electric car. The electricity generated is fed into the official grid and tapped at any point from the
grid for filling up. This grid connections concept is advantageous in that the vehicle batteries can
be charged at any desirable point and independent of the respective climatic conditions. In order
to reduce vehicle costs, such filling stations can be designed for several vehicles needs. But this
scheme requires an efficient inverter with sinusoidal output (distortion factor below 3%) and grid
monitoring with shutdown in case of grid outage.
T 3056
B.E. / B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL / MAY 2008
Sixth Semester
Automobile Engineering
AT – 1002 – ALTERNATE FUEL AND ENERGY SYSTEMS
(Regulation 2004)
Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks
Answer ALL questions

Part A – (10  2 = 20 marks)
1. By using a BLOCK Diagram brief the availability of Alternate Fuels, glabally.

2. Briefly, explain the Alternate Energy Sources. Solar, Wind, Light
3. Enumerate the desirable properties of D.E.E. and D.M.E. as an I.C. Engine Fuel.
4. Explain the blending of Gasoline and Alcohol.
5. What are the Engine modifications required to use C.N.G. as an I.C. Engine Fuel?
6. Explain the on – board production of Hydrogen.
7. Brief the Esterification Process of Vegetable Oils.
8. Explain unfavourable Properties of Vegetable Oils.
9. Write the advantages and limitations of Electric Vehicles.
99
10. Explain the Electronic Control Systems used in Electric Hybrid Vehicles.
PART B – ( 5  16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) Give a detailed study of the Properties of any two Alternate Fuels used for I.C.
Engines.
(Or)
(b) Write short notes on:
(i) Availability of vegetable oils
(ii) Use of biogas in engines.
12. (a) What are the methods used to use Methanol Fuel in I.C. Engines? Explain any ONE
Method and explain the engine performance using Methanol Fuel.
(Or)
(b) Describe the Methods to use Ethanol Fuel in C.I. Engines and expalin the
Performance characteristics.
13. (a) Describe, how, Hydrogen Fuel in used in I.C. Engines. Discuss the Storage and
Handling of Hydrogen. Explain the performance characteristics Graph of Hydrogen
Fuel used in I.C. Engines.
(Or)
(b) Discuss the Performance and Emission Characteristics of L.P.G. Fuel used in S.I. and
C.I. Engines.
14. (a) Describe the Perfomance and Emission characteristics of Jatropha Oil as an Engine
Fuel.
(Or)
(b) Describe the Performance characteristics of esterfied Neem Oil and Karanji Oil used
in C.I. Engines.
15. (a) Describe any one lay out of electric hybrid vehicle and explain the different modes of
operations.
(Or)
(b) With a neat BLOCK Diagram, explain the construction and operation of Solar –
Powered Vehicles.
C 1062
B.E. / B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL / MAY 2008
Sixth Semester
100
Automobile Engineering
AT – 1002 – ALTERNATE FUEL AND ENERGY SYSTEMS
(Regulation 2004)
Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks
Answer ALL questions

Part A – (10  2 = 20 marks)
1. Draw a chart showing world alternate energy resources and their main uses.
2. What is meant by reformed alcohol?
3. Write about the blending of Gasoline and Alcohol.
4. Distinguish between the performances of DME as a fuel for SI and CI engines.
5. Write a note on emission characteritics of CNG.
6. Indicate the emission levels of LPG in SI engine.
7. What is meant by ‘Transesterification process’?
8. What are the advantages of biodiesel?
9. Define the term ‘Hybrid Vehicles’.
10. What are the limitations of solar powered cars?
PART B – ( 5  16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) Compare the properties of methanol and ethanol with conventional fuels and discuss
the suitability as alternative fuel for SI engines.
(Or)
(b) Discuss in detail, the availability and use of CNG, LNG and biogas as fuels for IC
engines.
12. (a) Explain the different methods of using alcohols in SI engines with suitable sketches.
(Or)
(b) Discuss in detail the performance and emission characteristics of DME and DEE.
13. (a) (i) Explain the on – board production of hydrogen.

(ii) Discuss the undesirable properties of hydrogen as a fuel for IC engines.
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain a schematic for the use of LPG as a subsidiary fuel in CI engine.
(ii) Briefly explain the performance of CNG as engine fule.
14. (a) Discuss the performance and emission characteritics of esterified Karanji and
Jetropha oil as an engine fuel.
101
(Or)
(b) With a neat sketch, briefly describe the working of a modified engine to use vegetable
oil as fuel.
15. (a) Explain the electronic control system of an electric hybrid vehicle with an aid of a
diagram..
(Or)
(b) (i) With a neat diagram, explain the working of a fuel cell vehicles.
(ii) List the limitations of high energy batteries used in the vehicles.
102

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1. What is the need for Alternate fuels?

Necessities for the search of Alternative fuels are:

2. List down the criteria in the selection of Alternative fuels?

Selection criteria of alternative fuels are:

1. It must be cheap and should be available everywhere.

3. List out potential alternative fuels for I.C. engines?

II. Gaseous fuels

III. Alternate Renevable Energy Sopurces – Solar, Wind, Hydropower

All come the sun directly or indirectly.

4. Write short notes on Alcohol?

i. It can be obtained from a number of sources, both natural and manufactured.

iii. It produces less overall emissions compared to gasoline.

5. What is meant by LPG?

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG):

6. Write the short notes on “Hydrogen” as fuel?

A number of automobile manufacturers have built with prototype or modified engines

 Low emissions. Essentially no CO or HC in the exhaust as there is no carbon in the fuel.

7. Write short notes on “Ammonia” as fuel?

Ammonia is normally a gas with a characteristically pungent odour. Ammonia is

8. Briefly mention Compressed Natural Gas CNG

9. Briefly explain Bio diesel/ Vegetable oils?

10. Write shorts notes on “Biogas”?

1. List out the properties of fuels?

1. Auto Ignition Temperature:

Auto ignition temperature is a minimum temperature of a substance to initiate self

Boling temperature is a temperature at which the transformation from liquid to vapor

Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct an electrical

Flame spread rate is a rate of flame propagation across a fuel pool.

Flame visibility is a degree to which combustion of a substance under various conditions

8. Flash Point and Fre Point:

10. Heating Value:

11. Latent Heat of Vaporization:

12. Molecular Weight:

The sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule.

13. Octane Number:

Octane number is a measure of the resistance of a fuel to combustion knock using

14. Odor Recognition:

Degree of smell associated with that fuel vapor.

15. Specific Gravity:

16. Specific Heat:

17. Stoichiometric Air – Fuel Ratio:

Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to flow.

19. Water Solubility:

Water solubility is a maximum concentration of a substance that will dissolve in water.

20. Cloud Point

21. Pour Point

22. Oxidation stability

23. Anti foaming

24. Anti guming

Figure: PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS

2. What are the disadvantages of Alcohol as a fuel?

The disadvantages of alcohol as a fuel are:

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of LPG?

Advantages and Disadvantages of LPG:

(ii) LPG mixes with air at all temperatures.

Comparison of Petrol and LPG

Petrol Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

4. What are disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel?

5. Write briefly as “Ammonia” as automobile fuel?

An Investigation to accomplish compression ratio of 35 is necessary to accomplish Ignition

The performance characteristics of engine using NH 3 as fuels are similar to performance

6. Explain the usage of LNG as automobile fuel?