JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 105, NO.

El, PAGES 1721-1755, JANUARY 25, 2000

Mineralogic and compositional properties of Martian soil

and dust: Results from Mars Pathfinder

J. F. BellIII, 1 H. Y. McSween Jr.,2 J. A. Crisp,

3 R. V. Morris,
4 S. L. Murchie,
5
NßT. Bridges, -•J. ,,.
TMo,•,,nson.
•'•' 6 D.T. Britt,7 M.P. Golombek, 3 H. J. Moore,8,9
A. Ghosh, 2 J. L. Bishop, •ø R. C. Anderson, 3 J. Brfickner,
TMT. Economou, •2
J.P. Greenwood, 2 H. P. Gunnlaugsson, •3 R. M. Hargraves,
TMS. Hviid,13
J. M. Knudsen,
13M. B. Madsen,•3 R. Reid,7 R. Rieder,TMandL. Soderblom
6

Abstract. Mars Pathfinderobtainedmultispectral,elemental,magnetic,and physicalmeasure-

mentsof soil and dustat the SaganMemorial Stationduring the courseof its 83 sol mission.We
describeinitial resultsfrom thesemeasurements, concentratingon multispectralandelementaldata,
andusethesedata,alongwith previousViking, SNC meteorite,and telescopicresults,to help
constrainthe origin andevolutionof Martian soil anddust.We find that soilsanddustcan be di-
videdinto at leasteightdistinctspectralunits,basedon parameterizationof Imager for Mars Path-
finder (IMP) 400 to 1000 nm multispectralimages.The mostdistinctivespectralparametersfor
soilsand dustare the reflectivityin the red, the red/bluereflectivityratio, the near-IR spectral
slope,andthe strengthof the 800 to 1000 nm absorptionfeature.Most of the Pathfinderspectra
are consistentwith thepresenceof poorlycrystallineor nanophaseferric oxide(s),sometimes
mixed with smallbut varyingdegreesof well-crystallineferric and ferrousphases.Darker soil units
appearto be coarser-grained. compacted,and/ormixedwith a largeramountof darkferrousmateri-
als relativeto bright soils.Nanophasegoethite,akaganeite,schwertmannite, and maghemiteare
leadingcandidatesfor the origin of the absorptioncenterednear900 nm in IMP spectra.The fer-
rouscomponentin the soil cannotbe well-constrainedbasedon IMP data.Alpha protonX-ray
spectrometer(APXS) measurements of six soil units showlittle variability within the landingsite
and showremarkableoverallsimilarityto the averageViking-derivedsoil elementalcomposition.
DifferencesexistbetweenViking andPathfindersoils,however,includingsignificantlyhigherS
and C1abundances and lower Si abundances in Viking soilsand the lack of a correlationbetween
Ti and Fe in Pathfindersoils.No significantlinear correlationswere observedbetweenIMP spec-
tral propertiesandAPXS elementalchemistry.Attemptsat constrainingthe mineralogyof soils
anddustusingnormativecalculationsinvolvingmixturesof smectitesand silicateandoxidemin-
eralsdid not yield physicallyacceptablesolutions.We attemptedto usethe Pathfinderresultsto
constraina numberof putativesoil anddustformationscenarios,includingpalagonitizationand
acid-fogweathering.While the Pathfindersoilscannotbe chemicallylinked to the Pathfinderrocks
by palagonitization,this studyandMcSweenet al. [1999] suggestthatpalagoniticalterationof a
Martian basalticrock,plusmixturewith a minorcomponentof locally derivedandesiticrock
fragments,couldbe consistentwith the observedsoil APXS and IMP properties.

1Department
of Astronomy,
Cornell
University, NewYork. 1. Introduction
Ithaca,
2Department
of Geological
Sciences,
Universityof Tennessee,
Knoxville.
•Jet Propulsion CaliforniaInstituteof Technology, The chemistry and mineralogy of the Martian surfacepro-
Laboratory,
Pasadena. vide a window into physical and chemical weathering proc-
4NASAJohnson
SpaceCenter,
Houston,
Texas. essesat work in the present and past Martian environment(s).
SApplied
Physics
Laboratory,
JohnsHopkins
University,
Laurel, The degree of crystallinity. cation content and oxidation state,
Maryland. grain size, pH, Eh, and abundancesof water and organic matter
6Astrogeology
Branch, U.S.Geological
Survey, Flagstaff,
Arizona.
7LunarandPlanetaryLaboratory,
University Tucson. in the soils and dust are the result of weathering and alteration
of Arizona,
8U.S.Geological
Survey,MenloPark,California. processes acting on parent materials over geologic time-
9Deceased
Sept.21, 1998. scales. Careful observations of the chemistry. mineralogy.
IøNASAAmesResearch
Center,MoffettField,California. and morphology of weathered and altered surface materials
•IMax-Planck-Institut
ftirChemie,Mainz,Germany.
•2EnricoFermiInstitute,
University
ofChicago,
Illinois. provide constraints on the climatic or environmental condi-
•-•Niels
BohrInstitute.
University
of Copenhagen,Denmark. tions prevalent during their formation or subsequentmodifica-
14Departmentof Geosciences,
Princeton
University,
Princeton,
New tion. On Earth, numerous studies have demonstrated the link
Jersey. betweensoil physical and chemical properties and environ-
mental conditions(e.g., reviews in the work by Schwertmann
Copyright2000 by theAmericanGeophysical
Union. and Taylor [1989]; Cornell and Schwertmann [1996]); the
Papernumber1999JE001060. working assumptionis that similar inferencesabout environ-
0148-0227/00/1999JE001060509.00 mental conditionson Mars. past and present,can be gleaned
1721
 1722 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER
from measurements of the propertiesof soilsfound there today
[e.g., Gooding, 1978; Burns. 1993: Burns and Fisher, 1993;
Morris et ai., 1993. 1995; Banin et ai., 1997].
A bit of pedologic pedagogy: the term "soil" has become other papers. Results of Pathfinder soil elemental chemistry
commonly used in planetary science to describe the fine-
grained, porous, uppermostlayers of a regolith, despite the The implications of these results, plus those from the MPF
more purist viewpoint that the term applies only to terrestrial magnetic properties and soil mechanicsexperiments and Vi-
material formedby or in the presenceof organic compounds king Lander multispectral imaging and elemental chemistry
[e.g., Johnson, 1968; Markewitz, 1997]. This narrow defini-
tion of "soil"hasbeenadoptedby the Soil ScienceSociety of
America [1984], who concede, however, that it is a combina-
tion of many influences,among them parent composition and
climate,that leadsto the formation of soil, which they define
as "unconsolidated mineral matter that may differ chemically,
physically, morphologically, or biologically from the mate-
rial t¾omwhich it is derived."In this paper, we adopt a simi-
larly broaddefinitionof soil, exceptthat the biological aspect
is vanishingly small to nonexistent. Martian soil can also be
thoughtof as the excitedskin of the subaerialpart of the Mar-
tian crust [after Nikiforoff, 1959: see also Retallack, 1998]. a
definition that also includesrock surfaces.In the grain-size
scaleusedby soil scientists, clay is the size traction < 2 [tm,
silt is 2 to 50 [tm. and sand is 50 ,rn to 2 mm. In our scheme
we define "dust"as that finest grainedcomponentof the soil
that rather easily can become airborne (< 10 vm diameterash
or "fine dust"in the traditionalsoil sciencesense[Greeleyand
Iversen, 1985]), and we define "sand"loosely as that slightly
more granular component of the soil that is mobile but not
usually airborne (including 5 to 50 ,rn diameter"coarsedust"
or silt). While perhapsnot conforming to traditional terres-
trial pedologic nomenclature. these definitions serve us well
in attemptingto describethe propertiesand behavior of loose
materials at the Martian surface.
The Mars Pathfinder(MPF) missionhad a numberof impor-
tant science goals directly related to the study of soils and
dust. Specifically. these includeddeterminationof the chemi-
cal composition, mineralogy. and physical properties (e.g.,
magnetism, grain size. stratigraphy) of soils and dust at the
landingsite: characterizationof differencesamongthe soils at
the site and betweenthesesoilsand thosestudiedat the Viking
landing sites;establishingwhetherthere is a genetic relation-
ship betweensoils and rocks at the site: and determining
whetherthe observedcompositionand mineralogyof the soils
can be usedto constrain specific pedogenicweathering or al-
teration scenarios.Assessmentof organic content and chemi-
cal reactivityof the surfacewas not a primary goal of the MPF
mission, although some information on this subjectcouldbe
providedby alpha proton X-ray spectrometer(APXS) alpha-
channel measurements of carbon. More accurate constraints on
organic and reactivity properties. as well as on a number of
other important parametersrelatedto soils, wereprovidedby
the Viking Landers [Toulmin et al., 1977: Clark et al., 1982;
Banin et al., 1992]. and the combination of Viking and MPF
data provides a much more robust set of constraints on Mars
soil and dustorigin and evolution than either mission could
provide alone.
In this paper we discussthe chemistry, mineralogy, mor-
phology, and distribution of soils and dust measuredat the
MPF landing site. We first consider what was known or in-
ferredaboutMartian soils and dustbasedon previous remote
sensingandin situ Viking Landerinvestigations. providing
the justification for the new measurementsobtained during
RESULTS
1997 by Pathfinder. We provide a short discussionof data re-
duction and data processing activities associatedwith these
measurements, but defer detaileddiscussions
of thesepoints to
measurements and multispectralimagingstudiesare presented.
measurements,are used to discussmodels of the origin and
evolution of Martian dust and soil that are consistent with the
available data. We concludewith some preliminary thoughts
on which of these models might be most accurate,and a dis-
cussionof how future remotesensingand in situ measurements
can help to resolvefurther the outstandingissues.
2. PreviousMeasurementsand Interpretations
Mostof whatwasknownaboutthe chemistryandmineral-
ogy of Martian soils anddustprior to Mars Pathfindercame
from telescopicandspacecraft
remotesensingimaging and
spectroscopy,and Viking Landerremote sensingimaging,
magnetics,soil mechanics.and in situ elemental and chemical
analyses.
Telescopicobservationshave revealed that the visible to
near-IRspectralpropertiesof airbornedustare nearly indis-
tinguishablefromthoseof theclassicalbrightregions[e.g.,
McCord et al., 1977:Wolffet al., 1997]. The majorvisible to
near-IRspectroscopic
characteristics
of this highly mobile
unit are a low reflectivity in the blue (radiancefactor or I/F <
0.05 at 400 nm). a high reflectance
in the red (reflectivity>
0.30 at 750 nm). a relatively featurelessspectrumbetween
blueandredwavelengths, andweakindicationsof absorption
in the short-wavenear-IR(800 to 100() nm) [Singer',1982;
Bell et al., 1990].Thesedatahavebeeninterpretedto indicate
the presenceof small amounts(perhaps2-4 wt%) of a well-
crystallineiron oxidelike hematiteoccurringin a matrix of
more poorly crystalline(perhapsnanophase)ferric oxidesand
other,spectrallyneutral.aluminosilicates
[e.g., Morris et al.,
1989, 1993, 1997: Bell et al., 1993: Golden et al., 1993;
Morris andGolden,1998]. Theseinterpretationssupportthe
ideathat a ratherhomogeneous andfine-grained
weathering
productis animportantandprobablyextensivecomponentof
brightlocal soilseverywhereon the planet.
Telescopic observations of the low albedo or classical
"dark"regionsof Mars haverevealedimportantdifferences in
spectroscopic propertiescomparedto bright regions,likely
relatedto differences
in compositionand/orphysicalproper-
ties. The majorvisible to near-IRspectroscopic characteris-
tics of darkregionsare a low reflectivity in the blue (I/F <
0.05 at 400 nm,nearlyidenticalto the bluereflectivityof the
bright regions),a 750 nm reflectivityof < 0.15 (andthus a
red/blue
reflectance
ratioof 2 to 3 timeslowerthanthe bright
regions),a relativelyfeatureless
spectrumbetweenblueand red
wavelengths. and indicationsof weakabsorptionin the near-
IR longwardof 900 nm. Thesedatahave beeninterpretedto
indicatethepresence
of low calciumpyroxenein thesesurface
regions. which, becauseof their red color. must also be either
heavilyoxidizedor mixedwith the sametype of poorlycrys-
talline ferric material(s)as the bright regions [Adamsand
McCord, 1969; Singer et ai., 1979; Bell et al., 1990]. More
recentPhobos-2IntYaredSpectrometer for Mars (ISM) dataand
Hubble Space Telescope (HST)observations reveal that at
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER
higher spatial resolution, stronger and more complex near-IR
absorptionfeaturesare evident in many classicaldark regions,
indicating the likely presence of two-pyroxene basalts in
some regions,as well as the presenceof more crystalline fer-
ric-bearing alteration productsin other regions [Mustard eta!.,
1993, 1997; Mustard and Sunshine, 1995; Bell et al., 1997].
Evidence for differencesin physical propertiescausing at least
some of the observedspectral differencesbetween bright and
dark regions.comesprimarily from Viking Orbiter thermal in-
ertia measurementsthat showed a strong inverse correlation
between rock abundance and broadband albedo [Christensen,
1986; Christensen and Moore, 1992], suggesting that the
presenceof blocks and/or coarser-grainedsoils may explain at
least part of the lower reflectivity of dark regions comparedto
bright regions.
Telescopicand spacecraftevidencefor other, spectrally het-
erogeneousand mobile soil and dust units has also been ob-
tained from Viking Orbiter [Soderblometa!., 1978: McCord et
al., 1982], Phobos-2 [Murchie eta!., 1993, 1999; Mustard et
a!., 1993], groundbased[Bell, 1992; Merdnyi eta!., 1996],
HST [Bell et al., 1997; Bell and Morris, 1999], and Mars
Global SurveyorThermal EmissionSpectrometer(TES) [Chris-
tensen eta!., 1999; Lane eta!., 1999] multispectralimaging
and spectroscopic observations. Of most relevance to this
study is the evidence for localized occurrencesof crystalline
ferric phases (in addition to hematite) that could potentially
provide more diagnostic information on weathering history
than the nanophase soil components. In nearly all previous
remote sensing studies, increasing spatial resolution has led
to increaseddetection of spectral heterogeneityof the Martian
surface.At the Viking Lander sites, an examination of small-
scale variations in rock and soil color provided evidence that
surfacecoatingsor rinds and abrasion/spallation can strongly
influence local soil spectral properties [Sharp and Malin,
1984; Adams eta!., 1986; Guinness et al., 1987]. Adams et al.
[1986] and Guinnesset al. [1987] concludedthat although the
soils at the Viking Lander sites have a component with a
greater degreeof ferric iron crystallinity than the nanophase
global aeolian dust, they could find no evidence that the bulk
of the soil has been derived from the weathering of what are
assumedto be mafic dark gray rocks at the sites.Becauseof the
limited spectralrangeand samplingof the Viking Landercam-
eras, however, it was not possible to identity uniquely the
mineralogy of either the more crystalline soil units or the
supposedlymafic rocks basedon their observed color differ-
ence [cf. Arvidson eta!., 1989b].
Analysesof remote sensingdata specific to the Mars Path-
finder landingsite both prior to and after landing revealed(1)
that the site is in a region that is transitional between classi-
cal bright (Chryse) and dark (Acidalia) regions [Golombek et
a!., 1997a], (2) that the lower albedo and Viking Orbiter
red/blue ratio of the region appearto correspondto less bright
dust at the Pathfindersite than Viking Lander 1 (VL1) [Golom-
bek et al., 1997b], and (3) that the MPF site also has a greater
abundance of dark materials. The dark materials at the MPF site
could representa contribution of "local" material [Larsen et
a!., 1999], or could representa contribution from dark soils
not previously sampled by VL1 or VL2, neither of which
landedin dark regionsor found dark soil depositsat their land-
ing sites.
The elemental chemistry of soil and dust on Mars was first
studiedby the Viking Landers.Table 1 showsa summaryof the
RESULTS 1723
averagechemicalcompositionof the Martian soil at the two
Viking landingsitesfrom the X-ray fluorescence(XRF) analy-
ses of Clark et al. [1982]. All of the soils sampledexhibited
high iron contents (ranging from 15% to 19% Fe as Fe203).
The soil compositionwas interpretedusing normarive calcula-
tions and compositionalmixing modelsas secondaryweather-
ing productsof mafic igneousrocks, possibly resulting from
palagonitization. In particular, the models yielding the best
fits to the data included iron-bearing smectite (nontronite)
and/or iron oxides (hematite, maghemite, magnetite) as the
major iron-bearingminerals [Toulmin et al., 1977]. The high
abundanceof sulfur in the Viking soils was interpreted by
Toulmin et al. [1977] as evidence for cementing salts or duri-
crust, responsiblefor the hardpanappearanceof some regions
near the landers. This result was also consistent with soil me-
chanicsresults indicating the presenceof crusty and cloddy
depositsat both Viking landing sites [Moore eta!., 1979]. Al-
thoughCO2 releasefrom the soils reportedby Biemann et al.
[1977] was interpretedby Toulmin et al. [1977] as evidence
for calcite, this result is inconsistent with other chemical
analyses performed by Viking [e.g., Banin and Rishpon,
1979]. Thus, while intriguing, the evidence for salts or
evaporitesin the soil from the Viking Landerobservations is
still indirect.
Viking did reveal that the soils are highly magnetic, and
Hargraves et al. [1977, 1979] interpretedthe magnetism to re-
sult from 1 - 7 wtC•, of a strongly magnetic component. Their
preferredinterpretationwas maghemite(¾-Fe:O.•)dispersed as a
pigment throughout the surface particles. Estimates of the
light scatteringand other properties of the Martian airborne
dust were obtained by Pollack et al. [1977] using Viking
Lander sky images.They found that the best match to their de-
rived imaginary refractive index values for the dustcame from
fine-grainedmagnetite(Fe-'+Fe23+O4), which could also satisfy
the magnetic properties results. Other interpretations include
titanomagnetites and/or titanomaghemites [Morris eta!.,
1990; Coey et al., 1990].
3. Mars Pathfinder Observations
The considerablepost-Viking uncertaintiesin the interpre-
tation of physical, chemical, and mineralogical propertiesof
Martian soil and dustprovidedguidelines for the optimization
of futurein situ and remote sensing measurementopportuni-
ties. The Mars Pathfindermission exploited these opportuni-
ties by focusing on the morphological, geochemical, and
mineralogical characterizationof a geologically interesting
and climatically diagnostic region of the Martian surface
[Golombek, 1997]. Specifically, the mission carrieda lander
with enhancedmultispectral imaging capabilities relative to
Viking and an optimized magnetics properties experiment
[Smith et al., 1997a], as well as the ability to measurethe
elemental chemistry of soils and rocks [Rieder et al., 1997a]
from a highly mobile rover that could also perform soil me-
chanics experiments(digging, scraping) and provide up-close
imaging of rock and soil textures [Rover Team, 1997a].
Details regarding observational planning and instrument
sequencingcan be found in the mission overview description
by Golombek et al. [1999]. Here, we briefly touch upon the
most salient observational details relevant to the study of
soils and dust at the landing site.
 1724 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

Table 1. APXS Analysesof PathfinderSoilsand Comparisonto Viking LanderXRFS Results

APXS
Site
a Na20 MgO AI203 SiO
2 SO3 CI K20 CaO TiO2 Fe203*
IndividualSoil Measurements
b
A-2 2.3+0.9 7.8+1.2 7.3+0.7 50.1+2.5 3.9+0.8 0.5+0.1 0.2+0.1 6.8+1.0 1.2+0.2 18.1+1.9
A-4 3.7+1.5 8.2+1.2 9.0+0.9 47.3+2.4 6.4+1.3 0.6+0.2 0.2+0.1 5.5+0.8 1.4+0.2 15.8+1.6
A-5 2.7+1.1 7.3+_1.1 8.5+_0.9 46.9+_2.4 5.5+_1.1 0.6+_0.2 0.3+_0.1 6.4+_1.0 0.9+_0.1 18.8+_1.9
A-8 2.0+_0.8 7.0+_1.1 9.0+_0.9 50.8+_2.6 5.2+_1.1 0.7+_0.2 0.5+_0.1 7.2+_1.1 1.1+_0.2 14.7+_1.4
A-10 1.5+_0.6 7.8+_1.2 8.1+_0.8 47.3+_2.4 6.1+_1.2 0.7+_0.2 0.2+_0.1 6.3+_1.0 1.1+_0.2 19.0+_1.9
A-15 1.3+_0.7 7.2+_1.1 8.2+_0.8 49.3+_2.5 5.1+_1.0 0.6+_0.2 0.5+_0.1 5.9+_0.9 1.3+_0.2 18.7+_1.9

AveragePathfinderSoilc
2.2+_0.9 7.5+_1.2 8.3+_0.8 48.6+_2.5 5.4+_1.1 0.6+_0.2 0.3+_0.1 6.3+_1.0 1.1+_0.2 17.5+_1.8

Average
VikingSoild
6.0 7.2 +6
43.4 7.4 0.8--0.5 <0.15 5.8+ 0.6--0.25 18.2-2
AverageNormalizedVikingSoil•
6.4 7.7 46.3 7.9 0.8 6.2 0.7 19.4

Pathfinder
"Sulfur-Free
Rock"f
2.6+_1.5 2.0+_0.7 10.6+_0.7 62.0+_2.7 0 0.2+_0.2 0.7+_0.2 7.3+_1.1 0.7+_0.1 13.3+_1.3

aKeyto Pathfinder
APXSsites(seealsoTable2): [A-2] Drift, smallrocks,andsmallclodsnextto theroverdeployment
ramp;[A-4]
Cloddydeposit3 m from Yogi: [A-5] Disturbedcloddydeposit2 m I¾omYogi; [A-8] Indurateddepositor rock Scooby-Doo'[A-10] Dark
material next to Lamb: [A-15] Dark surfaceof Mermaid dune ]Moore et al., 1998, 1999].
bWenormalized
theRieder
etal.[1997bl
APXSanalyses
to97wtCA
oxides,
toallow
forunreported
H20,C,P205,
MnO,andCr.,O
3.Total
ironreportedby Riederet al. [1997b]asFeO wasthenconvertedto Fe,_O•(identifiedasFe:O3*).
ewe arereportingtheaverageuncertaintyon individualmeasurements ratherthantheuncertainty
on themean.
dViking
soilchemical
analyses
asreported
inClarketal.]19821,
notrenormalized.
Average
ofallseven
complete
Viking1soilanalyses
is
shown(C-1, C-5, C-6, C-7, C-8, C-9, andC-13), with the reporteduncertaintiesor detectionlimitson individualmeasurements
of each oxide
from Clark et al. [ 1982].
eVikingsoilchemicalanalyses fromClarketal. [1982],renormalized. For purposes of comparison, Vikingsoiloxidetotalsfor the most
completeanalyses havebeenrenormalized to 94.6 wtCA(97G minusthe sumof theaveragePathfinder Na_,O+ K20 abundances, whichwere
belowinstrument detection
limitsin Vikinganalyses).We notethatsucha renormalizationmaynot be rigorouslyappropriateif furtheranaly-
sesrevealthatPathfindersoilstrulyaresubstantially
enhancedin K20 relativeto Viking soils:Figure8 revealsthat the majortrendsare not
substantiallyinfluencedby this renormalization,however.
fTotalironinthesulfur-free
rockwasoriginally
reported
asFeO*[Rieder
etal.,1997b:
McSween
et al., 1999].Whilemuchof theFein
therocksis probablyin theformof FeO, it has beenrecasthere as Fe2()•* (withoutrenormalizingthe totalsum,which becomes99.4cA
), to
simplify comparisonto the soils.

3.1. IMP Imaging and Magnetic Properties The IMP datawentthroughstandard

The Imagerfor Mars Pathfinder(IMP) is a CCD-basedimag-
ing systemcapableof high-quality spectrophotometricobser-
vations using 15 narrowband"geology" filters in 12 unique
wavelengthsfrom 440 nm to 10()0 nm [Smith et al., 1997a].
IMP imaging observationswereobtainedin one of threepri-
mary modes:(1) panoramasof the landing site [Smith et al.,
1997b], beginning early in the mission with highly com-
pressedmosaics in only a few colors (Mission SuccessPan,
Monster Pan), transitioning to mosaics with more colors and
at lower compressionratios (InsurancePan. Gallery Pan), and
culminatingwith a mosaicof > 80• of the landing site in all
filters and at_<2:1 compression(SuperPan); (2) small 64x64
pixel "multispectralspot" (MSS)observations of regions of
specific interest (including the sky and APXS measurement
sites),in all 12 wavelengthsand uncompressed; and (3) small
images of the magnetic properties experiment, obtained at
modestcompressionratios and in up to 12 wavelengths.The
magneticpropertiesexperimentconsistedof two magnet ar-
rays (MAs)consisting of five magnets each with variable
strengthsand designedto passively collect airbornemagnetic
dustparticles[Hviid et al., 1997]. High-resolutionmultispec-
tral imaging of the MAs was performedin order to constrain
the mineralogyand physicalnatureof the dustparticles.
CCD datareductionpro-
cedures and were calibrated to absolute flux and reflectance
units basedon preflight calibrationcoefficientsandin-flight
measurements of onboardcalibration targets, as describedby
Reid et al. [1999]. The preliminary IMP calibration yields es-
timatedradiometricaccuracyof 5% at all wavelengths,and a
relative wavelength-to-wavelength precision of << 1'3. The
residual calibration uncertainties that remain in the IMP data
are associatedprimarily with incomplete characterizationof
calibration target photometry [Arnold eta!., 1997] and wave-
length-dependentchangesin direct vs. diffuseillumination as
a functionof time of day [Thomaset al., 1999].
3.2. Elemental Chemistry
Onemaingoalduringthe MPF mission wasto samplea di-
versityof soil and rock typeswith the APXS, with high prior-
ity on saving preciousrover battery power (neededfor the
highest signal to noise ratio APXS nighttime measurements)
for analysesof dust-poorrock surfaces.The first three APXS
soil analyseswere obtainedthe first week on Mars. The chem-
istry of thesethree analyseswere so nearly identical that addi-
tional APXS soil measurementswere only madefor locations
that lookedsignificantly different, either texturally or spec-
trally, duringthe next three weeksof the primary mission.
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER
The exact position and geologicsetting of each APXS spot
was determinedthrough careful analyses of rover camera and
IMP images (Figure 1). In caseswhere the location was espe-
cially difficult to estimate, rover engineering data, IMP im-
ages, and rover cameraimages were used to determine rover
and APXS positions.The preciselocations of the sites, where
known, are given in Figure 1 and Table 2, and additional geo-
logic characterization(such as the presenceor absenceof peb-
bles, which can affect the APXS measurement) is discussed
here. For reference,a more comprehensive map showing the
locationsof these and other soil APXS analysis sites, as well
as rock APXS analysis sites, is given by McSween et al.
[1999]. Each APXS analysissite is summarizednext.
3.2.1. A-2. The first APXS soil measurement was ob-
tained on sol 2 as a "contingency measurement"just off the
end of the rover deployment ramp. The position of A-2 was
one of the most difficult to determine because the back of the
rover was not visible from IMP during the APXS Deployment
Mechanism(ADM) deployment.The inferred location is near a
depressionthat couldbe an APXS bumperring mark. However,
there are many depressionsin the area, so unequivocalidenti-
fication was not possible.The area is heterogeneous,contain-
ing fine drift, rock, and windtail materials. It could not be de-
terminedwhetherthe APXS sampledone of thesematerialsor a
combination of two or all three of them. The drift, rock, and
windtail materials have different red/blue ratios, preventing
the assignmentof a diagnostic spectral signatureto A-2. The
APXS resultsfrom this site are also suspectbecausethe totals
are only 68.6% [Rieder et al., 1997b], perhaps resulting from
a complex APXS viewing geometry[Moore et al., 1999].
3.2.2. A-4. This analysis was obtained en route from
Barnacle Bill to Yogi on sol 4. This site, along with A-5, is
probably the most rocky of the APXS locations. A-4 appears
to contain a mixture of soil types.
3.2.3. A-5. This analysis was obtained on sol 5, also en
route from Barnacle Bill to Yogi. Like A-2, it was difficult to
determinethe position of A-5 becausethe APXS deployment
was not visible from IMP. A depressionnear wherethe APXS
should have been located is probably the APXS bumper ring
mark (Figure 1). A-5, along with A-4, probably contains the
greatestnumber of rockletsat the Pathfindersite.
3.2.4. A-8 and A-9. While on the drive eastward from
Yogi, the rover stopped at a spectrally unusualbright pink
patch of surface material named Scooby-Doo (A-8). Wheel
diggingexercisesfailed to scratchthe surfaceof Scooby-Doo,
indicating that it may be an induratedor cementedsoil or a
rock. Thus A-8 is on a surfacethat has been interpreted as a
hardpansoil and has mechanicalcharacteristicsdistinct from
unconsolidatedsoils. In contrast to A-8, wheel digging was
successfulin the soil next to Scooby-Doo,and an APXS meas-
urement was obtained of this disturbedsoil (A-9). The APXS
composition for A-9 has not been reportedbecausethe de-
ployment mechanismwas a/•w centimetersfrom the ground
duringthe measurementand the uncertaintiesunderthese con-
ditions have not yet been determined.
3.2.5. A-10. On sol 20 of the mission, an APXS meas-
urement(A-10) was taken on the spectrally dark soil next to
the rock Lamb. This site, and maybe A-15, are the least rocky
of the APXS locations.
3.2.6. A-15. The APXS was deployedto Mermaid dune-
form (A-15) on sol 28. No rocklets were observed on or near
A-15, making it, along with A-10, perhapsthe least rocky of
the APXS sites. The dark color of Mermaid duneform, upon
RESULTS 1725
which A-15 is located, as well as soil mechanicsexperiments
performedin the region, indicate that it may contain drift ma-
terial armored with basaltic sand or granules [Rover Team,
1997b; Moore et al., 1999]. If this is the case, then site A-15
can be consideredrocky.
Becausethe chemistryof the six soils or soil-like units ap-
pearedto be practically identical, higher priority was given to
APXS measurements of rocks over the next several weeks. The
types of soil that may not have been sampledwith the APXS
and that would have been a priority later in the mission include
windtail drift deposits,aeolian fallout such as the fine dust on
the top of Flat Top, material adheringto the ramp magnet, and
other drift depositssuchas the rippled fine material next to
Yogi.
Preliminary and more recent reductionand calibrationof the
APXS measurementsis discussedin detail by Rieder et al.
[1997a,b], Briickner et al. [1999], and Wtinke [1999].
3.3. Rover Imaging and Soil Mechanics
Using the wheels of the Sojourner Rover as trenching, ex-
cavating, and scraping tools, a variety of soil mechanicsex-
periments were performed at the landing site [Rover Team,
1997b; Moore et al., 1998]. In addition, imaging from So-
journer's monochrome cameras [Rover Team, 1997a,b] was
used to discern surface and subsurface soil texture and the fine-
scale distribution of windblown or drift material at a spatial
resolutionas fine as 1.0 mm/pixel (the rover images discussed
here have not been processedor calibrated, as the raw data are
adequate/'orsoil morphological characterizations).The com-
bined resultsof theseexperimentsprovide relevantdata on the
issues of soil and dust composition, mineralogy, and origin.
Preliminary results of these studies have been interpreted to
indicate the possible presence of conglomerates at some
places in the landing site [Rover Team, 1997b], although
there is not a consensuson this possibilityamong the science
team [e.g., McSween et al., 1999]. Perhapsless contentious is
the observation that sedimentary processes,such as cementa-
tion and sorting, appearto have operatedat the landing site.
An important goal /'or the continuedanalysis of the soil me-
chanics and close-up Rover imaging data is to constrain fur-
ther the volcanic versussedimentaryversusimpact origin of
the rocks, as well as the aeolian versus fluvial origin of the
numeroussedimentarydepositsobservedat the landingsite.
4. Data Products and Analyses
A numberof preliminary data productshave been generated
in order to characterizethe multispectral, elemental, physical,
and magnetic properties of soils and dust at the Pathfinder
landing site.
4.1. Multispectral Properties
Data productsusedherefrom the IMP multispectralinvesti-
gation include image mosaics from the Monster Pan, an early
360ø azimuthview of part of the landing site obtained at 440,
530, 670, 750, and 965 nm and at 6:1 compression(Figure 2),
and an assembledmosaicof all of the MSS regions, calibrated
with version 1.0 of the IMP calibration pipeline [Reid et al.,
1999]. The MSS data were obtained from 58 carefully selected
(but sometimesslightly mispointed) surfaceregions measured
between sols 3 and 35, at almost always the same local solar
1726 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

..
-i, .
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PAT}WINDER RESULTS 1727

Table 2. Locations and Descriptionsof APXS Soil Spots

Site X, m Y, m Z'•,m Distil,m Sol Description Dominant

SoilUnit

A-2c 1.89 - 1.95 0.31 3.24 2 Soil off the end of the ramp;drift, rocklets,or clods unknown
A-4 2.79 -2.64 0.28 3.99 4 Soil 3 m from Yogi: drift, rocklets,and maybeclods mix
A-5 3.29 -2.48 0.28 4.28 5 Soil 2 m from Yogi; drift, rocklets,and maybeclods Bright I
A-8 2.85 1.13 0.32 3.27 14 Scooby-Doo;induratedsoil or weatheredrock Bright I
A-10 3.74 -0.43 0.28 3.97 20 Dark soil next to I.amb Bright II
A- 15 -5.87 2.80 0.52 6.35 28 Mermaid duneform Dark

aX-Y-Z positionsin metersare given in the landerMartian Local Level CoordinateFrame coordinatesystem.The origin is the geometric
centerof the basepetal. X pointsnorth, Y pointseast,and Z pointsdown.
bDistancefrom the IMP camera,in meters.
CExactpositionof A-2 is uncertain.This is the bestcurrentestimate.

time on each sol (Table 3; Plate 1). The MSS data were com-
piled into multiple wavelength, spatially registered image
cubesfrom each eye of IMP, so that all of the spots could be
analyzedtogether (Figure 3). We deviseda standardizedset of
multispectralimage parametersthat were calculatedfor the im-
ages usedhere (Table 4). The most important and useful pa-
rameters include the value of the relative reflectance R*, near
the peak of the spectrumin the red (either at 750 nm or 800
nm), which is equivalent to the radiancecoefficient of the up-
permostfew micronsof the surfacemodulatedby grain size or
other illumination effects; the red/blue relative reflectance
tio, which is indicative of the strength of the near-UV ferric
mineral absorptionedge [Shermanet al., 1982; Morris et al.,
1985] and thus a crudeproxy for the degreeof oxidization of
the uppermostsurfacematerials[Morris et al., this issue]; and
the depthsof inflections or absorptions near 530 nm and be-
tween 750 and 1000 nm, which are causedby electronic transi-
tions in specificferric-bearingmineralsand which can also be
indicative of the degree of crystallinity of these minerals
[Morris et al., 1985; this issue]. Thomas et al. [1999] have
shown that the wavelength-dependentinfluence of diffuse il-
lumination on the derived spectral properties of generally
smoothand flat-lying soil and dust deposits calibrated via the
IMP pipeline processis small in the near-IR but nonnegligi-
ble in the visible. Specifically, 20cA • or more of the incident
sunlight in the blue is absorbedby airborne dust particles,
giving diffuse skylight a distinctly reddish cast. We believe
that the effect of diffuse sky illumination on our extractedsoil
spectra is minimal, however, because we usually obtained
near-simultaneouscalibration target observations to accom-
pany the MSS data, and the diffuse sky illumination compo-
nent should be nearly identical in the fiat-lying calibration
target data, and thus removedas part of the calibrationexercise
[Reid et al., 1999].
Thus, while interpretationsmust be made cautiously and
while the datastill requireadditionalradiometricand geometric
refinements for small artifacts not accounted for in the initial
calibration [Reid et al., 1999; Thomas et al., 1999], the IMP
data in their currentform can still be exploredquantitativelyto
assessthe degreeof spectralvariability of generally flat-lying
soil and dust deposits.
ra- Analysesperformedwith imagesand image mosaics param-
eterizedaccordingto Table 4 includedsimple spectrumextrac-
tion (performedindependentlyfor IMP left-eye and right-eye
image cubes) and band modeling from selectedregions of in-
terest, false-color composite images generatedby overlaying
multiple parameters, generation of two-dimensional histo-
gram correlationimages, and definition of spectral units based
on thresholding of specific multispectral parameters. Most
analyses presentedhere rely upon MSS data becausethese re-
gions were chosen to optimize the detection of spectrally di-
verse units, and thesedata exhibit complete and uncompressed
spectralcoverage. Some data from the SuperPan sequenceare
also available for analyses, but those data span a large range
of sols and local solar times, and in their current form are sub-
ject to additional calibration uncertainties and artifacts that
would only cloud our analyses. Our spectral parameters and
analysis methods are similar to those discussedin additional
detail by McSween et al. [1999] in their study of rocks at the
Pathfinder landing site.
In additionto thesedata products,our analysis of soils and
dust at the Mars Pathfinder landing site utilizes: (1) results

Figure 1. Locations for each of the Pathfindersoil APXS measurements,as determinedby IMP and rover
color and monochromecameraimaging. See also Table 2. (a) APXS site A-2. The exact spot could not be lo-
cated,andcould be composedof both rocky and soil components. The image is from the IMP SuperPan se-
quence.(b) APXS sitesA-4 and A-5. Image bl is a mosaic of two IMP images from the InsurancePan (stowed
camera position) that showsthe locations of A-4 and A-5 before they were disturbedby the Sojournerrover.
Pebbleslitter the area. The arrow in image b2 showsa depressionthat is probably the A-5 APXS bumperring
mark. The soil in this area has been heavily disturbedby the rover. Image b3 shows the view from the rover
rear cameraof site A-4 and revealsthe presenceof a numberof pebblesat this site. Images b4 and b5 are rover
front camera views of areas near sites A-4 and A-5 and show that small rocklets are abundant. Based on these
views,boththeA-4 andA-5 APXS"sdil"measurements
likelyhavea significant
rockycomponent.
(c) APXS
site A-8, located on the rock or hardpansoil deposit Scooby-Doo. Image c l is an IMP image showing that
someunconsolidated soil probablymakesup someof the A-8 site measurement,a view supportedby image c2,
a rover rear cameraimage of the site. (d) APXS site A-10, in dark soil next to the rock Lamb. This site lies o n
rippled drift material, as seenin the IMP image (dl) and rover rear cameraimage (d2). (e) APXS site A-15, lo-
catedatopMermaid duneform.Image el is an IMP view of Mermaid duneformprior to being disturbedby the
rover. Image e2 clearly showsthe tracksfrom the rover and the mark of the APXS bumperring in the soil.
 1728 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

30" 60 ø 90

•30 ø -

120 ø
.....................

......

180 ø 210 ø 240 ø

•15 o

ß "o
-3O

...............

270ø 300ø 330ø 0o

Figure 2a. Red (750 nm) relativereflectancefrom the PathfinderMonsterPansequence

on sol 3. Regionsof
spacecraft,
shade,andgray rock [McSweenet al., 1999] havebeenmaskedout both by handandby threshold-
ing pixelsto beaboveR*7•0
= 0.15. Azimuthandelevationcoordinates
areindicated.
Black:R*7•o< 0.0'
White' R*7•
o= 0.5.

from multispectralimagesof the Martian sky that have been
usedto derive spectral, physical, and radiative properties of
airborne dustparticles [Smith et al., 1997b; Smith and Lem-
mon, 1999: Tomasko et al., 1999; Markiewicz et al., 1999]
for comparisonto earlier, Viking-derived dust properties re-
sults [Pollack et al., 1977; 1995]; (2) the resultsof Viking and
Pathfindersurfacephotometric imaging studiesperformedin
order to constrainthe physical and optical properties of non-
airbornesoil and dust deposits [Arvidson et al., 1989a; John-
son et al., 1999]; and (3) the resultson atmosphericdustdepo-
sition rates from the MPF materials adherenceexperiment
[Landis and Jenkins, 1997].
4.2. Elemental Chemistry
Data productsfor the APXS experiment are the preliminary
X-ray elemental composition results for 11 soil and rock
measurements reportedby Rieder et al. [ 1997b]. In this work,
we have renormalized the Rieder et al. [ 1997b] oxide totals to
 BELL ET AL.' MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS 1729

30 ø 600 90 ø

'•'..."•:",7•:
•
_15 ø :: . .......'::51'"-
.... .:"•:,i•-:•:•
'""T"•:•

•::•:::::::.::!.•::'"',

•30 ø

180 ø
• •:•..•:-•:•.•:':'-•-'-'..;•.
r .. !!::'.

_15 ø

•3(.)ø

180 ø 210 ø 240 ø

•15 o

-3(.) ø

.,

2700 30()o 330

.... o 0ø

Figure 2b. Red/blue (750 nm/ 440 nm) ratio image from the Monster Pan sequence.Regions of spacecraft,
shade.and gray rock [McSweenet ai., 1999] have beenmaskedout both by handand by thresholdingpixels to
be aboveR'75
o: 0.15. Azimuthandelevationcoordinates
areindicated.Black:RB2R < 1.0; White: RB2R>
8.0.

97 wt% and then assumedthat all Fe in soils occursas Fe203 Moore et al. [1999]. These include estimates of the average
(Table 1). Data analysisproceduresperformedhere include the apparentfriction coefficiem, angle of repose,friction angle,
calculation of element-to-element correlations, element-to- and soil cohesion. Additional geologic assessmentsof •he
multispectral parametercorrelations, and estimates of norma- high-resolution imag.esof soils andothersoil-like deposits'
tive mineralogy basedon the observedelemental abundances. by Rover Team [1997b] andMoore et al. [ 1998, 1999] reveal
evidence for pebbles, cobbles, and granuleswithin poorly-
4.3. Physical, Mechanical, and Magnetic
sortedfine-grained"cloddy"deposits(Figure 4). Da•a products
Properties of Soil and Dust
generatedfrom multispectral sky imaging at a wide range of
Preliminarydataproductsfrom the Sojournersoil mechan- solar azimuths have been used by Smith et al. [1997b] and
ics experimentswere compiledby Rover Team [1997b] and Tomasko et al. [1999] •o estimate the particle size of sus-
1730 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

Table 3. IMP Multispectral Spot Data Set 5. Results

Spot Location
orRegion SCLK
aStart SCLKEnd Sol LSTb 5.1. Multispectral Properties: Soil Spectral Units
We first attemptedto define the range and style of spectral
1 Wallace 1246930277 1246930457 3 1003 heterogeneityof soil and dustunits at the landing site by gen-
2 Potato/horizon 1246930554 1246930750 3 1007
3 Lone Star 1247019123 1247019269 4 1004 eratingimagesof the multispectralparametersdefinedin Table
4 Stripe 1247019288 1247019433 4 1007 4 usingthe Monster Pan data set. Examination of correlations
5 Pinky 1247019455 1247019596 4 1009
betweenand clustering among parametersthen allowed us to
6 Yogi Soil 1247019622 1247019764 4 1012
7 Rocky/Bullwinkle 1247110040 1247110185 5 1039 identify both the average types of soil spectral units at the
8 Barnacle Bill (left) 1247110206 1247110347 5 1041 site, as well as the most spectrally distinct "endmember"mate-
9 Rock left of Casper 1247110422 1247110566 5 1045
1247110728 5 1047
rials that were observed. Experience I¾omground-based,Vi-
10 Scooby-Doo(left) 1247110582
11 Flat Top (top) 1247200568 1247200746 6 1108 king Orbiter, Viking Lander, and initial IMP imaging results
12 Yogi (front, left) 1247200791 1247200971 6 1111 all showed that the contrast between reflectances in the red and
13 Stack (left side) 1247201061 1247201243 6 1116
1247201446 6 1119
the blue can be usedto identify discreteand contiguous Mars
14 Shaggy+ lowersoil 1247201264
15 Cradle, Warthog 1247549402 1247549582 10 0926 surfacespectralunits [McCord et ai., 1977, 1982: Soderblom
16 Wedge 1247549621 1247549800 10 0930 et al., 1978; Adams et al., 1986; Smith et ai., 1997b].
17 Soil left of LittleRed 1247549850 1247550028 10 0933
18 Lamb (left side) 1247550047 1247550225 10 0936 Figure2a showsthereflectivity
(R*:seeTable4 andReidet
19 Scooby-Doo 1247731316 1247731493 12 1037 al. [1999] for details and definitions) near the peak of the
20 Baker's Bench 1247731515 1247731693 12 1040
1247731896 12 1043
spectrum
in the red(750 nm; R*7.•,,)
andFigure2b showsthe
21 Calvin (lower) 1247731718
22 Hobbs (lower) 1247731916 1247732095 12 1046 red/blue right-eye color ratio (751)/441.)nm: RB2R) for the
23 DisturbedYogi soil 1247822315 1247822500 13 1113 MonsterPan sequenceobtainedon sol 3. To emphasizesurface
24 Yogi APXS site 1247822522 1247822780 13 1117
1247822998 13 1121
soil and dustcomponents, regions of spacecraft,sky, shade,
25 Yogi fresh face (right) 1247822802
26 Yogi Rover tracks 1247823025 1247823228 13 1124 and the gray rock spectralunit of McSween et al. [1999] have
27 Far Field, Rimshot 1247912791 1247912987 14 1141 been maskedout. Figure 5 shows the two-dimensional histo-
28 Grommit 1247913036 1247913223 14 1145
29 Mermaid soil (lower) 1247913268 1247913451 14 1150 gramof R*75•,
versus
RB2Rfor theseinputimages.Theoverall
30 Soil belowSquid 1247913475 1247913658 14 trend in Figure 5 is consistent with previous Mars remote
1152
31 Hassock 1248001261 1248001452 15 1135
sensing results: brighter surfaceregions are also redder,with
32 Rocksleft of Flute Top 1248001477 1248001668 15 1139
33 Barnacle Bill wind tail 1248001701 1248001891 15 typical bright regions having roughly a factor of 2 higher
1143
34 PhotometryFlats 1248001911 1248002089 15 red/bluecolor ratios than typical dark regions. Figure 5 also
1146
35 Soil to left of Dragon 1248262015 1248262191 18 1005
36 Left side of Souffle 1248262217 1248262393 18
revealsthat there are discreteclustersof spectral units within
1008
37 Broken Wall 1248262426 1248262603 18 this broaderenvelopeof red/blue spectralbehavior. These data
1012
38 Mini-Matterhorn 1248262648 1248262825 18 1015
reveal that there is substantialbrightnessand color variability
39 Left side of Ginger 1248441433 1248441613 20 1035
40 Pebblesleft of Piglet 1248441652 1248441831 20 within the soils at the site, but the sparsemultispectral sam-
1039
41 Yogi fresh face (right) 1248441893 1248442070 20 pling of the Monster Pan data and the uncorrectedefI•cts of
1043
42 Left edgeof Tigger 1248442120 1248442298 20 1046
43 Mohawk 1248525127 1248525304 21
variationsin shadingand shadowingover sucha wide range of
0913
44 Barnham 1248525330 1248525508 21 azimuths(as discussedabove) do not allow simple and imme-
0916
45 Geordi 1248525539 1248525714 21 0920
diate additional insightsinto the compositional, mineralogic,
46 Squash(left) 1248525744 1248525921 21 0923
47 Lamb disturbed soil 1248621275 1248621459 22 or textural (different particles size or degreeof cementation)
1113
48 Shark (lower left) 1248621530 1248621714 22 nature of this variability.
1117
49 Sky aboveHalf Dome 1248621757 1248621940 22 1120
In orderto explore these and other multispectraltrends in
50 Moe 1248621983 1248622166 22 1124
51 Mini-Matterhorn 1248702040 1248702226 23 more
0902 detail and with greaterfidelity than the Monster Pan data
52 Snoopy 1248702285 1248702471 23 allow, we examined the image cubesgeneratedfrom the MSS
0906
53 Ren (leftl 1248702505 1248702688 23 0910
1248702905 23
dataset (Figure 3 and Plate 2). Analysis of the range of spec-
0914
54 Stimpy(left) 1248702724
55 Mermaid (disturbed) 1249691459 1249691646 34 tral variability in these data (Figure 6) revealedthat a number
1237
56 Mermaid (disturbed) 1249691678 1249691865 34 1240
of discreteunitscouldbe identifiedusingfour primary parame-
57 Shark (Lower left) 1249771140 1249771319 35 1009
58 Half Dome 1249771352 1249771531 35 ters
1012 /¾omTable 4: relative reflectance near the peak of the
spectrum(R*7•o),the 750/440 nm (a*75•,/a*44,,-RB2R)color
ratio, the spectralslope in the near-IR between800 and 1000
aSCLK = SpacecraftClock time (approx.secondssincelaunch).
bLST= LocalSolarTime(e.g.,1200= solarmeridian crossing). nm (L8oo_•o,),)and the strength of the broad 800 to 1000 nm
near-IR absorption feature as measuredat 900 nm (BD900L).
Other spectral parameters,including the "kink" or 530 nm
pendeddust.The resultsindicate that the dustparticles have a banddepthand the 600 nm band depth discussedby Morris et
mean radiusof -1.6 •n and have physical properties (size, al. [thisissue]andMcSweenet al. [1999], were usedto provide
shape)in remarkablygood agreementwith the dust observed additionalspectraldiscriminationamongsoil and dustunits at
duringthe Viking missions 20 years earlier [Pollack et al., the site. The soil and dust spectral units that we identified and
1977, 1995]. the range of parametersused to define them are describedin
Data productsfor the magneticpropertiesinvestigation in- Table 5, and example spectra are shown in Figure 7. Four of
clude 665 images of the magnetic targets on the spacecraft the units are bright soils, accounting for about 65% of the
[Golombek et ai., 1999]. Hviid et al. [1997] and Madsen et ai. pixels in the MSS data set.Two of the units are dark soils, ac-
[1999] have usedthesedata and pretlight magnetic target cali- counting for-20% of the MSS spectra. Two additional units
brations [Smith et ai., 1997a; Gunnlaugssonet al., 1998] to are alsobright but are classified as "dust"as explained below,
estimate the saturationmagnetizationof the airborne dust par- and accounttbr-15cA of the MSS data. Spectral variations be-
ticles. tween the units definedhere are larger than the typical levels
BELLET AL.:MARSSOlidS
AND DUST-PATHFINDER
RESULTS 1731
1732 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

ß t..'..'

.m
.
,

..
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS 1733

Table 4. IMP Multispectral Parameters

Symbol Name Description

R*XE relativereflectanceat a wavelengthof • nm and imaged Ratio of scene radiance to radiance measured from IMP cali-

throughthe IMP eye E (Right, R: Left, L) brationtargeta

S*kE scaledrelativereflectanceat •. nm, IMP eyeE R*x scaledmultiplicativelyso that 670 nm left eye dataand670
nm right eye data of the samespotequal their average;
e.g., S*xr•= R*xLx {[0.5 x (R 67or,
+ R*67oR)]/R
L klE.k2E spectralslopefrom•, t to • 2,(k• < •,2),in eyeE e.g., L x•a.x2a
= (R*•.2E
- R*x•E)/
M1 wavelengthof max R* or S* from 750 nm to 1000 nm M1 = max(R*xa),
750< • < 1000nmb
T1 wavelengthof min R* or S* from 750 nm to 1000 nm T1= min(R*xa),
750< • < 1000nmb
RB1R 670 to 440 nm ratio, right eye RB IR = R'67oi• /R'44oi•
RB1L 670 to 440 nm ratio, left eye RB 1R = R*670L/ R*qqOL
RB2R 750 to 440 nm ratio, right eye RB2R = R* 75oR / R*qqoR
RB3R 600 to 440 nm ratio, right eye RB3R = R* 600R /R*440R
RI1R 670 to 965 nm ratio, right eye RB1R = R* 670R /R* 965R

RIlL 670 to 965 nm ratio, left eye RB 1R = R*670L/R*965L

RI2R 750 to 965 nm ratio, right eye RB2R = R* 750R /R* 965R

RI3L 800 to 1000 nm ratio, left eye RB3R = R*8oo• '/

CI1R curvatureindex, 440 to 670 nm, right eye CI1R = (R*67oa ) / (Rß530R
x R*qqOR X R* 530R)c
CI2R curvatureindex, 440 to 965 nm, right eye CI2R = (R*965R X R*qqoR
) / (R*670R
X R*670R)
CI2L curvatureindex, 440 to 965 nm, left eye CI2L = (R * 965[,
X R*440L
) / (R*670L
X R*670L)
BD530a 530 nm banddepthor "kink", right eye, BD530a = 1 - (R*5•oa/ continuum),
d
Version a (440 to 670 nm continuum) wherecontinuum= 0.609 x R*q,ma + 0.391 x R*67oa
BD530b 530 nm banddepthor "kink", right eye, BD530b = 1 - (R*53oa/ continuum),
Version b (480 to 600 nm continuum) wherecontinuum= 0.583 x R*48oa + 0.417 x R*6ooa
BD600 600 nm band depth,right eye BD600 = 1 - (R*6ooa/ continuum),
(530 to 670 nm continuum) where continuum = 0.5 x R* 530R
+ 0.5 x R* 670R

BD860 860 nm band depth,left eye BD860 = 1 - (R*86oL

/ continuum),
(800 to 1000 nm continuum) wherecontinuum= 0.7 x R*8ooL + 0.3 x R*•ooor•
BD900 900 nm band depth, left eye BD900 = 1 - (R*9ooL
/ continuum),
(800 to 1000 nm continuum) wherecontinuum= 0.5 x R*8oot ' + 0.5 x R*•ooot,
BD930 930 nm band depth, left eye BD930 = 1 - (R*93ot,
/ continuum),
(800 to 1000 nm continuum) wherecontinuum= 0.35 x R*8oor ' + 0.65 x R*•ooot,
BD965a 965 nm band depth,left eye, BD965a = 1 - (R 965L/ continuum),
Version a (800 to 1000 nm continuum) where continuum = 0.175 x R* 800L + 0.825 x R* 1000L

BD965b 965 nm band depth,right eye, Version b BD965b = 1 - (R'9651

• / R*750a)
BD1000 1000 nm banddepth,left eye BD1000 = 1 - (R*looot,
/

aAnalogous
to I/F but with an additionalatmospheric
scatteringcomponent'seeReid et al. [1999].
bailerMorriset al. [1997].
CSimilarto definition of Guinnesset al. [1987].
dBand
depth
defined
asinBellandCrisp[1993].

of uncertaintyassociatedwith IMP calibration or illumination theotherextremearesoilswith the highestR'44,1

artifacts [Reid et al., 1999; Thomas et al., 1999].
5.1.1. Bright I. This is the most abundantunit within
the MSS data set, and, by inspection of the Monster Pan data
in Figure 2, is likely the most abundantsoil unit over the en-
tire landing site. Bright I soils have high red and generally
high blue reflectivitiesand red/blueratios (cf. Plate 2 and Fig-
values(0.06
to 0.07) like Scooby-Dooand soils near Ren and Stimpy. The
distinctionbetween the "pinkish" Bright I soils like Scooby-
Doo and other Bright I soils is gradualand limited only to an
increasein reflectanceat the shortestwavelengths:there is no
discernibledifferencebetweenthesesoils and "normal" Bright
I soils in the near-IR.

ure 7), slightly negative to no near-IR spectral slope, and no
statistically significant 800 to 1000 nm absorption feature.
Type regions/'orthe occurrenceof Bright I soils are in the re-
gion betweenthe Sojourneregressramp and the rock Yogi, in
windtails like the one next to the rock Barnacle Bill,
patchesin the Rock Gardennear the rocks Ren and Stimpy,
and at the A-5 and A-8 APXS measurementsites (see Table 2,
Figure 1, and spots6, 10, and 19 in Plate 1 and Figure 5). The
spectralproperties of Bright I soils are most similar to the
properties of the Normal Drift and Bright Pink Rock units of
McSweenet al. [1999]. As can be seenfrom Figure 7, there is a
continuumof blue reflectivities among Bright I soils. At one
extremeare the soils with the lowestR'44
o values(0.03 to
0.04) like thosenear the rock Shaggyand in front of Yogi. At
5.1.2. Bright II. This is the second most abundant
bright soil in the data set, and is found about as extensively as
Dark soil (below). This soil is similar to Bright I but it exhib-
its a statistically significant 800-1000 nm absorption band
in soil with a depthgreaterthan 1%. Type regions for the occurrence
of Bright II soils are near the rocks Cradle, Lamb, and Souffle,
and at the A-10 APXS measurementsite (see Table 2, Figure 1,
and spot 18 in Plate 1 andFigure 5). The spectralpropertiesof
Bright II soils are mostsimilar to the propertiesof the Redder
Soil and Dark Red Rock units of McSween et al. [1999].
5.1.3. Bright III. The first of two relatively rare soil
units,Bright III is similar to Bright I and Bright II in terms of
its red and blue reflectivity, but it differs in having a strongly
convex spectralshape ("negative band depth") between 800
 1734 BELL ET AL.' MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

a b

..

•'"-•f•-.-*..'
*.-----.
...... :B *- ...'",•*,•!i,::--'-*
....'
:;,:':T'.::½'"•.'.,....'S;;."
'...x;-•
:•?::::::*"-.,:;: ..................
'"

:.;•:•-'-'"•.•,;,...:.;....
"*..;:•:.,:;.:,;:.,
:...,.........'",'?'
......
•..:.:•,;:..•
.......
...,..,•,.:.:;.
".**-:***
..................
* ....
*',e...
<*::;.:......":::
::
.......
:.;;
................'",:,:e:::.:,s'
ß ....
'.'. •*::*':
..........................
::*"*' :.:::•::•::•:,•:::.:•
**:*:•:•;•:•*'*•"'":•'•;•:*:*:•:•
................
•;i•:,•:,•::•*:;•*•::•':•:.:•
:.•*a:-;•;•::•'*:'•
'• ;$•$,•:•;,•,•....:
..................
.:..:.:;..:.:.;;.::•,;•$•,,½:
:.:.**:;,•:a*:•;•**•a•;•ag:::.;.;:;*•:*:*:*:•$•;:;*:•:•?&•*::•X?•:•:*:*;.;:;*•,*•`,•.•4..•a•;•***a•;
;.
.............
:............
. ............................................

c d
•igure 4. Examplesof soil morphologies at the Pathfinderlandingsite. Figures4a •d 4b arerectifiedim-
agesfromthe Sojourner rovert•ontmonochrome camerashowingexamplesof pebbles,cobbles,andsockets
(imagea: rvr_sol13_13156_13158) aswell asa contactbetween a pebbledsurfaceandmorecloddywindblown
drit• (imageb: rvr_so126_26107_26109). SeeMooreet al. [1999] for additionaldetail.Figures4c •d 4d are
IMP imagesof soiltextures.Figure4c is from IMP sequence 0044 •d is the highestresolutionIMP view of
thesurt•ceregionclosest to thecamera(predeployed cameraposition).•e pebblednatureof the soil just off
theroverrampcanbe seen,asc• smallwindtailsor driftdeposits. Figure4d showsexamples of threewindtail
drift deposits:(1) tail behindBarnacleBill: length35 cm, depth2.5 to 3.0 cm; (2) tail behindDilbert'sBoss:
length - 24 cm. depth1 to 2 cm; (3) tail behindunnamed rock:length - 18 cm, depth1.5 to 2.5 cm. See
Greeley et al. [ 1999] for more detail.

and 1000nm.Its occurrence is limitedmostlyto bright depos- 1000nm spectralslope.Its occurrence is limitedto only small
its on thetopsof rocksor adjacentto darksoils.Type regions patches on partsof thetopsof darkrockslike Stripe(typere-
include pans of the surfaceof the rocks called Half Dome and gion)andFlat Top. Like Bright III soils, thereis no uniquely
Stripe.The spectralpropertiesof Bright III soils do not corre- corresponding
rock spectraltype amongthe unitsdefinedby
sponduniquelywith any of the rock spectralunits of McSween McSweenet al. [1999]; the closestcorresponding units are
et al. | 1999]: the closestcorresponding
units are their Normal their NormalDrift and Bright Pink Rocks.
Drift and Bright Pink Rocks. 5.1.5. Surface dust. This uniqueand relatively rare
5.1.4. Bright IV. This very rarebright soil unit differs brightunitis characterized by its positivespectralslopefrom
from thepreviousthreeby having a stronglynegative800 to 800 to 1000 nm. Its occurrence is restricted to soils in the
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS 1735

Monster Pan Red/Blue vs. Red

I J • • ' I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I

l
-z
2
z
2
z

2
2

i I .....
t........
i ,i

0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

750 nm Relative Reflectance

Figure 5. Two-dimensional
histogramof 750 nm versus750/440 nm ratio for the MonsterPandatain Fig-
ure 2. Darkershades
havea greaternumberof imagepixelsoccurring
withineachhistogram bin.

type regionnearthe rock Calvin. to partsof the rock Scooby-
Doo, andto the dustadheringto the IMP magneticproperties
experiment[Madsenet al., 1999]. Like Bright III and Bright
IV soils, there is no uniquerock spectraltype corresponding
to SurPace Dust among the units definedby McSweenet al.
[1999]: the closestcorrespondingunits are their Normal Drift
and Bright Pink Rocks.
5.1.6. Atmospheric dust. This bright unit is distin-
guishedby its anomalously high blue reflectance and low
red/blueratio. It occursprimarily in regions of the Martian
sky measuredby IMP but can alsobe found in isolated and dif-
fuselyilluminatedregionsof shadingor shadowingthat were
not eft•ctively maskedoff in the datapreparation
process.
5.1.7. Dark. This is the most extensive of two low-
reflectivitysoil unitsseenat the Pathfinderlandingsite. It is
characterizedby low reflectancein the red and moderatereflec-
tance in the blue, low red/blueratios. negative 800 to 1000
nm spectral slope, and no statistically significant 800 to
1000 nm absorption/•ature. Type regionsfor the occurrence
of Dark soils includeMermaidduneform(includingthe A-15
APXS measurement site; seeTable 2, Figure 1, andspots29,
55, and 56 in Plate 1 and Figure 5), soils near the rock
Wallace, and in moats around and near the rocks Geordi, Cal-
vin, and Yogi. The spectralpropertiesof Dark soils are most
similarto the propertiesof the Dark Gray andDark Red Rock
units of McSween et al. [1999].
5.1.8. Disturbed. This second, and much rarer, dark unit
is characterized by low reflectivity in the red. significantly ner et al. [ 1999] and Wginke[ 1999] indicate that Pathfinder
lower reflectivityin the blue than Dark soil. negativespectral soil analyseshave approximately 0.5 wt% MnO. 0.7 wtCk
slopefrom 800 to 1000 nm, and a statisticallysignificant800
to 1000nm absorptionfeaturewith a banddepthgreaterthan
-2%. Its occurrenceis associatedwith surfaceregions that
have been disruptedor excavatedby the wheels of the So-
journerrover, for examplein the type regions near the rock
Yogi, within Mermaid duneform, and near the rock Lamb. The
spectralpropertiesof this soil unit correspondclosely to the
RedderSoils spectralunit of McSweenet al. [ 1999].
BecausetheMSS datasetdid not completelysamplethe en-
tire landingsite,theremay be additionalsoil anddustspectral
unitsthathavenot beencharacterized by our analyses.This is
particularly likely to be the casefor low albedosoils. which
werenotwell sampledin the MSS datasetandwhichmay show
evidencein otherregionsfor the sametype of spectraldiver-
sity exhibitedby the bright soils studiedin the MSS dataset.
A moreextensiveassessment of the spectraldiversity of soils
anddustacrossnearlythe entire landingsite will be possible
usingthe SuperPandataset,oncethosedataareproperlycali-
bratedand geometricallyrectified[e.g., Gaddiset al., 1998].
5.2. Elemental Composition
PreliminaryAPXS analyses(X-ray modeonly) of six Path-
finder soils are shown in Table 1. We normalized the Rieder et
al. [1997b] oxide analyses to 97 wt%, to allow for the un-
knownamounts of H20, C, andotherunreported oxides(P205,
MnO, Cr203),the analysesof whichhavenot beenfully cali-
brated.Atier normalization.all Fe in soils reportedin Table 1
wasconverted to Fe203(hereafter identifiedasFe20_•*). Briick-
Cr203,andabout0.3 wt% higher K20 than wasoriginally re-
 1736 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHYINDER RESULTS

0,12

0.10
og

0.08

0.06
:."•"•
:-•'.'
B:m•,•%:•.:•.:•:;.•.::•:•>•:.
•...•--*-------•-•-•••,•
•'•"3
..
..,.....:•:.....;%.:•:
..: .:-,-r..•
,.......... :•?,.• -

0,04
.......:5¾:;½•.•
'-,,
:• .. :.•:•,::..•:•
?:•2•.f•;½3•
•,::•-:'
....

0.02

0,10 0.15 0,20 0,25 0.30 0,35 0.40 0.45 O. 15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
750 nm Relative Reflec[ance 750 nm RelatNe Reflectonce

0.10

2O
(c) (b)
0.05

g 0.00

-O.O5

0,10 O. 15 0,20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0,45 0.1( 0.15 0,20 0,25 0.30 0.35 0,40 0.45
800 nm Relotive R•fl•ctonce 800 nm R•lotiv• R•fl•ctonc•

Figure6. Pathfinder
IMP multispectral
spotdatahistograms.
generated
frommosaics
likeFigure3: (a)R'75o
versus
R'44
....(b)R*vs,,
versus
RB2R.(c)R*•....versus
L•.....
•,-,o,,,
and(d)R*•,-,,,
versus
BD900L.
SeeTable4 forIMP
multispectral
parameterdefinitions.
Numbers indicate
parameter
valuestbr the eightsoil spectralunitsde-
scribed
in thetextandshownin Figure12: 1, Atmospheric
Dust;2, BrightI; 3. BrightII; 4, BrightIII; 5,
BrightIV; 6. Dark:7. Disturbed:
and8. Surface
Dust.Verticaledgesnear16-18%relativereflectance
wherethe
density
of pointschanges
abruptly
areanartifactfromthemasking
of nonsoilmaterials
in theinputimage
data(e.g.,darkrocksmaskedoutin Figure3. butdarksoilsnotmaskedout).

ported by Rieder et aL [1997b]. The Pathfinder rock Shark has
less than 0.1 wt% Cr203[Briickneret al. 1999], and the rocks
probably have lower P205and H20 than the soils. Theretore,
for the purposesof comparisonsto the soils (Figures8-10),
rock totalsare normalizedto 98%. Althoughmuchof the Fe in
the rocksprobablyoccursas FeO, for consistencyin Table 1,
wehaverecalculated
rockFeO*abundances
asFe203.Oxidesof
elementswith lower atomic weights, especially Na20, have
higheranalyticaluncertaintiesthat may be correctedwhen data
from the alphaandprotonmodesareavailable.Reportedun-
certaintiesin Table 1 are basedon the range of differencesbe-
tween recommended and measured values for ret•rence
dards.Initial alpha and proton resultsreportedrecentlyby
Briickneret aL [1998, 1999] using datafor the first 30 chan-
nels of the alpha spectra(which are not aft•ctedby atmos-
phericC02)can be usedto placean upperboundon C abun-
dancein any of the six soils at 0.8 wt%.
For the purposeof comparison,previouslypublishedVi-
king soil analyses[Clark et al., 1982] have been normalized
to 94.6 wt% total oxides(97% minusthe averagePathfinder
soil valueof Na20 + K20 = 2.4%; the alkalis were below detec-
tion limits in the Viking dataset). In this comparison,we
haverenormalized only the sevenVL1 datapoints for which
stan- complete analysesare available (C-l, C-5, C-6, C-7, C-8, C-9,
 BEI.L ET AI..: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS 1737

.s '4m
aCl

o,,

,
i
!

ß
. ß ß
$•?
• m

L
 1738 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

Table 5. PathfinderLanding Site Soil and Dust SpectralUnits

800-1000 nm Fraction,a
SoilUnit R*750 R*440 RB2R Slope BD900L % Interpretation

BrightI > 0.2 > 0.035 > 2.5 -0.0002 to -0.02 to 35 poorly crystalline,fine-grained and highly al-
0.0 +0.01 tered Fe-rich dust or drift' very minor mafic
signature(basedon near-IR slope);type
spectrum:23_2 (Yogi soil)
Bright II > 0.2 > 0.035 -- < 0.0 > +0.01 18 like Bright I, but greaterabundanceof well-
crystalline ferric or ferrous component;type
spectrum:15_1 (Cradle)
Bright III > 0.2 > 0.035 .... < -0.02 7 poorly crystallineFe-rich dust atop or mixed
with darker, ferrous-bearingrock or soil'
type spectrum:58_2 (Half Dome)
BrightIV > 0.2 > 0.035 -- < -0.0002 -- 5 strongmafic absorptionand/or weatheringrind;
type spectrum:04_1 (Stripe Top)
Surface Dust > 0.2 .... > 0.0 -- 6 "pure"poorly crystallineferric dust;no mafic
component;type spectrum:21_2 (Calvin)
Atmospheric > 0.2 > 0.075 < 2.5 .... 4 fine-grained ferric-bearing dust suspendedin
Dust the Martian atmosphere'type spectrum:49_1
(Sky)
Dark < 0.2 > 0.035 -- < 0.0 -0.02 to 19 coarser-grainedand/or less altered ferric-rich
+0.02 soil, minor mafic signature;type spectrum:
55_1 (Mermaid soil)
Disturbed < 0.2 < 0.035 -- < 0.0 > 0.02 3 exposedcoarser-grained,more crystallinefer-
ric-rich soil' type spectrum:26_1 (near Yogi)

"Fractionis the percentageof the MSS mosaicimage (Figure 3 and Plate 2) occupiedby this unit.

and C-13). Figure 8 plots both renormalizedand unrenormal- Another correlationnoted in Viking soils by Clark [1993]
ized Viking data comparedto Pathfinder soils. While we be- wasbetween
TiO2andFe,,O,* (Figure10).ThePathfinder
rock-
lieve that our renormalization yields a more accuratecompari- soil mixing line shows this correlation especially well (rock
son between the Viking and Pathfinder data sets, Figure 8 Fe abundance
in Figure10is expressed
asFeO*,givinga slope
shows that the major trends are unchanged regardless of forthemixinglineof TiOJFeO*= 0.08). ThePathfinder
soils
whetherthe Viking data are renormalizedor not. show no apparentcorrelation, which neither supportsnor con-
As previouslynoted by Rieder et al. [1997b], the chemical tradicts the proposedpresenceof Fe-Ti spinels or other oxide
compositions of soils at the Pathfinder site are similar to phases[Morris et al., this issue].
those analyzed by Viking XRF experiments (Table 1). Two
principal geochemicalcomponentsof Viking soils were iden- 5.3. Correlations Between Multispectral and
tified by Clark [1993]: component A, containing Si, A1, Ca, Elemental Properties
Ti, and Fe; and component B, containing S, C1, and most of No significant linear correlations have been found between
the Mg. Figure 8a comparesthe Viking soil and Pathfinder IMP spectral characteristics of the APXS soil locations and
soil data sets in terms of CaO and SiO2 (both constituents of APXS chemistry (for a sample size of six, our threshold was
component A), and Figure 8b shows MgO versus SO• data the Pearsoncorrelationcoefficient, which must be greater than
(both constituentsof component B). In both cases, the Path- 0.81 to be statistically significant at the 95c• confidence
finder soils exhibit much weaker positive correlations than do level). IMP spectral characteristics used in our correlation ,

the Viking soils, suggesting that the componentsare not as analysis

includethescaledrelativereflectance
(S'44,.•
andS 96,•a
well resolvedat the Pathfinder site. Inspection of all the inte- from Table 4; right-eye camera at 440 nm and 965 nm). Also
relement correlation coefficients for Pathfinder soils (Table 6) included were the scaled relative reflectance ratios and the
reveals that element correlations are modest at best. By con- logarithmof the absolutevalue of the slopesof scaledrelative
sidering both positive and negative correlations, it may be reflectancefor the following wavelength pairs in nanometers:
possible to inter the presenceof the following components: 670/440, 750/440, 67{)/965, 750/965, and 800/1000 (left
A, containingSi, K, Ca, and possiblyFe: and B, containing S, and right eye, where available). For the IMP pixels covering
C1, A1, and possibly Mg, Na, and Ti. Obviously, these pair- each APXS measurementspot, averages of spectrally cali-
ings do not agree with Viking results. brated data [Reid et al., 1999] for all SuperPan and MSS se-
Figure 9 showsthe relationshipbetween C1 and SO_•,which quenceswere used,omitting only those images in which the
define a strongcorrelation in the Pathfinder rock-soil mixing spots were heavily shadowed.Two soil APXS spots had only
line. The Pathfinder soils by themselves show only a weak one IMP measurementsequence(Super Pan). The other four
trend but, togetherwith Viking soils, may define a strong cor- each had two sets of measurements(MSS and SuperPan) ob-
relation. This diagramalso reveals that the Viking soils have tainedunderdifferent lighting conditions, but they were aver-
higher abundancesof both C1 and SO_•,the most noticeabledif- agedtogetherbecausethe ratio only varied by 2-3% for three
ference between these data sets. of them andby 13% for Mermaid dune.
 BELL ET AL.' MARS SOILSAND DUST-PATHFINDERRESULTS 1739

0.8

14_1

(A) (c)
33._2

26_2

33_1
(0.50) 23_2

o_
(0.45) 56_2
•) 54_1

(0.40) .E• 29-2

(0.37) 53_1
(0.32)

(0.27) 19_1

(0.20)
58_1

• 0.2 (0.15) (0.15)

(0.10)
(0.10)
(0.05)
(0.03)
(o.oo)
Bright <o.oo> Bright III
0.0
400 600 800 1000 4QO 600 800 1000
Wovelength
(nm) Wovelength
(rim)

0.8 ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' 0.8 ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' t '

(D)
0.6 15_3 0.6
18_2
15_4

19_1
18_1

15_1
0.4 (0.35) 0.4
(0.28)
(0.25) 04_1
(0.20) 15_2

0.2
0.2 (0.15) 36_1
(0.10) 07_1
(0.05) (0.05)

o.oo) I t I o.oo) Bright IV

0.0 • I • • • I • I • • • I • 0.0 • I • • • I • • • I • • • I •
4QO 600 800 1000 40.0 600 800 1000
Wovelength
(rim) Wovelength
(rim)

Figure 7. Examples of spectra

foreachunitin Table5. Thespectrum numbering scheme "XX_Y"corre-
sponds to multispectral
spotnumber XX fromTable3 andFigure 3 andPlate1, andspectrumnumber Y ex-
tracted
froma 3x3pixelboxcentered ona specific
regionwithinthemultispectral
spot.Spectra
areoffsetfrom
eachother,withtheoffsetgivento theleft of each.Examples shownare(a)BrightI spectra,
(b) BrightII
spectra,(c)BrightIII spectra,
(d)BrightIV spectra,(e) Surface
Dustspectra(spectra
labeled "magL" and
"magU" arefromthelowerandupper magneticarrays,
respectively,
asdescribedbyMadsen et al. |1999]),(f)
Atmospheric
Dustspectra,
(g) Darkspectra,
and(h) Disturbed
spectra.
 1740 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

0.8 0.8

(E)

0.6

mogL

0.4 mogU
0.4
29_1

19_2
56_1

(0.20)
• ,• /T, ,•21_2
0.2 0.2 (o.15)
(o. 15)
(O.lO)
(O.lO)

(0.05) -••'••••• 21_1

(o.oo)
Surface Dust (o.oo)
• Or•
0.0 o.o
400 600 800 1000 400 600 800 1000
Wovelength(nm) Wovelength(nm)
0.8

(H)
0.6

0.4
•23_3
(0.25) -

0.2 0.2

(0.20)
•
Atmos. Dust Disturbed
(o.oo)
0.0 o.o
46)0 600 800 1000 400 600 800 1000
Wovelength(nm) Wovelength(nm)
Figure 7. (continued)

Because the silica and sulfur contents of MPF soils are be-
tween those of MPF rocks and Viking soils [Clark et al.,
1982; McSween et al., 1999], the rockinessof APXS soil sites
might be expectedto be proportionalto silica content and in-
versely proportionalto sulfur content if the sites consistedof
a mixtureof MPF-like rocks and Viking-like soils. Unfortu-
nately,thereis no suchapparentcorrelation.Themostrocky
sites,A-4 andA-5, are the least silicic of the soils (47.3+2.4
and46.9+_2.4
wt% SiO2,respectively),
andA-4 hasthe highest
abundanceof SO3 (6.4+_1.3 wt%) (Table 1 [Rieder et al.,
1997b]): this is exactly the opposite of what wouldbe ex-
pectedif the soilswere simple mixtures of MPF rocks and Vi-
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOII.S AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESUI,TS 1741

8.0 8.5

7.5
I'al Pathfinder
Soils 8.0
r = 0.34
Ibl
Normalized
Viking Soils
6.5
r = 0.67 r = 0.67
i
C)6.0 o
Pathfinder
r• •Normalized
_ II
5.5
• 6.0
.•Viking
•• VikingSoi
Soils
5.5--

Viking Soils
5.0 I I 5.0 I I I I
42 44 46 48 50 52 3 4 5 6 --• 8 9 10 11

Si02 (Weight %) S03 (Weight %)

Figure 8. Pathfinder soils (solid circles) may contain similar componentsto those previously recognizedin
Viking soils [Clark, 1993], but correlationsare not nearly as strong. (a) CaO and SiO2 are positively corre-
lated, as expectedfor componentA. (b) The presenceof componentB is suggestedby a correlation between
MgO and SO3.Viking soil analysesare shownboth normalizedas describedin the text (open squares)and, for
reference,unnormalized(solid squares).The regressionlines for Viking soilsare for normalizeddata only.

king soils. A-10 has fairly high SOs(6.1+1.2) and low silica oxideabundances,
spectral
parameters,
andthegeol•)gy
seen
(47.3+2.4), as would be expected for a soil that is low in in the imagescouldbe maskedby the limitations of the APXS
rockiness. However, A-10 still has as much or more silica than data. Even in the larger Pathfinder data set of both rocks and
A-4 andA-5 and sulfur values between A-4 and A-5. Compared soils, the only significant correlation found was red/blue re-
to other soils, A-15 has somewhat low sulfur (5.1+1.0) but flectance ratio versus SO3 abundance[Bridges et al., 1998;
falls in the midrange of silica contents (49.3+2.5), making it McSween et al., 1999]. If the soils are chemically homogene-
neither "rock-like" nor "soil-like." ous, then the spectral diversity must be explained either by
Basedon data from the SuperPan and Multispectral Spots, mineralogical differences that are nearly isochemical (al-
there is no apparent correlation between any APXS oxide though variations in OH are possible), by differences in
abundances and the 750/440 nm ratio. Based on the APXS re- physical properties such as packing or grain size, by the de-
sultsfrom A-15, the Dark spectral unit is the lowest in sulfur. gree of mixing of global soil and comminutionproductsof lo-
This couldbe explained by a relative absenceof a sulfur-rich, cal rocks,or by the effects of lighting and viewing geometry.
red dust or soil component in the Dark Mermaid soils. No These and other limitations of the IMP data set should be con-
other obvious links between oxide abundancesand spectral sideredin the interpretationspresentedhere and elsewhere.
units are apparent(A-2 has even lower sulfur, but it cannot be High silica contentmay be an indicator of higher contents
defined spectrallybecauseit has mixed physicalcomponents). of unweatheredsand-, granule-, or pebble-sized rock detritus
The lack of any correlation betweenIMP spectraand APXS (A-2, A-15) [Moore eta!., 1998] or silica cement (A-8) in the
compositionmay partly result from the narrow range of com- materialsbecausethe APXS analyses of the rocks at the Path-
positions for the six soils and the relatively large uncertain- finder site have a higher SiO2 contentthan the soils, in the 52-
ties on those compositions. Therefore, correlations between 61% range [Rieder et al., 1997b: McSween et al., 1999].

Table 6. Correlation Coefficients Among Oxides in APXS Soil Analyses

Na20 MgO A1203 SiO2 SO3 C1 K20 CaO TiO 2 FeO*

Na20 1
MgO 0.60 1
A1203 0.38 -0.16 1
SiO2 -0.41 -0.54 -0.23 1
SO3 0.34 0.34 0.73 -0.71 1
C1 -0.30 -0.32 0.63 -0.09 0.62 1

K20 -0.48 -0.89 0.36 0.57 -0.18 0.33 1

CaO -0.36 -0.57 -0.21 0.67 -0.59 0.16 0.28 1

TiO2 0.20 0.46 0.04 0.15 0.12 -0.24 -0.05 -0.57 1

FeO* -0.41 0.06 -0.63 -0.42 -0.17 -0.30 -0.28 -0.23 -0.32
1742 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOII.S AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

1.2 red/blue
ratio,in agreement
with a possiblehighercontentoi•
unweatheredbits of rock in this deposit [cf. Rover Team,
1997b]. The previously noted observation that the rock with
1.0 the lowest SO3concentration(least dustcoating) has a high
thfinder SiO2can eitherbe explained by the rocks having a silica-rich
weatheringrind beneaththe dust cover or having intrinsically
0.8 ROC r='•.90
Normalized
,rrn•
high silicon contents without a weatheringrind [McSweenet
al., 1999]. For example, Dorn [1998] speculatesthat silica
Viking weatheringrinds shouldbe expected on Mars becauseof the

10'6 Soils likely transientpresenceof thin films of liquid water on rock

surfacessometime in the Martian past. Alternately, analog
studiesby Morris et al. [this issue] are more consistent with
0.4 Pathfinder intrinsically high rock silicon abundancesrather than a
Soils weatheringartifact becausemost terrestrial weathering proc-
0.2
essestendto producerindsdepletedin SiO2.

5.4. Soil and Dust Physical and Mechanical

o I I I I Properties
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Most soil-like materials at the Pathfinder landing site,
S03 (Weight %) calledcloddydeposits,are moderatelydensewith small cohe-
sionsand appearto be composedof poorly sorteddusts,clods,
Figure 9. By themselves,Pathfindersoils (solid circles)do androck and mineralgrains;surfacesof cloddydepositsare lit-
not show a strong correlation betweenC1 and SO3. However,
teredwith small fragmentsand pebbles andoften partly cov-
the Pathfinderrock compositions (opencircles), interpretedas
a mixing line betweenrock and adheringsoil [Riedereta!., eredby dustsor bright soil. Cloddy depositshave been dis-
1997b], showa strongpositivecorrelation(r = 0.90), as does turbedor exposedin trenchesexcavatedwith the rover wheels
the entire Pathfinder+ normalized Viking soils (open squares) and in tracks.Bright I soils or driti depositsare scatteredand
data set (r = 0.90). occuratop other materials as thin sheets, windtails, and sur-
face veneerswhich may be rippled; they are uniformly fine-
grained, porous, and compressiblebecausewheels produce
Measurementsof A-4, A-5, and A-10 appear somewhat clus- highly reflectivecastsof the wheel surfaces.Scooby-Dooand
tered at a lower SiO2 range (48%) and A-15, A-2, A-8 at the similar materials may be indurated soil-like materials and/or
higher end (50-51.6%), although each SiO2 group exhibits a crustedrocks.The Dark materialsat the surfaceof Mermaidap-
wide range in red/blueratio (Figure 11). A- 15 has the lowest pearto be sand-to granule-sizegrains of gray rock, but exca-

2.0

Pathfinder
1.5
I Soils
T 11
1.o

• '7'...........
[- r = 0.69
!- o.5 - Pathfinder
Rocks Normalized
Viking Soils

o I I I I I
10 12 14 16 18 20 21

Fe203*(soils)or FeO*(rocks) (Weight %)

Figure 10. CorrelationsbetweenFe and Ti in Pathfinderrocks(gray circles),Pathfindersoils (solid circles),
and Viking soils (open squares).The Pathfinderrock-soil mixing line indicatesa clear correlation between
TiO2andFeO*(r = 0.94),butthePathfindersoilsarescattered.Vikingsoilsappearto havelowerTiO2concen-
trationsbutalsoshowa positive
correlation
(r = 0.69).In thisdiagram,
Fe in rocksis plottedasFeO*,andFe
in soilsis plottedasFe203*.
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESUI,TS 1743

E issue, 1999] of Fe-Ti spinel (featurelessfrom 800-1000 nm) as

the sourceof the observed magnetism. More detailed discus-
sions of the results and implications of the Pathfinder mag-
A-10 netic propertiesexperimentcan be found in the work by Hviid
-
et al. [1997], Martsen et al. [1999], and Morris et al. [this is-
sue, 1999].

A-2
A-4 6. Interpretations and Discussion
_
6.1. Mineralogic Interpretation of Soil and Dust
A-15 Spectral Units
u 4.0
¸ The spectralpropertiesusedto generatethe soil and dust
units in Table 5 can be usedto inter the mineralogic properties
© 3.5
of these units. Figure 12 shows a direct comparison of the
__

47 48 49 50 51 units defined in Table 5, as well as a comparisonto some labo-

Si02 wt% ratory ferric-and ferrous-bearing analog minerals [Morris et
al., this issue].
Figure 11. Scaledrelativereflectance
ratio (S'75o/S'440)
ver-
susweight percentSiO2 for the PathfinderAPXS soil measure- 6.1.1. Bright I: Nanophase ferric oxide-
ment spots. dominated drift, with minor crystalline ferric
component and ferrous component. Most Bright I
spectraexhibit characteristicsdominatedby the spectral sig-
nature of oxidized (ferric) iron, including very low reflectivity
vations with the rover wheel suggestthe deposits are a poorly in the blue and a relatively smooth absorption edge between
sorted, moderately dense soil-like mixture of dust, rock sands blueandred wavelengths. In addition, Bright I spectrahave a
and granules,and small clods lMoore et al., 1999]. reflectivity maximum in the near-IR around750 to 800 nm, a
Drifts are probablyduststhat have settled from the Martian generally negativespectralslope between800 and 1000 nm, a
atmosphereand that have been subsequentlymodified by aeo- relatively strong "kink" or 530 nm band depth, and extremely
lian deflationto producewindtails, ripple-forms,and moats on weak or nonexistent near-IR absorption bands or inflections.
the northeastsidesof rocks. The origins of the cloddy depos- These spectral characteristicsare consistent with previous
its may be related to the Ares-Tiu floods, but other origins are telescopicand spacecraftinvestigations that have implicated
possible. The Dark and Bright II soils may be the concentra- certain poorly crystallinepalagonitictephras(with Fe present
tions of coarsematerials at the surfaceby the removal of fines
as nanophaseferric oxides, np-Ox)as the best spectral ana-
from cloddy deposits. logs to typical bright regions on Mars [Singer, 1982: Morris
et al., 1989, 1990, 1993, this issue; Morris and Lauer, 1990:
5.5. Soil and Dust Magnetic Properties
Bell et al., 1993]. In addition, the presenceof a relatively
The results of the magnetic properties investigation sug- strong 530 nm band depth in these soils implies minor crys-
gest that the airborne dustparticles, and thus probably many talline ferric oxide present at high enough concentrations to
of the bright soil depositsat the landing site, are composites influence the kink but not high enough to give a detectable
of silicates (perhaps smectite clays) stained or cementedby a 800 to 1000 nm absorptionband.
magnetic ferric oxide mineral. Martsen et al. [1999] prefer Laboratory investigations have shown that the ferric pig-
maghemite (7-Fe20.•)as the explanationfor the magnetic prop- ment in palagonites is poorly crystalline, nanometer-sized
erties experiment results, consistent with interpretations by particles which are dispersedthrough an alumino-silicatema-
Hargraves et al. [1977, 1979] of the Viking Lander magnetics trix [Morris et al., 1993]. By the criteria of oxolate solubility,
properties experiment results. However, alternate hypotheses someworkerswould assignthe mineralogy of the particles to
to explain the MPF magnetics results involving Fe-Ti spinel ferrihydrite (-Fe203ø 9/5 H20). However, becausewe do not
(titanomagnetite or titanomaghemite) have also been pre- know the hydradonstateof the particlesand becausenanome-
sented [Morris et al., this issue, 1999], and to date, no unam- ter-sized,anhydrousFe20, particlesalso have a high oxolate
biguous dismissal of the interpretation of magnetite as the solubility, the generalname "nanophaseferric oxide" is used
sourceof the Viking Landerdust optical properties [Pollack et to describetheseparticles.The distinctionis important in a
al., 1977] has been presented.Constraints on the mineralogy planetary context becausethe name ferrihydrite implies the
of the magnetic dusthave been provided by analyses of the presenceof H20, and the namenanophaseferric oxide doesnot
IMP multispectral reflectivity data of the magnetic targets necessarilydo so (see discussionby Morris et al. [this issue]).
[Hviid et al., 1997; Madsen et al., 1999], which show overall Thus, the combinationof parametersexhibited by Bright I
similarity between the spectrumof the magnetic dust and soils is consistentwith material whose major 400 to 1000 nm
bright soils at the landing site. The magnetic dust spectrum spectrally active component is poorly crystalline nanophase
compiledby Madsenet al. [1999] is recognizedbecauseof its ferric oxide. However, the weakly negative near-IR spectral
positive 800 to 1000 nm spectralslope (Table 5; Figure 7), as slopeof this unit likely indicatesthe presenceof other silicate
a memberof a small but distinct spectral class ("SurfaceDust" phasesor oxidesthat may be spectrally active at wavelengths
in Table 5). The lack of a detectable800 to 1000 nm absorp- outsidethe IMP measurementrange. For example, certain im-
tion band in the magnetic dust spectrumis puzzling if the pact melt rocks from ManicouaganCrater, which are mixtures
dominantmagneticcomponentis maghemite,perhapslending of hematiteand pyroxene, also have reflectivity maxima near
additionalsupportto the interpretationsof Morris et al. [this 800 nm, weakly negative near-IR spectral slope, and weak or
 1744 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

IMP Soil and Dust Spectral Units the shortest wavelengths. This material was called the Pink
Rock unit by McSween et al. [1999]. This material does not
show any other distinctivenear-IR or APXS elemental chemis-
0.40 0 Brightt (23_2)
try characteristicsand was not scratchedor moved during a So-
Z• BrightII (15_1)
journer rover soil mechanics experiment [Rover Team,
E] Bright III (58--2)
0 Bright
IV(04_1) I I 1997b], leading McSween et al. [1999] to suggest that its
ß SurfeceDust(21_.2.) anomalousblue spectralproperties are the result of physical
• 0.30 ß Arm. Dust (49_1) differences,perhapsrelated to induration or compaction.
o
ß Dark (55_1) Briickner et al. [1999] reported an upper limit of 0.8 wt%
ß Disturbed(26_1) carbon in all of the Pathfinder APXS analyses, including the
analysisof Scooby-Doo. This correspondsto an upper limit of
carbonate minerals such as calcite, dolomite, or siderite, or
•> 020
ß
._
solid solution between these endmembers, of about 5 to 8
wt%. It is possiblethat a few percent carbonateminerals could
be acting as a cement in Scooby-Doo, strengthening it like
calcrete hardpans on Earth, but hardpans are usually much
0.10 richer in carbonate. It is more likely, based on the near-IR
spectral similarity of Scooby-Doo to "normal" Bright I soil,
that someother more abundantphasemay be acting as an indu-
rating cement in Scooby-Doo, such as quartz(possibly a sil-
0.00 I • , i I • , , I • • • I crete), iron oxides, oxyhydroxides, or oxyhydroxysulfates
400 600 800 1000 (possiblya ferricrete) [Crisp and Bartholomew, 1992: Bishop
Wavelength(nm) et al., 1998; Morris et al.. 1999]. Scooby-Doo and the other
similarlookingmatei'ials
aroundthe landingsite mayhave
Laboratory Iron-Bearing Mineral Spectra formed like hardpanson Earth, by ascendingor descendingso-
0.8
lutions reacting with looser soil deposits, and erosion may
have exhumeda hardenedsoil horizon that was previously bur-
1. Hemetite - 1
ied deeper.
2.Goethite
3. Maghemite
2
•' x /
/ 6.1.2. Bright II: Bright I soils with a more
.-•. / abundant we!l-crystalline component. A subset of
0.6
4.Lepidocrocite
,,-/',"-"''" \ ,, / ,
MPF soil and dustspectra(like those in the Bright II and Dis-
5.Pigeonite
II,"'' -'/ \ ,'x,, / / ,/,,,•, turbedclasses)as well as someMPF rock spectra(like Mint Ju-
6.Augite I i ' "•" '""f1'
,/ /,'--,. /,./ lep [McSweenet al., 1999]) exhibit a shallow near-IR band
whoseminimum appearsto be near 900 to 930 nm, and which
0.4
,t is often associated with increased "kink" or 530 nm band
depth.These featuresimply the presenceof a ferric mineralogy
• .... ../.½... \ '... I in additionto nanophaseferric oxide as discussedabove. This
ß .,f.';: / / • ":•' ..
/.."t/ / s .•.;"-....... requirementhas been recognizedpreviously for interpretation
0.2
/ "'I' /"'/ 5x•'/' of the composite telescopic-Phobos2 spectrumof the Olym-

/.('"
..•.,1 pus-Amazonisregion of Mars [Mustard and Bell, 1994], as
well as for other regions of the planet [Bell et al., 1990;
/.. // / • MeWnyi et al., 1996]. For Olympus-Amazonis, however, the
shallow minimum is near 850 nm, and the spectrumwas well
0.0 , I , , , I • , , I , , • I ,
fit by mixtures of palagonitictephra plus, to give the shallow
400 600 800 1000
850 nm minimum, small amounts (< 5c•) of either hematite or
Wavelength(rim)
hematite-goethite blends [Morris et al., 1997; Morris and
Figure 12. (Top) Direct comparisonof the eight Pathfinder Golden, 1998]. Like the Pathfinder site, other Martian bright
soil and dustspectralunits definedin Table 5. (Bottom) Labo- regions have been found with shallow bands near 900 nm
ratory spectraof I•rric- and ferrous-bearinganalog minerals. [Geissler et ai., 1993; Murchie et ai., 1993]. Mineralogies
The iron oxides/oxyhydroxides hematite (HMS3), goethite previouslysuggestedfor the 900 nm band include maghemite,
(GTS2), maghemite(MHS4), and lepidocrocite(LPS2) are from
akaganeite, jarosite, and schwertmannite [Murchie et al.,
Morris et al. J1985J: the pyroxenes pigeonire (F,AC042) and
augitc (WS592) are from Clark et al. [1993]. 1993; Bishop and Murad, 1996; Morris et al., 1996].
The 531•nm banddepthor kink parameter(BD530b) and the
600 nm band depth parameter(BD600) can be used to try to
narrow the possiblemineralogicinterpretations.As shown by
no indication of a reflectivity minimum near 900 nm [Morris Morris et al. [this issue], most ferric weathering products
et al., 1995]. Also, mixtures of fine-particle hematite and (e.g., akaganeite, schwertmannite,maghemite, goethite (both
magnetitehave negative spectralslopesin the near-IR [Morris well-crystallineand poorly crystalline or nanophase),and es-
and Neely, 1982], as do some of the Fe-Ti spinel-bearing pecially ferrihydrite and hematite) have positive values of
palagonitic tephras studied by Morris et al. [this issue] and BD530b. The only exceptions with negative values are
some of the impacted loess samples studied by Schultz and jarosites. These ferric minerals all have near-IR band minima
Mustard [ 1998]. at or beyond 900 nm, except for hematite which has a mini-
As mentioned above, a subset of Bright I soils, like mum at 860 rim. Bright II soilsall exhibit positive andstrong
Scooby-Doo,exhibit much higher reflectancesthan average at (> 0.15) values of BD530b, similar to Bright I soils (Table 5).
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS 1745

The observedvalues of BD530b and BD600 in Bright II soils servedto adhereto the IMP Magnetic Properties Experiment
eliminates well-crystalline goethite. lepidocrocite, and [Hviid et al., 1997: Madsen et al., 1999]. We chose the name
jarosite from being consistent mineralogic interpretations. "SurfaceDust" tbr this unit to reflect its likely origin as re-
Nanophasegoethiteandnanophaselepidocrociteremainpos- cently depositedaeolianwindfall. Knowledgeof the physical
sible interpretations,however. propertiesof atmospheric dustparticlesfrom Viking andMPF
The combinationof parametersexhibitedby Bright II soils, measurements(reviewed above) indicates that they are ex-
then. is consistentwith material containing both poorly crys- tremely fine-grainedand magnetic. The lack of any spectral
talline nanophaseferric oxides similar to those found in evidencefor well-crystalline and magnetic iron oxides (e.g.,
palagonitic tephra plus minor maghemite, akaganeite, maghemite)in the spectraof SurfaceDust is interesting and
schwertmannite,and/or nanophasegoethite. Of these, nano- may not be consistentwith the interpretationby Hviid et al.
phasegoethiteis the mostcommonby far in terrestrialweath- [1997] that the magneticcomponent of the dust occursas a
ering environments.Like Bright I soils. Bright II soils also minor stain within compositesilicate-like particles. Clearly,
likely containa ferroussilicatecomponentresponsiblefor the this unit mustcontaina magneticmineral, but it is apparently
weakly negative near-IR slope, but which is not detectable not detectableby IMP either becauseof its low abundanceor
within the IMP spectralrange. mode of distributionwithin dustparticles,becauseit is not op-
6.1.3. Bright III: Nanophase ferric oxide with a tically thick and thereforethe spectralpropertiesof the MA
minor ferrous component but no crystalline ferric substrate(platinum) dominate the signal, or becauseit is
component. Bright III soils are similar in most ways to poorly crystalline and/orspectrallyneutral(e.g., magnetite,
BrightI soils, but their distinguishingcharacteristicis a dis- titanomagnetite)and thus hard to detect.The only spectrally
tinct convexspectralshapebetween800 and 1000 rim, unlike identifiable componentof the dustappearsto be a nanophase
the flat or concaveshapeexhibited by Bright I and Bright II ferric oxide.

soils.This lack of any near-IR absorptionindicatesthe lack of 6.1.6. Atmospheric dust: Nanophase ferric ox
any well-crystalline ferric mineral componentin these spec- ide and spectrally neutral magnetic component.
tra, andsupports the interpretationof a small well-crystalline This unit is found primarily in IMP images that contain por-
componentin Bright I. soils, as discussed above. Bright III tions of the Martian sky, and we interpret this material as the
soil spectralpropertiesare apparentlydeterminedby the neu- airborne counterpartto the SurfaceDust unit. The reflectance
tral near-IR spectralpropertiesof nanophaseiron oxides and, in the blue of airbornedustis much greaterthan that of dust on
to a lesserextent, by the presenceof other ferrous silicates the surface,but this is not becauseof Rayleigh scatteringas in
(suchas pyroxene)and/ormixturesof bright (np-Ox) anddark Earth'satmosphere.Instead, while multiply scatteredsunlight
(magnetitesor titanomagnetites) phasesthat are responsible in the Martian atmosphere is preferentially absorbedin the
for the negativenear-IR spectralslope. blue by the strongly absorbing nanophase ferric oxide com-
6.1.4. Bright IV: Thin Bright I or Bright II ponent of the dust (thus reddeningthe essentially solar-like
soil coating darker rock surfaces. The distinguishing scatteredlight spectrumof the sky), the smaller atmospheric
characteristicof Bright IV soils is their strong negative 800 dustabsorptioncrosssection comparedto that of the surface
to 1000 nm spectralslope.Thesebright soils occurprimarily yields less absorption of blue light by the airborne dustthan
on top of darkerrocks, andthey exhibit spectralsimilarities by the surfacedust. The AtmosphericDust spectrum,like Sur-
in the near-IR to some of the rock spectralunits describedby face Dust, showsno evidenceof near-IR absorption featuresor
McSweenet al. [1999]. This fact, coupledwith the similarities negative spectral slope, which would be indicative of other
betweenBright IV soils and Bright I soils in most other re- well-crystallineferric or ferrouscomponents.This spectrumis
gards,is consistentwith the interpretationof this unit as a discrepantwith the atmospheric dust spectrum reported by
soil or dustcoating or rind that is thin enoughto allow the Thomas et al. [1999], which does show strong evidence for
near-IRspectralpropertiesof the underlyingsubstrateto show crystalline ferric mineral absorption in the near-IR, unlike
through. Most ferric oxides, nanophaseor well-crystalline, previously reported telescopic and Viking Lander spectral
are muchmore transparent in the near-IR than the visible, and data.The spectrumof Thomaset al. [1999] was calibrated in-
so at longer wavelengthsa rind or coating of ferric-bearing dependentlyand differently from the data reportedhere, how-
material will exhibit some of the spectralpropertiesof the un- ever, which were calibrated using the methods describedby
derlying dark rock substrate.The relationshipbetweensoil Reid et al. [1999]. The nature of this discrepancy is unex-
coatingsor rindsandMPF rock and soil spectralpropertiesis plainedbut is currentlythe subjectof additionalexamination.
describedin greaterdetail by McSweenet al. [1999]. Bright IV Thus, while therecertainlyis a magneticcomponentto the
soil is rare in the MSS data and probably rare at the landing dust(as describedabove),and theremay be additional silicates
site as a whole, perhapsindicating that most of the pervasive and perhapscrystallineferric materials,the AtmosphericDust
soil coatings/coveringsat the landing site are too thick to al- spectrumshownhere showsevidenceonly for nanophasefer-
low underlying substrateproperties to show through [e.g., ric oxide. The existence of other spectrally neutral phases
Fischer and Pieters, 1993]. (like magnetite,as suggested by Pollack et al. [1977], or tita-
6.1.5. Surface dust: "Pure" nanophase ferric ox- nomagnetite)as a componentof compositedustparticlescan-
ide, with spectrally neutral magnetic component. not be ruled out based on available MPF data, however. Indeed,
This unit is distinguishedby its positive 8()0 to 1000 nm even at midintYaredwavelengths,the compositionof the dust
spectralslopebut is similar to Bright I soil in most other re- remains elusive: the dominant mid-IR spectral feature of at-
gards.The lack of any indication of near-IR absorption in the mosphericdustis a nondescript"silicate band" near 10
spectrumof SurfaceDust is consistentwith its spectralproper- first detectedin Mariner 9 IRIS spectra [e.g., Toon et al.,
ties being determinedsolely by nanophaseiron oxide, with no 1977]. Weak but inconclusiveevidence for other featurespos-
detectablecontributionsfrom well-crystalline ferric oxides or sibly indicativeof carbonates[Pollacket al., 1990] or vol-
other, possibly iron-bearing, silicates. Its occurrenceis lim- canic minerals like olivine and pyroxene [Christensen et al.,
ited to a few very small patchesof soil, and to the material oh- 1998] have also beenrecentlypresented.Recentreanalysesof
1746 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

Mariner 6,7 IRS daytime and nighttime aerosol spectra perimentsthat suggestthat the uppermostcentimeter of the
[Kirkland et al., 1999] and Phobos-2 ISM aerosol spectra[Er- soil is mechanically distinct and more compressible [Rover
ard et al., 1994: Murchie et al., 1999] indicate that the air- Team, 1997b]: (4) by the similaritiesin near-IR band strength
borne dustis more desiccatedthan typical bright surfacere- notedby McSweenet al. [1999] among disturbedsoils, possi-
gions, as it showsno evidencefor either 3 ,rn or 6 ,rn OH bly coarser-grainedparts of windtails, and putatively older
spectralfeatures.Thesespacecraft data,in combinationwith rocksat the landingsite; and (5) by the observationsof local-
Pathfinder IMP, APXS, and other observations, suggest that ized dust devils and other meteorologicalactivity [Schofield et
the airborneMartian dustis probably not identical to surface al., 1997]aswellaslarger-scale historicaldustactivity[Mar-
dust deposits(otherwiseknown as classicalbright material, tinetal., 1992],indicating
thatchanges
in theuppermost
op-
or the "Normal Drift" of McSween et al. [1999]), as long ticalsurface
canoccurrapidlyevenin thecontemporaneous
climate.
thought.Instead,airborneMartiandustmayrepresent only the
finest grained(mosteasilylit'ted,transported,
andsegregated
by aeolianprocesses) and/orchemicallymodifiedcomponent 6.2. Normative Mineralogy Based on APXS
of the classicalbright soil. Measurements
6.1.7. Dark: Coatset-grained and/or more fer-
rous-enriched Bright I soil. Dark soil at the MPF site Additional information on the mineralogy of the soils and
hasroughlya factorof 2 lowerreflectivityin the redcompared dustat the MPF site can be inferred by recasting the observed
to mostbright soils,but otherwisesharesthe generalspectral APXS chemistryresultsin termsof a normativesuiteof (hypo-
characteristicsof Bright I soil. Thus it may be spectrally dis- thetical) minerals. Two different approaches to calculating
tinct becauseit is simply coarser-grained,resulting in lower normarivesoil mineralogy,both basedon previousstudiesof
reflectivity even for highly alteredferric-rich soils [Bell et al., Viking soils, wereattempted.The first approachrecastssoil
1993]. Or, it may be distinctbecauseit containsa greater trac- compositionin termsof alterationmineralsin SNC meteorites
tion of the dark, ferrouscomponentthat is detectableonly as a [Gooding, 1992]. whereasthe secondusesa mixture of end-
minor negativenear-IR spectralslope in somebrighter soils, member phyllosilicates [Baird eta!., 1976]. All calculations
but that has been identified as an important sourceof near-IR usethe averagesoil composition given in Table 1. In both
spectral variability in IMP rock spectra [McSween et al., calculation schemes, C1 and S are assumed to occur as halite
1999]. It is not possible to distinguishbetweenthe two op- (NaC1)and magnesiumsulfate(MgSO4), respectively.Halides
tions on the basis of IMP data alone, nor is it possible to werereportedas alteration productsin the Nakhla meteorite
uniquelydiscriminatecompositionalvariations within Dark [Treimanand Gooding,1991]. Sulfateshave been describedin
soils based on the available APXS measurements (Table 1). the EETA79001 shergottite [Gooding et al., 1988], Nakhla
Some support tbr the coarser-grainednature of Dark soils. [Goodinget al., 1991]. and Chassigny [Wenm'orthand Good-
however, comesfrom Sojournerrover imaging and soil me- ing, 1991a.b]. and argumentsbasedon solubility and reac-
chanicsexperimentsperformedin and aroundMermaid dune- tions suggestmagnesiumsulfateas the major sulfate compo-
form, the type regionfor IMP-detectedDark soil [Moore et al., nent of Martian soil [Clark and Van Hart, 1981]. The magnetic
1999]. properties experimentresultson the Pathfinderlandermay in-
6.1.8. Disturbed: Compacted and/or coarser- dicate the presenceof maghemite (y-Fe203) [Hviid et al.,
grained Bright lI soil. Disturbedsoil was createdby the 1997' Martsen et al., 1999]. Therefore, in some calculations,
compacting and excavating action of the Sojourner rover we also subtractedan amount of maghemite equivalent to a
wheels, the rover's APXS deployment mechanism, or the air third of the total Fe20•. an estimateappropriateto the soil's
bag bouncingand rolling after the landerfirst hit the Martian magneticproperties[Hviid et al., 1997]. In other calculations.
surface.This unit has low reflectivity in the red and is distin- we assumedan amountof maghemite(- 2CA)correspondingto
guishedfrom Dark soil by its lower blue reflectivity and much the lower limit of maghemiterequiredfor magnetic saturation
stronger800 to 1000 nm absorptionfeature.While the overall [Martseneta!., 1999]. The maghemitewas assumedto contain
low reflectivity can be explained by either the same particle Ti in the ratio TiO2/FeO* = 0.08. basedon the slope of the re-
size or ferrouscomponentargumentsusedto explain l)ark soil gressionline for these componentsin the rock-soil mixing
spectralcharacteristics.the strongernear-IR absorption re- line (described above: Figure 11)). Including Ti in this
quiresthe presenceof an additional mineralogle component, maghcmitecomponentis also consistentwith alternateinter-
similar to that invoked to explain the increasednear-IR ab- pretationsof the MPF magneticpropertiesresultsthat invoke
sorption seenin Bright II soil above. It appearsthat the ac- the presenceof Fe-Ti spinels (titanomagnetite or titano-
tion of the Sojourner wheels and the APXS deployment maghemites[Morris et al., this issue])to explain the observed
mechanismhasexposeda subsurface unit of higher ferric crys- magnetismand multispectralpropertiestit' the airbornedust.
tallinity than normal Bright I soil. In fact, Disturbedsoil may Following Gooding [1992]. the first calculation scheme
be explainableas a result of the compactionof the uppermost usescombinationsof primary and secondarymineralsin SNC
surfaceand the creation of nonequilibrium surfaces (slopes. meteorites in a multivariate analysis' smectite from
piles) consistingof coarse(dark)but otherwiseBright II-like nakhlites, illire from basaltic shergottites. and plagioclase
soil aggregates.The presenceof spectral, and likely miner- from either nakhlites or basaltic shergottites. Three sets of
alogic, differencesbetweendisturbedand undisturbed soils ar- mineral assemblageswere calculatedusing nakhlite smectite
guesfor a stratigraphy of differentandthin soil spectralunits and either shergottiteillire (G1). nakhlite plagioclase(G2), or
at the site. This inference is supportedby (1) the presenceof shergottiteplagioclase(G3). The resultsare summarizedin
mineralogicallydifferent undisturbed bright soil units: (2)by Table 7. The bestfits are obtainedusingthe GI and G2 assem-
thepresenceof duneformsand windtails indicatingactive aeo- blageswith 2% maghemite,as indicatedby the lowest abso-
lian erosion and depositionat the site [Smith et ai., 1997b]: lute sumsof the residuals(9% and 11cA).However, we consider
(3) by the resultsof Sojournersoil mechanicalpropertiesex- the high residualsas an indication that none of the calcula-
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS 1747

