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• Waves in air can’t really be transverse, because the atoms/molecules are not bound to each
other
– can’t pull a (momentarily) neighboring molecule sideways
– only if a “rubber band” connected the molecules would this work
– fancy way of saying this: gases can’t support shear loads
• Air molecules can really only bump into one another
• Imagine people in a crowded train station with hands in pockets
– pushing into crowd would send a wave of compression into the crowd in the direction
of push (longitudinal)
– jerking people back and forth (sideways, over several meters) would not propagate
into the crowd
– but if everyone held hands (bonds), this transverse motion would propagate into
crowd
Waves in Air
– Condensation
• When a longitudinal wave forces particle closer together.
• This results in a pulse of increased density and pressure.
– Rarefaction
• A zone of reduced density and pressure.
– Sound
• A vibrating object produces condensation and rarefactions that expand from
the source.
• The vibrations can be interpreted as sound by the human ear if the frequency
of the waves is between 20 and 20,000 Hz.
(A) Swinging the door inward produces pulses of increased density and pressure called
condensations. Pulling the door outward produces pulses of decreased density and pressure
called rarefactions
(B) In a condensation, the average distance between gas molecules is momentarily decreased as
the pulse passes. In a rarefaction, the average distance is momentarily increased.
a. Infrasonic
b. Ultrasonic
• Since humans can only hear waves in the 20 – 20,000 Hz range, they hear neither infrasonic
nor ultrasonic waves.
• Waves move the eardrum in and out with the same frequency as the wave, which the brain
interprets as sound.
Wave Terms
• Wave Crest
– The maximum disturbance a wave will create from the resting position
• Wave trough
– Maximum displacement a wave will create in the opposite direction from the resting
position.
• Period
– This is the time that is required to move through one full wave cycle.
Medium of Sound
• The movement of sound waves requires a medium through which the waves can travel
• The nature of the medium determines the velocity of the sound through the medium
o This is due to the fact that the waves are propagated through molecular interactions
and is determined by:
o Inertia of the molecules
o Strength of the interactions between molecules
• Sound speed in air is related to the frantic motions of molecules as they jostle and collide
• since air has a lot of empty space, the communication that a wave is coming through has to
be carried by the motion of particles
• for air, this motion is about 500 m/s, but only about 350 m/s directed in any particular
direction
• Solids have faster sound speeds because atoms are hooked up by “springs” (bonds)
• don’t have to rely on atoms to traverse gap
• spring compression can (and does) travel faster than actual atom motion
• At room temperature, sound travels at 343 m/s. In 0.10 s, sound would travel 34 m. Since the
sound must travel to a surface and back in order for you to hear the echo, the distance to the
surface is one-half the total
• Sonar measures a depth by measuring the elapsed time between an ultrasonic sound pulse
and the echo. The depth is one-half the round trip.
Sound is Reflected
• Echo – becomes apparent to the listener only when the distance from the source and the
reflecting medium is great and the difference between the original and reflected sound is
greater or equal to 1/17 of a second
• Flutter – if a series of rarefactions between two parallel surfaces resulting to prolongation of
sound. This creates listener fatigue
• Interference – reflection caused by two parallel surfaces producing standing waves
– Constructive interference
• Reflected waves that are in phase with the incoming waves undergo
constructive interference.
– Destructive interference
• Waves that are out of phase undergo destructive interference
(A) Constructive interference occurs when two equal, in-phase waves meet.
(B) Destructive interference occurs when two equal, out-of-phase waves meet. In both cases,
the wave displacements are superimposed when they meet, but they then pass through one
another and return to their original amplitudes
Assignment:
o ᵨ
I = P2/ v = P2/410 W/m2
▪ Where:
• ᵨ = density of air
• v = velocity of sound in air
The Decibel
Assignment:
Spherical : x1
Against a Wall : x4
On Hard Floor : x2
In a Corner : x8
Loudness
– Observer’s auditory impression of the strength of a sound is associated with the rate
at which energy is transmitted to ear
– The energy of a sound wave is called the wave intensity and is measured in Watts per
square meter.
– The intensity of wound is expressed on the decibel scale, which relates to changes in
loudness as perceived by the human ear.
Loudness Level – measure by the sound level of a standard pure tone or specific frequency which is
assessed by normal observers as being equally loud
– Apparent loudness
– Threshold of hearing
Exposure Limits : OSHA: Duration vs. Sound Level (dBA), “noise dosimeter”
Assignment
a) The RMS pressure of sound is 200 N/m 2. What is the sound pressure level
(SPL)?
Assignment
b) What is the sound pressure
2
level in 3
dB of sound whose intensity is 0.01
W/m ?
c) What is the increase in sound pressure level in dB if the intensity is doubled?
d) What is the increase in sound pressure level if the pressure is doubled?
e) The sound power level of a jet plane flying at a height of 1 km is 160 dB.
