Mekelle University

Ethiopian Institute of Technology-Mekelle

School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Regulations and Control Engineering

(MEng 4162)

Chapter -2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System

Prepared by : Zina G.
(M.Sc. in Mechanical System Design)

1
2. Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
What is a Physical system?
A Physical system is a collection of physical objects connected in
some designed pattern to serve some prescribed objective.

Example: Industrial Plant, electronic amplifier, governing mechanism

of steam turbines, satellites, transportation machineries etc.

What is a model?
A model is a simplified representation or abstraction of reality.

• Reality is generally too complex to copy exactly.

• Much of the complexity is actually irrelevant in problem solving

2
N.B. No physical system can be represented in its full
physical details hence ideal assumptions are always
made for the purpose of analysis and synthesis of
systems.
• Complexity of the model depends on the type of study
to be carried out and on the level of accuracy needed.
N.B. Making a model more complex is not proportional
or commensurate with the gain of accuracy.

• Making simple and manipulable mathematical model

but still gives a greater insight into the dynamic
behavior of the physical system is advisable.

3
 What is Mathematical Model?
 A set of mathematical equations (e.g., differential eqs.) that
describes the input-output behavior of a system.

 A mathematical model is developed from the physical model using

appropriate physical laws.

What is a model used for?

• Simulation
• Prediction/Forecasting
• Prognostics/Diagnostics
• Design/Performance Evaluation
• Control System Design
 Ways to Study a System

System

Experiment with actual Experiment with a

System model of the System

Physical Model Mathematical Model

Analytical Solution

Simulation

Frequency Domain Time Domain Hybrid Domain

5
• Mathematical model can be:
 Scalar differential equation
 State variable vector-matrix differential equation
• When the mathematical model is solved for various input
conditions, then the result represents the dynamic response
of the physical system.
• For analysis and synthesis of the mathematical models available
mathematical tools have to be utilized.
Example: Laplace, Fourier Transforms & Linearization
• Unfortunately no physical system in nature is perfectly linear.
• Certain assumptions must always be considered to get a linear
model which is a compromise between the simplicity of the
mathematical model and the accuracy of results obtained.
6
• A linear system obeys the principle of homogeneity, this
means that when an input to a given system is scaled by
a value, the output of the system is scaled by the same
amount.

In the figure (a) above, an input x to the linear system L gives the
output y. If x is scaled by a value α and passed through this same
system, as in figure (b) , the output will also be scaled by α.

7
• A linear system also obeys the principle of super-position. This
means that if two inputs are added together and passed
through a linear system, the output will be the sum of the
individual inputs' outputs.

• That is, if Figure 2 is true, then Figure 3 is also true for a linear
system.
• Linear Mathematical model: obeys the principles of
super-position and homogeneity

1 x1( t )   2 x2 ( t )  1 y1( t )   2 y2 ( t )
Inputs Outputs
2.1. Modeling of Mechanical Systems
The building blocks are:
 Spring: represents the stiffness of a system (energy
storage media)
F  kx or T  k
 Damper (dashpot) : represents the force which
opposes motion (frictional or damping effects)
F  Cx or T  C
 Mass: represents the inertia or resistance to
acceleration
m F  mx or T  I
• This building blocks represent three essential phenomena
which occur generally in mechanical systems.
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 Common Uses of Dashpots
Door Stoppers
Vehicle Suspension

Bridge Suspension
Flyover Suspension
 Basic Elements of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Rotational Spring

1
2

T  k (1   2 )

Rotational Damper
C
1
2 T

T  C(1  2 )
• Dampers (with equivalent damping constant) will be
modeled to represent either of the following:
 Coulomb Friction Force (Dry Friction): force of sliding
friction between dry surfaces and it is substantially
constant.
 Viscous Friction Force: force of friction between moving
surfaces separated by viscous fluid or between solid
surface and a fluid medium.

 Structural or Hysteretic Damping Force: force due to

internal friction in the material as relative slipping or
sliding of internal planes occur during deformation.

13
• Energy is needed:
 to stretch the spring, hence an elastic potential energy
will be stored in the spring
1 2
Ve  kx
2
 to accelerate the mass and hence a kinetic energy will
be accumulated in the moving mass
1 2
T  mx
2
 to move the piston against the reaction force and
hence energy will be dissipated
x2

U 12    Cxdx
x1
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• Simple Model:
Input Output Input Output
Spring Dashpot
F or T
x or  F or T
x or 
• Such models are applied for:
Models of machine tools mounted on the ground and is a
basis for studying the effects of ground disturbances on the
displacement of the machine bed (Base Excitation).

Models of the wheel and its suspension for a car or track

and can be used for the study of the behavior that could be
expected when the vehicle is driven over a rough road and
hence used as a basis for the design of the vehicle
suspension.
15
 Gear Train Modeling
• Used in control systems to attain the mechanical matching of
motor to load.
• Multiplication of Torque and reduction of speed is achieved by
the application of gear trains.
Example: Servo-motor operates at high speed but low torque.
A most commonly used example of gear trains is the gears of an
automobile.

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 Primary Gear N1

Input Torque
from Motor T1
θ1
TM
Input Shaft I1, θ2
C1 Load Torque

TL
Secondary Gear N2
Load Shaft I2,
C2

Gear 1 I11  C11  T1  TM .....................(1)

Where T1 is the load Torque on Gear 1 due to the rest of Gear Train

Gear 2 I 22  C22  TL  T2 ......................(2)

Where T2 is the load transmitted to Gear 2 via Gear 1
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Using the relation
 2 N1
1r1   2 r2  1 N1   2 N 2  
1 N 2
and assuming there is no loss in power transfer
T1  2 N1
T11  T2 2     N11  N 2 2
T2 1 N 2
• Differentiating the above twice:
N11  N22 and N11  N22
• Replacing in to equations 1 and 2 and rearranging:
 N1 
I11  C11  T2    TM
 N2 
 I11  C11 
N1
N2
 I 2 2  C22  TL   TM ......(3)
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  I11  C11 
N1
N2
 
I 2 2  C22  TL  TM ......(3)

• Eliminating θ2:

  N1 
2
   N1 
2
 N1
 I1    I 2  1   C1    C2   1  TL  TM
  N2     N2   N2
   
N1
 I1eq1  C1eq1  TL  TM
N2
This is the Torque equation to the input shaft

I1eq,C1eq N1
TL
N2
TM
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• Similarly eliminating θ1 from equation 3:
2 2
 N2   N2 
I 2eq  I2    I1 and C2eq  C2    C1
 N1   N1 
• Hence, the Torque equation to the load shaft will
then be expressed as:
 N2 
I 2eq 2  C2eq2  TL    TM
 N1 
I2eq,C2eq
 N2 
  TM TL
 N1 
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 2.2. Equation of Electrical Networks
The basic building blocks are:
 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Inductor

1. Resistor: A resistor dissipates energy

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
resistor is given by Ohm’s law i-e
i(t)
V(t)

v (t )  i (t ) R 21
 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems
2. Capacitor:

• Capacitance is the measure of energy storing ability of a

capacitor in the form of electric field.
• The potential difference across it depends on the charge q on the
capacitor plates at the instant concerned.
• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
Capacitor is given as:
1
vc (t )   ic (t )dt
C
q
V  , where C is the capacitance
C
dq 1 dV
but i   q   i.dt  V   idt  i  C
dt C dt
 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems
3. Inductor:
i(t) L

V(t)

• Inductance is the property of a coil of wire that opposes a

change in current.
• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for
the inductor is given as:

di(t )
v(t )  L where L is induc tan ce
dt
 V-I and I-V relations
Component Symbol V-I Relation I-V Relation

v R (t )
Resistor v R (t )  i R (t )R iR (t ) 
R

1 dvc (t )
Capacitor vc (t )   ic (t )dt ic (t )  C
C dt

diL (t ) 1
Inductor v L (t )  L iL (t )   v L (t )dt
dt L

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 Kirchoff’s Law:
Generally Kirchhoff’s laws are used in building up models for
electrical systems. These laws can summarized as:
a) Law 1: Node analysis
The total current flowing towards a junction is equal to the total
current flowing from that junction, i.e. the algebraic sum of the
currents at the junction is zero.

i  0
b) Law 2: Mesh analysis
In a closed circuit or loop, the algebraic sum of the potential
differences across each part of the circuit is equal to the
applied e.m.f.

V  0
Mesh and node analysis are used to analyze circuits
Nodal Voltage Method:
a. Determine the number of nodes
b. Select one node as a reference. Assign voltage
designation to each node where voltage is unknown
c. Assign current at each node
d. Apply KCL to each node
e. Express the current equations in terms of voltages and
solve the equations.

Mesh Current Method:

a. Assign a current in CW direction
b. Indicate the voltage drop polarities
c. Apply KVL around each closed loop
d. Solve the resulting equations 26
 Examples
Apply KCL to the node i1  i2  i3
i1 i3

i1R1  v  vA
R1 i2 R3
i2 R2  v A
R4

R2
v
i3 ( R3  R4 )  vA
v  vA vA vA
 
R1 R2 R4  R3
R1 R3
R4
R2
v
For the mesh with current i2
i1 i2 0  i2 R3  i2 R4  (i2  i1 ) R2

For the loop with current i1 i2 ( R2  R3  R4 )  i1R2

v  i1R1  (i1  i2 ) R2
v  i1 ( R1  R2 )  i2 R2
 2.3. Transfer Functions
• Transfer Function is the ratio of Laplace transform of the
output to the Laplace transform of the input.
Considering all initial conditions to zero.

If u(t )  U ( S ) and u(t)

Plant
y(t)

y(t )  Y ( S )

Where  is the Laplace operator.

• Then the transfer function G(S) of the plant is given as

Y (S ) Y(S)
G( S )  U(S) G(S)
U (S )
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 Why Laplace Transform?

• By use of Laplace transform we can convert many

common functions into algebraic function of complex
variable s.
• For example

 sin t  2 2
s 
Or
 at 1
e 
sa
• Where s is a complex variable (complex frequency) and
is given as
s    j
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 Laplace Transform of Derivatives & Integrals
• Not only common function can be converted into simple algebraic
expressions but calculus operations can also be converted into
algebraic expressions.
• For example dx(t )
  sX ( S )  x( 0)
dt
d 2 x(t ) dx(0)
 2
 s X ( S )  x(0) 
2

dt dt
• In general
d n x(t )
  s n X ( S )  s n 1 x( 0)    x n 1 ( 0)
dt n

Where x(0) is the initial condition of the system.

• The time domain integral becomes division by s in frequency

domain. 1
  x(t )dt  X (S )
s 30
 Transfer Function
• If θi is related to θo by the following differential
equation:
d 0
2
d0
a2 2  a1  a00  b1i
dt dt
where a2 ,a1 ,a0 and b1 are constants.

• The Laplace Transform becomes:

a2 s 20 ( s )  a1 s0 ( s )  a00 ( s )  b1i ( s )

And hence the Transfer function is:
0 ( s ) b1
TF  
i ( s ) a2 s  a1 s  a0
2
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 Transfer Function
• Transfer function helps us to check

– The stability of the system

– Time domain and frequency domain characteristics of

the system

– Response of the system for any given input

32
 2.4. Block diagram and Signal Flow Graph
• Transfer function is an expression in S domain, relating
the output and input of the LTI system in terms of the
system parameters and is independent of the input.

• TF doesn’t give any information concerning the

internal structure of the system.

• Thus, the system can be represented by a block, a

short-hand pictorial representation of the cause and
effect relationship between input and output of the
system.

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• A complex system comprising of several elements is
represented by the interconnection of the blocks for
individual elements.
R(s) C( s )
G(s)
C(s)
G( s ) 
Input Output R( s )
• Signals entering the block represents the input
• Signals leaving the block represents the output
• The block stands for the transfer function.
• Information flow in one direction, from input to output.
• A summery point is where signals are algebraically
added together. +
-
+
-
34
• Take-off Point is represented by junction.

• Block is written with transfer function written inside it.

• Forward Path is the path that the signal passes the

direction input-to-output for the system as a whole

• Feedback Path is for those elements through which a

signal passes when being feedback from the output
towards the input.

35
Canonical Form of A Feedback Control System
 Characteristic Equation
• The control ratio is the closed loop transfer function of the system.

C( s ) G( s )

R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )

• The denominator of closed loop transfer function determines the

characteristic equation of the system.

• Which is usually determined as:

1  G( s )H ( s )  0
 Example
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function  G( s )H ( s )
E( s )
C ( s)
2. Feed Forward Transfer function  G( s)
E ( s)
C( s ) G( s ) G(s )
3. control ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )

B( s ) G( s )H ( s )
4. feedback ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )

E( s ) 1
5. error ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s ) H (s )
C( s ) G( s )
6. closed loop transfer function 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )

7. characteristic equation 1  G( s )H ( s )  0

8. Open loop poles and zeros if K=10. 9. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.
 Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
a) Blocks in Series G (s)

θi(s) θo(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
Input θ1(s) θ2(s) Output

• The overall transfer function be G(s).

1 ( s ) 2 ( s ) o ( s )
G1 ( s )  ;G2 ( s )  ;G3 ( s )  ;
i ( s ) 1 ( s ) 2 ( s )
 o ( s ) 1 ( s )  2 ( s )  o ( s )
G( s )   . .  G1 ( s )G2 ( s )G3 ( s )
 i ( s )  i ( s ) 1 ( s )  2 ( s )
• For n-number of blocks, the overall transfer function is
given by the product of the transfer function of each block.
39
b) Block with feedback Loop
θi(s) e θo(s)
+ G1(s) θi(s) G1 ( s ) θo(s)
-
1  G1 ( s )H( s )
H(s)

θi(s) + θo(s)
c) Block in Parallel G1(s)
+

G2(s)

 o ( s )  i ( s )G1 ( s )  i ( s )G2 ( s )
  o ( s )   i ( s )[ G1 ( s )  G2 ( s )]  i ( s )G( s )
 (s)
 G( S )  o  G1 ( s )  G2 ( s )
i ( s )
• For n-number of blocks, the overall transfer function is
given by the sum of the transfer function of each block. 40
 d) Multiple input, Multiple output system
• For the case of a linear system, each input can be treated
independently and the complete output of the system will
be obtained by superposition.
U(s)
R(s) + e C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
-

H(s)

Step 1: Assume U(s)=0, hence the system will look like:

R(s) + e CR(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
-

H(s)

The output will then be:

G1G2
CR ( s )  R( s )
1  G1G2 H 41
Step 2: Assume R(s)=0 and the system will look like:
U(s) + e Cu(s)
G2(s)
-
G1(s) H(s)

• The output will then be:

G2
Cu ( s )  .U( s )
1  G1G2 H
Step 3: Super position of both outputs
C( s )  CR ( s )  Cu ( s )
G1G2 G2
 C( s )  .R( s )  .U( s )
1  G1G2 H 1  G1G2 H
G2
 C( s )  G1 R( s )  U( s )
1  G1G2 H 42
For open-loop system, if it has r inputs and m outputs as shown
below, the ith output is given by:
R1(S) C1(S)
R2(S) Gij(s) C2(S)

Rr(S) Cm(S)
r
Ci ( s )   Gij ( s )R j ( s ), i  1,2,...,m
j 1

43
Example: Reduce the Block Diagram to Canonical Form.
Example: Continue.
 Example
• For the system represented by the following block diagram
determine:
1. Open loop transfer function
2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.
 Example
– First we will reduce the given block diagram to canonical form

K
s 1
 Example

K
s 1

K
 s 1
G
1  GH K
1 s
s 1
 Example
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function  G( s )H ( s )
E( s )
C( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function  G( s )
E( s )
C( s ) G( s ) G(s )
3. control ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )

B( s ) G( s )H ( s )
4. feedback ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )

E( s ) 1 H (s )
5. error ratio 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )
C( s ) G( s )
6. closed loop transfer function 
R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )

7. characteristic equation 1  G( s )H ( s )  0

8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.

 Signal Flow Graph (SFG)
• For complicated systems, BD reduction process will be
tedious and time consuming .
• In such cases SFG is an alternative method and is
developed by S.J. Mason.
• SFG does not require any reduction process due to
availability of a flow graph gain formulas, also called
Mason’s gain formula.
• The formulas relate the input and output system
variables.
• A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes
are connected by directed branches.
• It represents the flow of signals from one point of a
system to another and gives the relationships among the
signals.
50
 Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
y  ax
• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

a y
x

• Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.

• Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed by a
Branch.
• Branches are always unidirectional.
• The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
Signal-Flow Graph Models

Y1( s ) G11( s )  R1( s )  G12( s )  R2( s )

Y2( s ) G21( s )  R1( s )  G22( s )  R2( s )

 Signal-Flow Graph Models
r1 and r2 are inputs and x1 and x2 are outputs

a11 x1  a12 x2  r1 x1

a21 x1  a22 x2  r2 x2
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

xo is input and x4 is output

x1  ax0  bx1  cx2 f

c
x2  dx1  ex3 x0 x1 x2 g x3 x4
a d h
x3  fx0  gx2
x4  hx 3 b e
 Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of
simultaneous equations.

• There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4) therefore four nodes are
required to construct the signal flow graph.
• Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with the associated
branches.

• Another way to arrange this

graph is shown in the figure.
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no
node is passed more than ones. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4

• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on
the same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.
 Terminologies
• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self
loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path.
i.e. the gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain
of the feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.

• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have
no nodes in common.
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
 Input and output Nodes

a) Input node

b) Output node
(c) Forward Paths
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(e) Self Loop(s)
(f) Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops
(g) Path Gains of the Forward Paths
 Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive
application of fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the
system transfer function.
• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph
to a single transfer function requires the application of one
formula.
• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the
signal-flow graph to the simultaneous equations that can be
written from the graph.
 Mason’s Rule:
• The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a
signal-flow graph is;
n

C ( s)  P i i
 i 1
R( s) 
Where
n = number of forward paths.
Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = Determinant of the system
∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path

• ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic

function. Since ∆=0 is the system characteristic equation.
 Mason’s Rule:
n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1

R( s ) 
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains
of all possible two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the
products of the gains of all possible three loops that do not touch each
other) + … and so forth with sums of higher number of non-touching loop
gains

∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-
th forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)
 Systematic approach

1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward path i.

2. Calculate all loop transfer functions
3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time
4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time
5. etc
6. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
7. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward path i

71
 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

P1

P2

1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

P1  G1G2G3G4 (path 1) and P2  G5G6G7G8 (path 2)

2. Calculate all loop gains.

L1  G2 H 2 , L2  H 3G3 , L3  G6 H 6 , L4  G7 H 7

3. Consider two non-touching loops.

L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3 72
 Example#1: continue

4. Consider three non-touching loops.

None.

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.

  1  L1  L2  L3  L4   L1L3  L1L4  L2 L3  L2 L4 

  1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7  
G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 

73
 Example#1: continue
Eliminate forward path-1

1  1  L3  L4 
1  1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 

Eliminate forward path-2

 2  1  L1  L2 

 2  1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 

74
 Example#1: continue
2

Y ( s)  P i i
 i 1
R( s) 

Y ( s) P11  P2  2

R( s ) 
Y (s) G1G2G3G4 1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G5G6G7 G8 1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 

R( s ) 1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 

75
 Example#2: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Therefore, C P11  P2  2

R 
There are three feedback loops

L1  G1G4 H1 , L2  G1G2G4 H 2 , L3  G1G3G4 H 2

 Example#2: continue

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

  1  L1  L2  L3 

  1  G1G4 H1  G1G2G4 H 2  G1G3G4 H 2 

 Example#2: continue

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...
∆1 = 1
Eliminate forward path-2
∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...
∆2 = 1
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#3
H1

R(s) E(s) X1 － X3 C(s)

G1 G2 G3 G4
－ X2
－
H2

H3

－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X3 G4 C(s)

－H2
－H3
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)

－H2

－H3

  1  (G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H 1 )

P1  G1G2G3G4 ; 1  1

C ( s) G1G2G3G4
G 
R( s ) 1  G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H 1
 Example-4: Determine the transfer function C/R for the block diagram below
by signal flow graph techniques.

• The signal flow graph of the above block diagram is shown below.

• There are two forward paths. The path gains are

• The three feedback loop gains are

• No loops are non-touching, hence

• Because the loops touch the nodes of P1, • Hence the control ratio T = C/R is
hence

• Since no loops touch the nodes of P2,

therefore
 Design Example#1

1
V1 ( s )  I1 ( s )  I 1 ( s ) R
Cs
CsV1( s )  CsV2 ( s )  I1( s )
V2 ( s )  I1( s )R
Cs

Cs R

V1 (s ) I1 (s ) V2 (s )
 Design Example#2

F  M1s 2 X 1  k1( X 1  X 2 ) 0  M 2 s 2 X 2  k1( X 2  X 1 )  k 2 X 2

Design Example#2
Design Example#2
 Application: Speed Control
• Consider the following model of an electro-mechanical
system
• The system objective is to move the load at a desired speed.
Ra
Amplifier
if
TD
Load
er e kA ea Ia TM
ω J, C
DC Motor
Tachometer
et (Conventional
DC Generator)

• DC tachometer is a conventional DC generator with

permanent magnetic excitation (PME)

86
• The DC tachometer gives a voltage et proportional to the
output speed ω. The open circuit voltage will then be :
et  k1  et  
 volt.s 
 et  kt , kt   ...........................( 1 )
 rad 
where kt is called the tachometer constant
• er-et=e is the difference signal used before amplification to
control ia of the motor such that the motor acquires the
desired speed ωo.
• The voltage at the armature terminals of the motor is given by:
ea  k Ae
where k A is the transfer function of the amplifier
 ea  k A ( er  et ).....................(2)
87
• For the armature circuit (applying KVL):
Ra I a  kb  ea .................(3)
where kb is the back EMF of the motor
when there is constant field current
i.e kb  ka
• For constant field current, the torque developed will be:

• Hence, the torque equation of the system is:

• Taking the Laplace transform of the above 4 equations we will

get: 88
( 1 ) Et ( s )  kt( s )
( 2 ) Ea ( s )  k A [ Er ( s )  Et ( s )]
 Ea ( s )  k A [ Er ( s )  kt( s )]
( 3 ) Ra I a ( s )  kb( s )  Ea ( s )
1
 Ia ( s )  [ Ea ( s )  kb( s )]
Ra
( 4 ) kT I a ( s )  ( Js  C )( s )  TD ( s )
 ( s )( Js  C )  TM ( s )  TD ( s )
1
 ( s )  [ kT I a ( s )  TD ( s )]
Js  C
89
Taking the nodes:
1. Er ( s ),2. Ea ( s ),3. I a ( s ),4. ( s ) and 5. TD ( s )

• The SFG representation of the above LT equations will then be :

TD(s)
1 1
Er(s) 1 KA Ea(s) Ra Ia(s) K
T
-1
Js  C 1 ( s )
( s )
-Kb

-Kt

• This is a multiple (2) input system and should be treated by a

method of superposition.
90
 Application: Liquid level system

R1 and R2 : Resistance of pipes 1 and 2

C1 and C2 : Liquid Capacitance of tank 1 and 2
h1, h2, q1 and q2 : Small deviations of all parameters from their steady state
values
Because of interaction of the tanks, the complete transfer function can
not be obtained by multiplying individual transfer functions of the tanks.
 Example
• Consider the liquid level system shown in following Figure. In this
system, two tanks interact. Find transfer function Q2(s)/Q(s).
 Laminar vs Turbulent Flow

• Laminar Flow
– Flow dominated by viscosity
forces is called laminar flow and
is characterized by a smooth,
parallel line motion of the fluid

• Turbulent Flow
– When inertia forces dominate,
the flow is called turbulent flow
and is characterized by an
irregular motion of the fluid.
 Resistance of Liquid-Level Systems

• Consider the flow through a short pipe connecting two

tanks as shown in Figure.

• Where H1 is the height (or level) of first tank, H2 is the

height of second tank, R is the resistance in flow of liquid
and Q is the flow rate.
 Resistance of Liquid-Level Systems
• The resistance for liquid flow in such a pipe is defined as the change
in the level difference necessary to cause a unit change inflow rate.

change in level difference m

Resistance   3
change in flow rate m /s

( H1  H 2 ) m
R  3
Q m /s
 Resistance in Laminar Flow

• For laminar flow, the relationship between the steady-state flow

rate and steady state height at the restriction is given by:

Q  kl H
• Where Q = steady-state liquid flow rate in m/s3
• Kl = constant in m/s2
• and H = steady-state height in m.

• The resistance Rl is
dH
Rl 
dQ
 Capacitance of Liquid-Level Systems
• The capacitance of a tank is defined to be the change in quantity of
stored liquid necessary to cause a unity change in the height.

change in liquid stored m3

Capacitance   or m 2
change in height m
• Capacitance (C) is cross sectional area (A) of the tank.
 Capacitance of Liquid-Level Systems

Rate of change of fluid volume in the tank  flow in  flow out

dV
 qi  q o
dt

d ( A  h)
 qi  qo
dt
dh
A
dh
 qi  qo C  qi  qo
dt dt
Application: Liquid level system

h1  h2 dh1
q1  C1  q  q1
R1 dt

h2
q2  dh2
R2 C2  q1  q2
dt
 Block Diagram of liquid level system
h1  h2
L q1  C1
dh1
 q  q1
R1 dt L

H1 ( s )  H 2 ( s )
Q1 ( s )  C1sH1( s )  Q( s )  Q1( s )
R1

h2
q2  dh2
R2 C2  q1  q2
L dt L

H 2 (s) C2 sH 2 ( s )  Q1( s )  Q2 ( s )
Q2 ( s ) 
R2
 Block Diagram of liquid level system
H1 ( s )  H 2 ( s ) C1sH1( s )  Q( s )  Q1( s )
Q1 ( s ) 
R1

H 2 (s) C2 sH 2 ( s )  Q1( s )  Q2 ( s )
Q2 ( s ) 
R2
Block Diagram of liquid level system
 Example
• Consider the liquid level system shown in following Figure. In this
system, two tanks interact. Write down the system differential
equations.