Table 7. Calculated Soil Norms

Mineral B1a B1b B2c B2d G1e G1f G2g G2h G3i G3J

Halite 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02
MgSO4 8.22 8.22 8.22 8.22 8.22 8.22 8.22 8.22 8.22 8.22
Maghemite 6.32 2.14 6.32 2.14 6.32 2.14 6.32 2.14 6.32 2.14
Montmorillonite 34.11 26.67 47.44 37.95
Nontronite 34.38 40.76 36.86 41.10
Saponite 15.82 13.62
Nakhla smectite 19.72 27.42 36.27 41.43 40.11 44.54
EETA illire 64.58 53.62
Nakhla plagioclase 48.04 38.62
EETA plagioclase 44.19 36.91

Residuals
Na20 0.75 0.82 0.36 0.49 -0.14 -0.03 -1.76 -1.36 -0.51 -0.33
MgO -1.53 -0.94 3.15 3.09 -1.34 -1.61 1.81 0.98 1.60 0.85
A1203 -1.96 -1.02 -4.59 -3.25 -3.23 -2.12 -3.70 -2.45 -4.76 -3.45
SiO2 -2.03 -3.21 -3.04 -4.05 5.30 3.07 2.76 0.99 5.33 3.09
K20 0.32 0.29 0.32 0.29 0.08 0 -0.31 -0.32 -0,11 -0.16
CaO 5.29 4.65 5.63 4.94 0.02 0.45 2.60 2.61 0.90 1.16
TiO2 0.74 0.94 0.74 0.94 0.60 0.82 0.68 0.89 0.72 0.92
Fe203 -1.58 -1.52 -2.55 -2.45 -1.30 -0.57 -2.09 -1.33 -3.18 -2.06
Absolute Sum 14.18 13.41 20.39 19.51 12.01 8.69 15.72 10.94 17.10 12.02

B 1 and B2 normscalculatedusingthe methodBaird et al. [1976], assumingamountsof maghemitein (a, c) equalto one-third of the to-
tal Fe203 [Hviid et al., 1997] andin (b, d) the lower limit of maghemiteis consistentwith magneticsaturation[Madsenet al., 1999].
G1, G2, andG3 normscalculatedusingthe methodof Gooding[1992], assumingamountsof maghemitein (e, g, i) equalto one-third of
the total Fe203 andin (f, h, j) the lower limit of maghemiteconsistentwith magneticsaturation.

tions based on alteration minerals in SNC meteoritesprovide
acceptablesolutions. Although Gooding [1992] reported low
residualsumsfor his normative calculations of Viking soil,
his summationsallowednegative residualsto offset positive
ones. The absolute sums of his residuals also indicate rela-
tively poor fits for the Viking soil composition.
In a second set of multivariate calculations, mixtures of
three stoichiometric, end-member smectites were used. Baird et
al. [1976] did not specify the compositionsof the smectites
used in their normafive calculations, so we have taken these
compositionsfrom Deer et al. [1966]. Following Baird et al.
[1976], two assemblageswere utilized: nontronite, mont-
morillonite, and saponite (B1), and nontronite and mont-
morillonite(B2). The betterfit is obtainedfor assemblageB 1,
wherethe absolute sum of the residualsis 13-14 % (Table 7),
but theseresultsalso are not convincingsolutions. Silica, the
oxide which definesthe lattice structureof the clays, is not
satisfactorilybalancedin any of thesecalculations.
The normafive calculationsobviously do not provide de-
finitive answersaboutthe mineralogiccomposition of Mar-
tian soils (andthe resultswouldnot be uniqueeven if the re-
sidualswere acceptablylow). No singleelementdominatesthe
residualsin these analyses. At best, these normafive calcula-
tions are consistent with the possibility that the soils are
composedmostly of smectites (the calculations which have
the lowestresidualsums).However,evidencefor the presence
of smectitesor other clay silicatesin Martian soils and dustis
ambiguousat best in existing remotesensingobservations
[e.g., Soderblom,1992; Bell, 1996]. In addition,the compo-
sitionalvariability of smectitesposesa problemin inferring
whethercertaincomponents(e.g., TiO2) are presentas a dis-
tinct mineralor as a substitutedcomponentin one or more Fe-
rich clay minerals. We also attemptedto deducea generic
smectiteformulawith substitutions that might explain all the
Pathfindersoil analyses.This calculationalso yielded unac-
ceptableresults,butlow residuals couldbe obtainedif the pro-
portions of CaO and Fe,,O3in the average soil composition
were reduced.Such a scenariomight be possibleif the soil also
contained small amounts of CaCO3 or CaSO4 (small enough
that they haven't yet been detectedvia remote sensing meth-
ods) and an additional iron oxide or oxyhydroxide phase con-
taining no TiO2.
6.3. Comparisons Between Pathfinder and Viking
Soil Elemental Chemistry
Despite important differencesin measurementapproaches,
the Pathfindersoils are broadly similar to the Viking soils,
except that they are apparently enriched in silicon and de-
pletedin sulfur.Thereis also a possiblediscrepancyin potas-
sium abundances betweenViking andPathfindersoils, given
that the APXS datafor individualsoilsreportedby Rieder et al.
[1997b], and more recentlyfor "meansoil" by Br#ckneret al.
[1999] and Wiinke[1999],yield K20 valuesat or significantly
abovethe-0.15• detectionlimits of the Viking XRF experi-
ment[Clark et al., 1982]. This possible discrepancybetween
Viking and PathfinderK20 valuesis also supportedby results
from the Phobos-2 Gamma Ray instrument [Trombka et al.,
1992], which detected-0.3+0. I cA K within a large equatorial
brightregion.If theseK differencesbetweenViking andPath-
finder soils prove to be real, then our averagenormalizedVi-
king soil values (Table 1) may be overestimating the relative
contributionof K in the normalizationprocedure.
The differencesbetweenPathfinderand Viking soils and the
resultspresentedaboveleave open the questionof the true na-
ture of the MPF soils. There are several challenges with ex-
tractingand reducingdata from the APXS that could affect the
reportedoxide abundances.The total oxide abundanceas meas-
ured from the APXS X-ray modehasbeenset to 97'• becausei t
is assumedthat other oxides, mainly P2Os,Cr203, MnO, and
H20 accountfor the remaining3'3. The amountof Na•,Ois also
poorly known and can vary +40'3 from the reported value
[Rieder et al., 1997b]. Recent calibrations of APXS data indi-
 1748 BELL ET AL.' MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER
cate that MnO and Cr203 have abundancesof 0.3-0.4 and 0.9
wt%, respectively,and C can accountfor no more than 0.5-0.7
wt% of the soil composition [Briickner eta!., 1998, 1999].
The amount of phosphorusis not yet computed.Hydrogen
cannot be measuredby any of the modes of the APXS. The
amount of H in the Martian soil is not known, but as little
0.5 or as muchas 4 wt% water may be possible as H20 ad-
sorbed or bound in minerals [Houck et al., 1973:Yen et al.,
1998; Yen and Murray, 1999]. Assuminga high amount of wa-
ter (4cA.), 0.5% C, and 2.5cj other unmeasuredoxides would
lower the APXS totalsto 93 wtCA.This puts the lowest silicon
MPF soils, A-4 and A-5, slightly below 45 wtC/cSiO2, the
maximumfoundfor the Viking soils(sampleC-9 [Clark et al.,
1982]) but still outsidethe field of most Viking soils. MPF
sulfur would also be lowered, making its contenteven more un-
like Viking. Therefore enhancedabundancesof unknown com-
ponentschangethe abundancesof measuredMPF oxides only
minimally and not enough to make significant differences in
comparisonto Viking soils: the silicon and sulfur abundances
at Viking and MPF overlap somewhat,but the highest silicon
andlowestsulfurMPF soils are statistically different than the
Viking soils.
The differences in silicon and sulfur between MPF and Vi-
king soils do not appear to result from the effect of rocky
componentsthat are observableby the IMP and rover cameras.
This is at least true for soils very rich in sulfur and poor in
silicon,suchas A-2, A-8, and A-10. Variabilitiesin soil prop-
erties, regardlessof the presenceor absenceof small bits of
rock, probablyhave someeffect. For example, soil mechanics
experimentsindicatethat sitesA-4 and A-10 consist of cloddy
material. This is consistent with their sulfur-rich composi-
tion, for crusty materials at the Viking sites were also the
richest in SO• (9-9.5 wtC,
g) [Clark et al., 1982: Banin eta!.,
1992]. Another factor may be that the true rock abundance
cannotbe gaugedin imagesbecauseof either resolution limi-
tations or coating of rock bits by dust. For example, if sub-
millimeter-scalesilica-richsand were a componentof the land-
ing site soils, it would not be seen in IMP and rover images,
especiallyif it was buriedby dustor soil. The presenceof such
sand is consistentwith, although not proven by, the barthan
dunesand ventifacts t•und at the site [Bridges et al., 1999:
Greeley eta!., 1999]. A mixture of silicon-rich granules de-
rived from the apparently high-silicon rocks at the MPF site
and globally homogenizedViking-like dust may explain the
APXS data, and may be consistent with remote sensing and
other data suggestinga larger "locally derived"component to
the MPF soils than at the Viking landing sites [Golombek et
a!., 1997b: Larsen et al., 1999]. It is also possible that silica
cement is presentin variable amountswithin the MPF soils.
6.4. Origin of Soils and Dust
Can the observedelemental,spectral,physical, and mag-
neticpropertiesof the soils anddustat the Pathfinderlanding
site be usedto constrainthe origin of thesematerials'?Spe-
cifically,canuniqueevidencebe foundto distinguishbetween
the originof soilsanddustas locally-derivedweatheringprod-
ucts of nearby rocks versusnonlocal soil formation and subse-
quentwindblown transport by aeolian or other processes?
Certainly the observedfrequencyand intensity of local and
global duststormson Mars, and the striking similarities be-
tweenthe elementalchemistryof the soils at the widely sepa-
ratedVL1, VL2, andMPF landingsites, arguethat there may
be a globally homogeneous dustunit present.But is this the
RESULTS
dominantsoil unit on Mars, or is it just a minor but spectrally
active component? Regardless, how is this global dust
formed?
Numerousformation mechanismsthat might explain the
chemical compositionand multispectral and magneticproper-
as ties of Martian soils and dusthave been suggested,including
mixing of rock powder and meteoritic material [Flynn and
McKay, 1990], reaction between pulverized rock and volatiles
during impacts [Kieffer and Simonds, 1980; Newsom and
Hagerty, 1997; Blaney, 1998], freeze-drying and precipitation
of iron-rich aqueoussolutions [Hviid et al., 1997], and forma-
tion as oxidized volcanic dust aerosols [Hargraves, 1999].
However, three broad classesof mechanismshave foundgen-
eral acceptance: hydrothermal alteration, palagonitization,
andacidfog reactions.Alterationin hydrothermal
systems
powered by magmatic or impact-generated heat [Newsom,
1980: Allen et al., 1982; Bell et al., 1993; Morris eta!., 1995
Griffith and Shock,1997] is conceptuallysimilar to palagoni-
tization, but hydrothermallyalteredmaterialsare usuallyfairly
well crystalline alteration minerals. Palagonitization in-
volves hydrolyric and oxidative alteration of volcanic or im-
pact glasses,producingpoorly crystalline or amorphousprod-
ucts. Originally advocated by Gooding aml Keil [19781,
palagonites, especially those free of phyllosilicates and cre-
ated underlow-temperatureambient conditions, oft•r the best
spectral analogs for Martian soil [e.g., Crisp and Bartholo-
mew, 1992; Morris et al., 1993, this issuel. Acid fog reactions
are driven by volcanic exhalations of S and CI, which react
with atmosphericwater vapor to produce sulfuric and hydro-
chloric acids [Clark and Baird, 1979; Settle, 1979; Burns and
Fisher, 1990; Banin eta!., 1997: Morris eta!., this issue].
These acidic vapors, in turn, react with the rocks, especially
with ferromagnesianminerals [Burns, 1993]. The low pH of
soils producedby this processhas been suggestedto be con-
sistent with results of the Viking biology labeled releaseex-
periment [Banin and Margulies, 1983], but the Viking gas ex-
change experiment suggests that the soil should be basic
[Plumb et al., 1989: Quinn anti Orenberg, 1993].
The Viking and Pathfinder soil compositions may offer
some testsfor these hypothetical soil-forming processes.A!-
0..9.
28
Pathfinder
o• 26
Soils
• 24
o _Normalized
04 22 r = 0.64
_VikingSoils
+ 20-
O _
I I I I
18
6 7 8 9 10 11
AI203 (Weight %)
Figure 13. Pathfinder soils (solid circles) show an apparent
weakinversecorrelation(r = 0.64)betweenMgO + Fe:O•*and
A120•, as expectedfor hydrothermal alteration of glass. The
correlationline and coefficientare for Pathfinderdataonly, but
normalizedViking soils (open squares)follow a similar trend.
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS 1749

len et al. [1982] reportedthe chemical effects of hydrothermal
alteration of impact-melted rocks. The predominant geo-
chemical signaturesof this alteration were loss of A1 and en-
richment of Fe and Mg. Figure 13 shows a plot of MgO +
Fe203* versusA1203for Viking and Pathfinder soils. The re-
gressionline and coefficientare calculatedonly for Pathfinder
soils. These analyses apparently show an inverse correlation
as expected for hydrothermal alteration of impact glass, al-
though the correlation is certainly not convincing. It is im-
portant to note, however, that bulk soil analyses, as repre-
sentedby Pathfinderand Viking data,may include both altered
and unaltered materials, so the effects of chemical alteration
may be muted.
The compositions of basaltic glasses undergoing progres-
sive palagonitization in a marine environment were deter-
mined by Staudigel and Hart [1983]. Their results indicated
that Ca and Mg were lost relative to Si, during the earliest
stages of palagonite formation, whereasFe and Ti passively
accumulated.In somecases,extendedleaching appearsto have
resulted in minor loss of Fe, while Ti remained inert, but other
published studies indicate that fractionalion of Fe from Ti
commonly has not occurredor might even have resultedin Fe
enrichment [e.g., Honnorez, 1981; Thorseth eta!., 1991].
UsingStaudigelandHart's[1983] reporteddepletionfactors,
as well as several individual data points in their Figure 2, the
progressivealteration of a Martian basalt (Shergotty) and the
Pathfinder sulfur-free rock composition (andesite) [Rieder et
al., 1997b] have been calculatedand are shown in a plot of
Mg/Si versusTi/Fe (Figure 14a). Palagonitizationcan alter the
original glass chemistry in different ways, although the ten-
dency is for Mg/Si to decrease,so a set of four arrows are
shownin Figure 14a to depictthe general directions of chemi-
cal change that were found for the data in Staudigel and Hart
[1983]. The Pathfinder soils apparently could be explained by
palagonitization of a Martian basaltic rock, but the general
decreasein Mg/Si during palagonitization rules out their for-
mation from the Pathfinder sulfur-free rock composition by
this mechanism. However, the results of Staudigel and Hart
[1983] may be more appropriate to palagonitization where
abundantsalt water is present,i.e., the ocean floor, than to the
drier Martian environment. Morris et al. [this issue] have done
similar calculationswith data derivedfor palagonitization un-
der relatively dry (subaerial)conditionson the upper slopes of
Mauna Kea volcano. They also find that Pathfinder rocks and
soils cannot be related by hydrolyric or sulfatetic alteration
processes.It is also not clear that depletion factors for basalt
would be applicable to the palagonitizationof siliceous rocks,
althoughpalagoniteformed from hyaloclastite of basaltic an-
desirecomposition(55'• silica) shows similar chemical trends
to those in Figure 14a for increasing Ti/Fe [Thorseth et al.,
19911.
Acidification of tephra was studiedexperimentallyby Banin
et al. [1997]. Using their data, we have calculateddepletion
factors/'or acid fog reactionsacting on the same two rocks. In
Figure 14b, the chemical effects of these reactions are shown
as double-headedarrows, pointing downwardto indicate the
compositionsof weatheringrinds and pointing upwardto re-
flect the complementarycompositions of leached residuesif
the rindswere removed.These trends do not appear to explain
the Pathfinder soils data.