What is the maximum sound pressure level on the ground directly below
the plane assuming that the aircraft radiates sound equally in all directions?
o Pure tone – a sound composed on only one frequency in which the pressure varies
sinusoidally with time
o Musical Sounds – composed of the fundamental frequency and its harmonics
DECAY – how fast a sound fades from a certain loudness (quick, gradual or slow)
o Localization of Sound
▪ At low frequencies (< 1000 Hz), detect phase difference
• wave crest hits one ear before the other
• “shadowing” not very effective because of diffraction
▪ At high frequencies (> 4000 Hz), use relative intensity in both ears
• one ear is in sound shadow
• even with one ear, can tell front vs. back at high freq.
Noise Rating
• Noise Criteria
o Absorption
Absorbers
• Free Field
o The free field is a region in space where sound may propagate free from any form of
obstruction.
• Near Field
Room Acoustic – concerned with the behavior of sound within an enclosed space with a view to
obtaining the optimum acoustic effect on the occupants
REQUIREMENTS:
Reverberation
• The time required for the mean square sound pressure of a given frequency in an enclosure,
initially in a steady state, to decrease after the source is stopped, to one-millionth (60 dB) of
its initial value.
Room Acoustics
• Coefficient of absorption, α
o Ratio of incident sound and absorbed sound
1. Sabine’s Equation – for actual reverberation time with average absorption less than or equal to 0.2
(α <= 0.2)
Quiz:
1. Find the optimum reverberation time at 500 Hz of a living room 20 ft long, 13 ft wide, and 8 ft high,
with a plaster ceiling (α1 = 0.2), a carpeted floor (αQuiz 1
2 = 0.30), a wood-paneled side wall (α3 = 0.12), an
opposite glass wall (α4 = 0.03), an end wall of medium drapery (α5 = 0.02) for the other end wall, with
no additional furnishing occupants?
2. Norris -Eyring Equation – for actual reverberation time with average absorption greater than 0.2
(α>= 0.2)
Quiz:
2. A lecture room 16 m long, 12.5 m wide and 5m high has a reverberation time of 0.75 sec. Calculate
Quizthe
the average absorption coefficient of the surfaces using 2 Norris-Eyring’s formula?
Quiz
1. Find the reverberation time for a concert hall used mainly for orchestral music with a capacity of
450 persons? Quiz 3
2. Suggest the optimum volume required of the above problem?
• Microphone – an acoustic device classified as transducer which converts sound waves into
their corresponding electrical impulses
• Transducer – a device which when actuated by energy in one transmission system, supplies
energy in the same form or in another form, to a second transmission system
Classification of Microphones:
A. General Categories
a. Passive Microphone (Generator Type) – does not require external power source
b. Active Microphone (Amplifier Type) – needs an external power source for its
operation
B. According to Impedance
a. High Impedance Microphone – greater than 1000 ohms
b. Low Impedance – 1000 ohms and below
C. According to Method of Coupling
a. Pressure Type
b. Velocity Type
c. Contact Type
D. According to Elements Used
a. Dynamic
i. uses the principle of electromagnetic induction
ii. electromagnetic moving coil microphone
iii. a medium-priced instrument of high sensitivity
b. Ribbon
i. Velocity microphone
ii. Ribbon moves as if it is part of the air that experiences rarefactions and
condensations
c. Capacitor
i. Condenser type or electrostatic microphone
d. Carbon
i. Uses principle of variable resistance
e. Crystal
i. Uses principle of piezoelectric effect
f. Magnetic
i. Operated on the magnetic reluctance due to the movable core
E. According to Directional Characteristics
a. Unidirectional
b. Bidirectional
c. Omnidirectional
d. Cardioid
Characteristics of Microphone
1. Frequency Response – frequency over which the microphone will operate normally
Magnetic 60 – 10,000 Hz
Crystal 50 – 10,000 Hz
3. Dynamic Range – range of sound intensity that would be covered by the microphone
1. Line Microphone – capable of picking up sound from a great distance at an angle of 45 degrees and
is highly sensitive
LOUDSPEAKERS
Types of Loudspeakers – those in which the vibrating surface (diapghram) radiates sound directly into
the air
1. Dynamic or Moving Coil Loudspeaker – makes use of a moving coil in a magnetic field and a
permanent magnet
Horn Type
• Those in which a horn is interposed between the diaphragm and the air
• Used for efficient coupling of sound into the air
Types:
• Conical Horn
• Parabolic Horn
• Exponential Horn
• Hyperbolic Horn
To cover the entire range of audible frequencies, the following speakers are used: