1.

1 Research Design
A research design is the detailed blueprint used to guide a research study towar
d
its objectives.

1.1 Research Design

A research design is the detailed blueprint used to guide a research study towar
d
its objectives.
The process of designing a research study involves many interrelated decisions.
The most significant decision is the choice of research approach, because it det
ermines how the information will be obtained.
To design something also means to ensure that the pieces fit together. The achie
vement of this fit among objective, research approach, and research tactics is i
nherently an iterative process in which earlier decisions are constantly reconsi
dered in light of subsequent decisions.
1.2 Problem Definition
A problem exists when the decision-maker faces uncertainty regarding which actio
n to adopt in the situation. If only one action is available (or none at all) or
if there is certainty about the outcomes of the alternatives, there really is n
o problem.
Defining a problem is a situation where:
1) The decision-maker has not yet determined how to exploit an opportunity or
2) There are difficulties that are currently faced or are anticipated.
For instance the marketing manager may state that sales of a product have fallen
by 25% because its price is too high & hence may ask the researcher to throw mo
re light on what is a more effective price ? Actually the decline in sales may be d
ue to any other factor or factor like poor product quality, competitor s action, p
oor salesmanship etc. The research dealing solely with the price may be able to
solve the problem correctly.
The existence of a disorder or a problem is the reason why the research is
needed. Once the problem is identified/disorder is located, the researcher may s
et
the projects objectives. The project s objectives are the specific purpose or goal
of the research, since the objective flow from the disorder must precede the se
lection of the objectives.
1.3 Components of Problem
A problem consists of a set of specific components:
a)The decision maker and his or herobjecti ves;
b)Theen vironment orcontext of the problem;
c)Alternative courses of action;
d)A set of consequences that relate to courses of action and the occurrences
of events not under the control of the decision maker and

1.1 Research Design

A research design is the detailed blueprint used to guide a research study towar
d
its objectives.
The process of designing a research study involves many interrelated decisions.
The most significant decision is the choice of research approach, because it det
ermines how the information will be obtained.
To design something also means to ensure that the pieces fit together. The achie
vement of this fit among objective, research approach, and research tactics is i
nherently an iterative process in which earlier decisions are constantly reconsi
dered in light of subsequent decisions.
1.2 Problem Definition
A problem exists when the decision-maker faces uncertainty regarding which actio
n to adopt in the situation. If only one action is available (or none at all) or
if there is certainty about the outcomes of the alternatives, there really is n
o problem.
Defining a problem is a situation where:
1) The decision-maker has not yet determined how to exploit an opportunity or
2) There are difficulties that are currently faced or are anticipated.
For instance the marketing manager may state that sales of a product have fallen
by 25% because its price is too high & hence may ask the researcher to throw mo
re light on what is a more effective price ? Actually the decline in sales may be d
ue to any other factor or factor like poor product quality, competitor s action, p
oor salesmanship etc. The research dealing solely with the price may be able to
solve the problem correctly.
The existence of a disorder or a problem is the reason why the research is
needed. Once the problem is identified/disorder is located, the researcher may s
et
the projects objectives. The project s objectives are the specific purpose or goal
of the research, since the objective flow from the disorder must precede the se
lection of the objectives.
1.3 Components of Problem
A problem consists of a set of specific components:
a)
The decision maker and his or her objectives;
b)
Theen vironment orcontext of the problem;
c)
Alternative courses of action;
d)
A set of consequences that relate to courses of action and the occurrences
of events not under the control of the decision maker and
e)
A state of doubt as to which course of action isbest.
a)
The decision maker and his or herobjecti ves;
The decision-maker may not always be represented by a single individual. Marketi
ng decisions may be made by a marketing group of two or more people. Moreover, s
ome members of the group may not agree with the choice made because of differenc
es either in objectives (i.e., valued outcomes) or in their appraisal of the eff
ectiveness of means chosen to achieve the objectives. In other situations an ind
ividual may be performing the role of agent for some superior or group of superi
ors. The objectives of the decision maker provide motivation for the decision. T
hese objectives, or goals, may range from a desire to maintain or increase compa
ny profits and market share to personal goals concerned with maintaining prestig
e and a desire to advance in the corporation.
The decision maker s objectives may also be characterized by their hierarchical na
ture at any given moment and their evolution over time. For example, an increase
in the firm s profits may come about through an increase in the firm s sales, which
, in turn, may be accomplished by the firm s sales personnel contacting a greater
number of new accounts per month. The goal for the salesperson may be to increas
e sales contacts 10% over those made in some base period, but this represents a
sub goal, consistent, it is hoped, with a higher-level objective. The decision t
heorist also faces the problem of estimating changes in objective over time.
b)
Theen vironment orcontext of the problem;
Every problem exists within a context of the characteristics of the company and
of the market-consumer tastes and preferences, level of income and rate of growt
h in the market areas, the degree of competition and competitor action and react
ion, and the type and extent of governmental regulation. These environmental fac
tors may individually and collectively affect the outcome of the decision made.
The researcher must assist the manager in identifying these relevant environment
al factors.
Consider the problem of deciding whether to introduce a new consumer product.
Some of the environmental factors that could affect the decision are as follows:
The types of consumers that comprise the potential market,
The size and location of the market,
The prospects for growth or contraction of the market over the planning
period,
The buying habits of consumers,
The current competition for the product,
The likelihood and timing of entry of new competitive products ,
The current and prospective competitive position with respect to price,
quality, and reputation,
The marketing and manufacturing capabilities of the company

The situation with respect to patents, trademarks, and royalties,

The situation with respect to codes, trade agreements, taxes, and
tariffs.
Although this listing is by no means exhaustive, it illustrates some of the more
important environmental factors that could influence the outcome of the decisio
n and so must be considered in the problem statement. Each problem has a compara
ble set of environmental factors to be considered.
c)
Alternative courses of action;
A course of action is a specification of some behavioral sequence, such as the c
onstruction of a new warehouse, the adoption of a new package design, or the int
roduction of a new product. All courses of action involve, either implicitly or
explicitly, the element of time. For example, Construct a warehouse, starting nex
t week is a different course of action from Construct a warehouse, starting next y
ear.
Actions, of course, can be taken only in the present. A decision to stipulate a
program of action becomes a commitment, made in the present, to follow some beha
vioral pattern in the future. Courses of action may range in complexity from a s
ingle act to be implemented immediately to a large set of related acts proceedin
g either in parallel or sequentially over time. The time interval, which becomes
a part of the course of action, may be highly important, since both the costs o
f implementation and the probabilities of alternative outcomes will typically va
ry as a function of time.
d)
Consequencesof Alternative Courses of Action;
The world of uncertainty is a familiar world for the marketer. When choosing a c
ourse of action, a marketer can rarely be certain of the consequences, since the
choice is usually based on incomplete information about the various factors tha
t influence the decision s outcome. A primary job is thus to list the possible
outcomes of various courses of action. But these outcomes will depend on
various environmental factors.
e)
A state of doubt as to which course of action isbest ;
To solve a problem is to select the best course of action for attaining the deci
sion maker s objectives. A state of doubt as to which course of action is best can
arise under three main classes of conditions:
a. Certainty with respect to each course of action leading to a specific
outcome.
b. Risk with respect to each action leading to a set of possible outcomes,
each outcome occurring with a known probability

For example, if a fair coin is tossed, we may assume that over the long run the
proportion of heads will approach one-half; however, on any single toss we canno
t predict whether a head or tail will appear.
c.
Uncertainty with respect to outcomes, given a particular course of action.
In this view of decision-making we assume that the relative frequencies of the p
robabilities are not known. One version of this class of models, exemplified in
the Bayesian approach to decision making (to be described later), assumes that t
he decision maker can express various degrees of belief as to the occurrence of al
ternative outcomes. Moreover, the decision maker may be able, in many cases, to
collect more information regarding the true state of nature.
1.4 Impact of Problem Definition
A carefully formulated problem is a necessary point of departure for competently
conducted research. There should be as clear and thorough an understanding as p
ossible on the part of both the researcher and the decision maker as to the prec
ise purposes of the research. In effect, this statement of purpose involves a tr
anslation of the decision maker s problem into a research problem and study design
. The decision maker is faced with a problem for which he or she must recognize
alternative courses of action, choosing among them to accomplish one or more obj
ectives. The research problem is to provide relevant information concerning reco
gnized (or newly generated) alternative solutions to aid in this choice. To dete
rmine what information is required, the researcher will try to identify and unde
rstand the major elements of the problem faced by the decision maker.
In a very real sense, problem formulation is the heart of the research process.
As
such it represents the single most important step to be performed.
2. Concepts Relating to Research Design
1. Dependent and independent variable
A concept, which can take on different quantitative values, is called a variable
. eg: weight, height, income etc. Phenomena, which can take on quantitatively di
fferent values even in decimal points, are called continuous variables . Age is con
tinuous variable but number of children is non continuous variable. If one varia
ble depends on upon or is a consequence of other variable, it is termed as a dep
endent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable i
s termed as independent variable. For example: if height depends on age, then he
ight is dependent variable and age is independent variable.
2. Extraneous variable
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may
effect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the re
searcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is

relationship between children s gains in social studies achievement and their self
-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studi
es achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the soci
al studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study
undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable.
3. Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the effect
of extraneous variable(s). The technical term control is used when we design the
study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimenta
l searches, the term control is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.
4. Research hypothesis
When a prediction or hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific met
hods, is it termed as research hypothesis. It is a predictive statement that rel
ates an independent variable to a dependent variable.
5. Experimental and non experimental hypothesis-testing research
In this case the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis. It can be
of the experimental design or of the and non experimental design. Research in w
hich the independent variable is manipulated is termed experimental hypothesis-te
sting research and a research in which an independent is not manipulated is calle
d non experimental hypothesis- testing research .
6. Experimental and control group
In this research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a con
trol group, but when a group to exposed to some special conditions it is termed
as experimental group.
7. Treatments
The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are
put are usually referred to as treatments .
8. Experiment
The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. For eg: an experiment can be condu
cted to examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments ca
n be of two types viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment.
9. Experimental unit(s)
The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are
known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined)
very carefully

3. Types of Research Designs.

The different research designs can be categorized into research design in case o
f:
1. Exploratory Research Studies.
2. Descriptive And Diagnostic Research Studies
3. Hypothesis- Testing Research Studies (Experimental Studies)
Following are the details of different research designs:
3.1 Exploratory Research Studies
Also termed as formulative research studies.
Purpose of such studies is formulating a problem for more precise investigation.
Major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and insights.
Research design has to be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering
different aspects of a problem under study.
Inbuilt flexibility is essential.
Following are three methods in the context of research design for studies:
The survey of concerning literature
The experience survey
The analysis of insight stimulating examples.
The survey of concerning literature:
This happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating the resear
ch problem. Hypothesis stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefu
lness be evaluated as a basis for further research. In this way researcher shoul
d review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypo
thesis has not been formulated hi task is to review the available material for d
eriving the relevant hypothesis from it.
Experience Survey:
It is the survey of people who have had practical experience with the survey to
be studied. The object is to obtain insight into the relationship between variab
les and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey people who
are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respond
ents to ensure representation of different of experience. The respondents select
ed can be interviewed by the investigator. An interview schedule is prepared by
the researcher for systematic questioning of informants. The interview must ensu
re flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issu
es and questions which the investigator has not previously considered. The inter
view may last for few hours. Hence, it its often considered desirable to send a
copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in advance. This g
ives an

opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance thinking over various issu
es involved so that, at the time of interview they may be able to contribute eff
ectively. Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the pro
blem more concisely and help in formulation of research hypothesis. This survey
may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for doing diff
erent types of research.
Analysis of insight stimulating examples:
This is a fruitful method for suggesting hypothesis for research. It is particul
arly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide. It
consists of the intensive study of the selected instances of the phenomenon in w
hich on is interested. For this purpose the existing records may be examined the
unstructured interviewing may take place or some other approach may be adopted.
Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the
researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation a
re the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking
insights.
Examples for the above are:
Reactions of strangers
Reactions of marginal individuals
Study of individuals who are in a transition from one stage to another.
Reactions of individuals from different social strata.
3.2 Descriptive And Diagnostic Research Studies
Descriptive research studies are concerned with describing the characteristics o
f certain individuals or a group. E.g. studies concerning whether certain variab
les are associated.
Diagnostic research studies determine the frequency of with which something occu
rs or its association with something else. E.g. studies concerned with specific
predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual,
group or situation.
The descriptive as well as diagnostic research studies share common requirements
. In both the studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wa
nts to measure and must find adequate methods of measuring it. The aim is to obt
ain complete and accurate information, hence, the procedure to be used must be c
arefully planned. It should make enough provision for protection against bias an
d must maximize reliability. The design must be rigid and not flexible.
Following should be focussed:
a) Formulating the objective of the study (what is the study about and why is it
being
made.

b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data w

ill
be adopted)
c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed)
d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time
period should the data be related)
e) Processing and analyzing the data.
f) Reporting the findings.
Following are the steps involved in both the studies:
Step 1.Specify the objectives with sufficient precision to ensure that ht data c
ollected
is relevant.
Step 2.Select the methods by which the data are to be obtained. E.g. techniques
of
collecting the data must be devised.
While designing data collection procedure, adequate safeguards against bias and
unreliability must be ensured. Questions must be well examined and must be unamb
iguous, interests must not express their opinion.
In most studies researcher takes down samples and then wishes to make
statements about the population on the basis of the sample analyses.