0.3

lal Palagonitization Ibl Acid

Fog
Reactions
0.25 Shergotty
Shergotty

0.2
- Viking
Soils

Pathfinder Pathfinder
Soils Soils
Leached
0.1 Residue

Sulfur-free
Rock
0.05
Sulfur-free
Rock
Weathering
Rind

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

Ti/Fe Ti/Fe
Figure 14. Element weight ratios that are significantly affectedby (a) palagonitization (depletion factors
calculatedusingthe dataof Staudigeland Hart [1983]) and (b) acid fog reactions(depletion factors calculated
from the dataof Banin et al. [1997]). Neither processacting on the Pathfindersulfur-treerock composition
[Rieder et al., 1997b] can produceMartian soils. Viking soil data appearto be consistentwith either palagoni-
tization of or acid fog reactions acting upon a basalt like Shergotty. Pathfinder soils might be formed by
palagonitizationunder different conditions,or they might be formed from Viking soils by concentrationof an
Fe-Ti phasethrough aeolian, magnetic, or some other fractionalion process.
1750 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

The Viking soils appearto fall along the acid fog reaction
pathanda possiblepalagonitizationpath for Shergotty(Fig-
ure 14), consistentwith either mechanismas the agent for the
formation of soils at these sites. Relative to Viking soils, the
Pathfindersoils are displacedto higher Ti/Fe, which argues
against the acidfog mechanism.However, acid fog reactions
acting on basaltic rocks with higher Ti/Fe might form prod-
ucts similar in compositionto Pathfindersoils. It is notewor-
thy that the measuredTi/Fe ratios of basaltic shergottites
vary, with values as high as 0.08 for QUE94201 [Warrenand
Kallemeyn, 1997]. Nevertheless,it seemsunlikely that indi-
vidual soil samplesat this one landing site would be derived
from a rangeof basalt compositions. A more plausible expla-
nation might be to attribute the variable Ti/Fe values of Path-
finder soils to local concentrations (by aeolian density frac-
rionation?) of a Ti-bearing phase. All the Pathfinder soils
might similarly be related to Viking soils by this process.
Physical fractionation of Ti-bearing phases might also be
consistent with the fact that most of the variation in Ti/Fe
portedby Staudigeland Hart [1983] appearsto be causedby
changesin Ti, not Fe.
The chemical analysesof Martian soils apparently do not
provide definitive tests that can identity the mechanismfor
putative chemicalweatheringon Mars. A similar conclusion
was reachedby Morris et al. [this issue] who point out that
global mixing processeswill tend to erase the signaturesof
chemicalweathering.Other approachesto untangling the ori-
gin of Martian soils, suchas separately consideringthe ori-
gins of protolith-derivedversus"volatile" (e.g., S, C1)com-
ponents[Newsomet al., 1999] may offer additionalclues.
The chemicalsimilarity betweenPathfindersoils and basal-
tic rockshas beenusedby McSweenet al. [1999] to arguethat
the high-silica Pathfinder rocks may represent only a minor
component of the crust. That interpretation is supportedby
the soil analyses performedhere, suggesting that the Path-
finder soilscouldhave beenformedby (for example) palagoni-
tization of basaltic rocks, and this "weathered basalt" soil
could have been subsequentlyadmixed with a minor compo-
nent of locally derived andesiticrock fragments.
From the perspectiveof remote sensing observations, the
generalcorrespondence in spectral properties of palagonitic
tephra and Martian bright soils does not necessarilyimply
that palagonitization is an important hydrolyric weathering
processon Mars. It does imply that present or past soil-
forming processeson Mars producenanophase ferric oxide
facesand subsequentmobilizationand mixing of the resulting
ferric weathering productsthrough spallation, abrasion, and
erosion.
Previousremote sensingdata setsprovide evidencefor both
a coupled and recoupledrelationship between Martian soils
and local bedrock[Bell, 1996]. Indeed, a similar dichotomy is
true for soils and dust observed by Pathfinder. As described
above, the lack of clear chemical weathering pathways be-
tween rock and soil elemental compositions arguesfor a de-
coupledsoil formation process.However, imaging and rover
measurementsof rock and soil textures, evidence for spalla-
tion and mechanicalbreakdownof rocks, evidencefor spectral
diversitywithin unburiedor disturbedsoil units, and the pres-
ence of near-IR spectralslopeson somerock surfacesthat may
be indicative of weatheringrinds, all point to possiblegenetic
relationships between some Pathfinder rock and soil units
[Rover Team, 1997b; McSween et al., 1999]. Furthermore, the
observationof a reflectivity minimum near 900 to 930 nm for
re- some of the dark rocks [McSween et al., 1999] and the differ-
ence in the reflectivity maximum between the dark red (800
nm) and more abundantbright red (750 nm) rocks. indicatesei-
thera differencein mineralogy of weatheringproducts,differ-
ent degreesof weathering,and/or the spectral influence of fer-
rous silicates that exhibit absorption features at slightly
longer wavelengths[Adams, 1974; Cloutis and Gaffey, 1991;
Morris et al., this issue]. Different weathering productscould
resultfrom the presenceof rocks and soils modified by differ-
ent stylesof weathering(e.g., hydrolyric or sulfuric [Morris et
al., this issue]) and/or differentrock mineralogies.Thus. while
there is no doubt that there is a spectrally important, chemi-
cally unique, and probably globally-homogenized dust unit
presentat the Pathfindersite and elsewhere,there is also com-
pelling (though not convincing) evidencefor the presenceof
somelocally-derivedsoil weatheringproducts.IMP and APXS
data provideno uniqueconstraintson how the dustwas formed,
but they do indicate that the measuredsoils and rocks at the
Pathfinder site are likely decoupledfrom a weathering stand-
point, and that whatever processformed the soils is one that
leadsto the creationprimarily of nanophase, rather than well-
crystalline, ferric oxides. IMP data do not exclude coupled
soil/rock weathering for some of the rock and soil units not
measuredby the APXS (e.g., the presumablyrind-coveredDark
Red rock spectralclassof McSween et al. [1999]), but neither
do they requireit.
Most dust formation mechanisms that lead to the formation

particlesimbeddedin a spectrallyneutralmatrix materialthat of so-called"unripened"soils involve the alteration of large

is the optical equivalentof palagonitic tephra. In a review of amountsof basaltic glass integrated over time. However, IMP
Martian weathering and alteration scenariosconsistent with imaging and magnetic investigations that have revealed evi-
the then-available remote sensing data, Bell [1996] proposed dencefor certain well-crystalline ferric minerals indicate that
two possiblescenariosfor the formation of alteredFe-bearing modest"ripening"of at least some soils has occurred.Particu-
materials on Mars. In the first scenario, the soils and local larly interesting is the possible presence of maghemite or
"bedrock"are decoupled.and the co-occurrenceof the two is poorly crystalline goethite interred from IMP spectra and/or
simply the result of aeolian distribution and physical mixing the magnetic properties results. The formation of nanophase
or covering. The origin of the soil and dustwould then not goethitein the terrestrialenvironmentusuallyinvolves aque-
necessarilybe relatedto weatheringof the rocks presently ous alteration, including the formation of poorly crystalline
found at the landingsites studiedto date, but wouldinsteadbe nanophaseiron oxide as a precursorphase [Schwertmannand
fossil remnantseither from weathering of previous rocks in a Taylor, 1989; Cornell and Schwertmann,1996]. Maghemiteis
putative"warmerandwetter"environment, or from individual alsoformedon Earthvia aqueousalteration, either by the oxi-
alteration events (impacts, volcanism) that actedto catalyze dizationof magnetiteformed by heatingin the presenceof or-
the oxidation of ferroussilicates regardlessof environmental ganicmatteror someotherreducingagent,or by the formation
conditions. In the second scenario the soils and local bedrock of lepidocrocite followed by dehydration [Cornell and
are intimately coupled,with soils and dustbeing the result of Schwertmann, 1996]. Crystalline hematite, which has been
(perhapsstill) activein situ weathering/alterationof rock sur- detectedin previousremotesensingstudies,cannot be usedto
 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS 1751

uniquely constrain past weathering/alteration scenarios (ex- sometimes mixed with a small and variable component of
cept to reveal that they likely involved aqueousalteration) be- well-crystallineferric or ferrousphases.Leading candidatesfor
causebothmaghemiteand goethiteare thermodynamicallyun- the ferric phase include nanophasegoethite and maghemite,
stablerelative to hematite [O'Connor, 1968; Gooding, 1978; and akaganeite and schwertmannitecannot be entirely ruled
Posey-Dow.tyet al., 1986; Cornell anti Schwertmann, 1996]. out. The Fe-Ti spinels titanomaghemite and titanomagnetite
Thusthe detectionof thesemetastablephasesoffers a greater couldalso be present,as they may be consistentwith the IMP
possibility of constrainingpast weathering and alteration en- magnetic properties experiment results and (becausethey are
vironmentsthan the detectionof hematitealone. The multiple spectrally neutral) they would likely not be uniquelyidentifi-
lines of evidence for nanophaseferric oxide and possibly able in IMP spectra.Candidatesfor the ferrousphase are diffi-
nanophasegoethite or maghemitein MPF data, combined with cult to constrainfrom IMP data, but include high-Ca pyroxene
previousremotesensingevidenceof OH-bearingmineralson and olivine.
the Martian surface [Houck et al., 1973; Murchie et al., 1993: 3. The differencesin elemental chemistry between soils at
Calvin, 19971,provide strongevidencethat water was, at least the Pathfinder site are much smaller than the differences in
episodicallyif not more often in the Martian past, directly in- multispectralproperties. This is a common characteristicin
volved in the weatheringand oxidation of surfacematerials. terrestrial soils and soil weathering horizons [e.g., Cornell
anti Schwertmann,1996], and suggeststhat many of the char-
6.5. Implications for Future Measurements of acteristicsthat make the soils appeardifferent in IMP data may
Martian Soil and Dust be related to physical or mechanical differences, or to varia-
Results on the spectral, compositional, magnetic. and tions in redox levels of trace, highly pigmentary minerals,
physical properties of Martian soil and dust from Pathfinder rather than to major mineralogic variations. For example,
experimentscan be usedto help guide and refine futureremote Dark and Disturbedsoilsmay be coarsergrainedor compressed
sensingand in situ investigationsof the Martian surface.Par- versionsof Bright soil units. Some Bright soils. like Scooby-
ticularlyexcitingis the prospectof M0ssbauerspectroscopy Doo, which does not exhibit significant chemical differences
planned for the NASA Mars Surveyor Program 20{/1 lander from the other soils sampled, may be spectrally different be-
APEX payload and M0ssbauer and Raman spectroscopy causethey are isochemically cementedor indurated.Nonethe-
planned for the NASA 2003 and 20{)5 Athena Mars rover and less, we have identified some rarer soil units that exhibit spec-
samplereturnmissions [Klingelhoferet al., 1996: Squyreset tral characteristics, like near-IR band depth variations, that
al., 1998]. M0ssbauerspectroscopy can provide uniqueminer- may truly indicate soil mineralogicdiversity.
alogicdiscrimination of ferric and ferrousiron phases,andthe 4. Despite broad general similarity, Pathfinder and Viking
MPF experience indicates that measurementsof soil and dust soils exhibit significant differences.Specifically, Pathfinder
units exhibiting a range of refiectivities, textures, and near-IR soils exhibit significantly lower S and C1 and higher Si than
absorption characteristicsshould be targetedfor these mis- Viking soils, and do not show the correlation between Ti and
sions, even if (and perhaps especially because)future APXS Fe evident in Viking soils. APXS soil elemental chemistry
data also show these different units to be isochemical. Another may suggestthe presenceof two geochemicalcomponentsin
valuablefuture refinementbasedon MPF experiencewouldbe the soil, like Viking soils, but the correlations are not as
an enhanced magnetic properties investigation utilizing strong as in Viking data.
strongmagnetscomparableto those usedin the Viking mag- 5. We did not identify any statistically significant linear
neticspropertiesexperiment,in orderto obtain a sufficiently correlationsbetweenIMP-derivedspectralparameters and
optically thick layer of magneticdustto assurethat reflectiv- APXS-derived elemental chemistry for the six APXS soil
ity measurementsare tYeefrom substrate effects, as well as to measurement sites.
providea magneticallyfractionatedsamplefor directstudyby 6. Attempts to recastthe APXS soil elementalchemistry
APXS, M0ssbauer,and othertechniques.Finally, since an im- data in termsof a normatire suiteof mineralsyieldedhigh re-
portant part of future Mars missions in the 2()03-2()05 sidualsumsand no uniqueor acceptablesolutions. The best
timetYameis focusedon Mars sample return by 2008, high fits are consistentwith soils composedmostly of smectites,
spatial resolution multispectral imaging techniques that but this type of mineralogic assemblageis seldom encoun-
maximize the detectability of (at least potentially) miner- teredin terrestrialweatheringenvironments.The presenceof
alogically diverse soil and dust deposits should be refined and abundantsmectite minerals is also not well supportedby
field tested,so that a range of soil and dustunits representing available remote sensingobservations.
thefull continuum of Fe:+/Fe 2+,reflectivity,texture,andcrys- 7. None of the modelsthat we examinedfor the origin of
tallinity can be cached for eventual terrestrial laboratory soils and dustprovide uniquefits to the observedPathfinder
study. data. Palagonitizationmay provide the best fit to the observed
elementaltrendsand multispectralsignatures,but the soils and
7. Conclusions rocksat the Pathfindersite cannotbe linked by this process.
However, this may simply reflect the globally mixed natureof
Our study of the multispectral,elemental, and physical Martian fines and the resultantmuting of uniquegeochemical
propertiesof soilsand dustat the Mars Pathfinderlanding site weatheringsignatures(the "decoupling"of Martian soil and
has led to the following conclusions. bedrock).Consistentwith the interpretationsof McSween et
1. At least eight soil spectralunits (Table 5) can be defined al. [1999], Pathfindersoils may representthe weathering
basedon uncompressed and fully spectrallysampledIMP mul- productsof basalticrocks mixedwith a minor componentof
tispectralspotdata parameterizedby reflectivity, red/bluera- locally derived andesiticrock fragments.
tio, and near-IR spectralslopeand bandstrength. 8. Futurein situ investigations of soils and dust that are
2. IMP soil spectraare consistentwith the presenceof able to uniquelyidentify specific mineralogic components
poorly crystalline or nanophaseferric oxide(s)in the soil. may be requiredto resolvemany of the outstandingproblems
1752 BELL ET AL.: MARS SOILS AND DUST-PATHFINDER RESULTS

from previousmeasurements
as well as the new questions Banin, A., B.C. Clark, and H. W•inke, Surface chemistry and mineral-
raisedby the Pathfinderdata. ogy,in Mars, editedby H. H. Kieffer et al., pp. 594-625,Univ. of
Ariz. Press, Tucson, 1992.
Additional and more detailed conclusions based on soil
Banin, A., F. X. Han, I. Kan, and A. Cicelsky, Acidic volatiles and the
magneticand physical/mechanical propertiescan be found
Marssoil,J. Geophys. Res.,102, (E6), 13,341-13,356,1997.
separately
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deviceimagingspectroscopy of Mars, 2,
spectively, and additionaldiscussionsof the links between Resultsandimplications lbr Martian ferric mineralogy,Icarus, 100,
soils and rocks at the Pathfinderlanding site can be foundin 575-597, 1992.
companion
papersby McSweenet al. [1999] andMorris et al. Bell, J.F., III, Iron, surfate,carbonate,and hydrated mineralson Mars,
[this issue]. in Mineral Spectroscopy:
A Tributeto RogerG. Burns,editedby M.
D. Dyar, C. McCammon,and M. W. Schaefer,Spec.Publ.Geo-
Acknowledgments. We are indebtedto the manyunsungheroesof chem. Soc., 5, 359-380, 1996.
the Mars PathfinderProjectthat made theseobservationsand analyses Bell, J.F.,III, andD. Crisp,Groundbased imagingspectroscopy of Mars
possible,includingthe missionoperationsteam. engineeringand test in the near-infrared:Preliminaryresults,Icarus, 104, 2-19, 1993.
staff,roversupportandoperations team.andthe sequencingand admin- Bell, J.F., Ill, and R.V. Morris, Identification of hematite on Mars from
strativesupportst'fif, includingKen Herkenhoff. JustinMaki, Bridget HST, Lunar Planet. Sci. [CD-ROM], XXX, abstract1751, 1999.
Landry,KathleenSpellman.and Michelle Johnson.In addition.we are Bell, J.F., III, T.B. McCord, andP.D. Owensby, Observationalevidence
gratethlto ProjectScienceand Instruments
Manager JohnWellman, of crystallineiron oxideson Mars, J. Geophys.Res., 95, 14,447-
ProjectManagerTonySpear.RoverManagerJakeMatijevic,andIMP 14,461, 1990.
Team Leader Peter Smith for their enthusiasticsupportof the Pathfinder Bell, J.F., III, R.V. Morris, andJ.B. Adams, Thermally altered palagoni-
soilsinvestigation.We 'alsoacknowledgeadditionaltechnical.pro- tic tephra:A spectraland pr{•cessanalogto the soilsand dustof
gramming,and interpretiveassistance providedby Tom Daley, Diogo Mars,J. Geophys.Res.,98, 3373-3385,1993.
Bustani,Bob Singer,Mike Kraft, Harold Van Es, and Heinrich Wanke. Bell, J.F., III, M.J. Wolff, P.B. James,R.T. Clancy, S.W. Lee, and L.J.
Helpfulformalreviewsof an earlierversionof thismanuscript by Ben Martin, Mars surfacemineralogyfrom Hubhie SpaceTelescopeim-
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(ReceivedApril 5, 1999:revisedAugust9, 1999;
acceptedAugust13, 1999.)