The problem of designing samples should be tackled in such a form that the sampl
es may yield accurate information with a minimum amount of research effort.
To obtain data free from errors, it is necessary to supervise closely the
staff of field workers, as they collect and record information.
As data are collected, they should be examined for completeness,
comprehensibility, consistency and reliability.
The data collected must be processed and analysed.
This includes steps like coding the interview replies, observations, etc.;
tabulating the data; and performing several statistical computations.
The processing and analyzing procedure should be planned in detail
before actual work is started.
To avoid error in coding, the reliability of coders needs to be checked.
Similarly, the accuracy of tabulation may be checked by having a
sample of tables re-done.

Last of all comes the task of reporting the findings, i.e. communicating the fin
dings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner.

The layout of the report needs to be well planned so that all things relating to
the research study may be well presented in a simple and effective style.

Thus, the research design in the case of descriptive/diagnostic studies is a com

parative design and must be prepared keeping the objective(s) of the study and t
he resources available.
However, it must ensure the minimization of bias and maximisation of
reliability of the evidence collected.

It can be referred to as a survey design since it takes into account all

the steps involved in a survey concerning a phenomenon to be studied.
3.3 Hypothesis- Testing Research Studies (Experimental Studies)

Hypothesis-tested research studies (experimental studies) are those where the re

searcher tests the hypothesis of casual relationship between variables.
Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and
increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about casuality.

Professor R.A. Fisher begun such designs when he was working at Rothamsted Exper
imental Station (Centre for Agricultural Research in England).

Professor Fischer found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into diffe
rent blocks and then by conducting experiments in each of these blocks, the info
rmation collected and inferences drawn happen to be more reliable.
This fact inspired him to develop certain experimental designs for
testing hypotheses concerning scientific investigation.
4. Difference between exploratory and descriptive research (refer image)
5. Basic Principles of Experimental Design
Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:
1. the Principle of Replication;
2. the Principle of Randomization; and the
3. the Principle of Local Control.
According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated mor
e than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead
of one. By doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. Th
e entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. Conce
ptually replication does not present any difficulty, but computationally it does
. It should be remembered that replication is introduced in order to increase th
e precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which main
effects and interactions can be estimated.
The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experimen
t, against the effects of extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, t
his principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a w
ay that the variations caused by extraneous factors can be combined under the ge
neral heading of chance .
The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental de
signs. Under it the extraneous factors, the known source of variability, is made
to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be don
e in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence elimina
ted from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the experiment i
n manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the total
variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to treatment
s (the subject), the extraneous factors and experimental error.
6. Formal and Informal Experimental Design
Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of the experiment and a
s such there are several such experimental design. Experimental design can be cl
assified into two broad categories. Informal experimental design and Formal expe
rimental design. Informal experimental design are those design that normally use
s a less sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitude, where
as formal experimental design offer relatively more control and use precise stat
istical procedures for analysis.
Important statically designs are as follows:
1.Informal experimental design:
Before and after without control design.
After only with control design

Before and after with control design.

2.Formal experimental design:
Completely randomized design (C.R.design).
Randomized block design (R. B. design).
Latin square design (L.S. design).
Factorial design.
The details of each of the above stated formal and informal experimental design
are explained as follows.
1.Before-and-after control design : In such a design a single test group
or area is selected and the dependant variable is measured before the introducti
on of the treatment. The treatment is then introduced and the dependant variable
is measured again after the treatment has been introduced. The effect of the tr
eatment would be equal to the level of the phenomena after the treatment minus t
he level of phenomenon before the treatment.
The design can be represented as
______________________________________________________________
Test area: Level of phenomenon Treatment Level of
phenomenon
Before treatment (X) introduced after the treatm
ent (Y)
------------------------------>
Treatment Effect = (Y) - (X)
_______________________________________________________________________
The main difficulty of such a design is that with the passage of the time consid
erable
extraneous variation may be there in the treatment effect.
2.After only with control design: In this design two group of arise (test
area and control area) are selected and the treatment is introduced in the test
area only. The dependant variable is then measured in both the areas at the same
time. Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependant va
riable in the control area from the value in the test area. This can be exhibite
d in the following form
________________________________________________________________
Test area: Treatment introduced Level of phenomenon after
treatment (Y)
Control area ------------------> Level of phenomenon without
treatment (Z)
Treatment effect = (Y) (Z)
________________________________________________________________
The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are identical with r
espect to their behavior towards the phenomenon considered. If the assumption is
not true, then there is then there is the possibility of extraneous variant ent
ering into the treatment effect. However, data can be collected in such a design
without the