Building Construction

1. Scaffolding
SCAFFOLDING

Scaffolding: - A temporary structure usually provided, to give a safe working platform for the workers
and to provide a limited space for the storage of plant and building materials, when the height above floor
level exceeds about 1.50 m, is called scaffolding.

Component parts of scaffolding: -

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1. Standards: These are the vertical members of the frame work and they are either supported on the
ground or drums or embedded into the ground.

2. Ledgers: - These are the horizontal members parallel to the wall.

3. Putlogs: - These are the transverse pieces which are placed on the ledgers and which are supported
on the wall at one end. They are at right angles to the wall.

4. Transom: - These are putlogs, but their both ends are supported on the ledgers.

5. Raker: Raker is an inclined support.

6. Toe board: - This is a board placed parallel to the ledgers and supported between the putlogs,
provided for, to work as a protective measure on the working platform.

7. Guard rail: - This is a rail provided like a ledger at the working level.
8. Bridle: - This is a piece which is used to bridge an opening in a wall and it supports one end of the
putlog at the opening.

Types of scaffolding: -

1. Single scaffolding or bricklayer’s scaffolding: - It consists of a single row of standards placed at a

distances of about 1.20 m from the wall. The distance between the successive standards is about 2 m to
2.50 m. The ledgers are then fixed to the standards at a vertical distance of about 1.20 m to 1.80 m. The
putlogs, with one end on the ledger and the other end on the wall, are then placed at a horizontal distance
of about 1.20 m to 1.80 m. It is also known as the Putlog scaffolding. It is used for brick work.

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2. Double scaffolding or mason’s scaffolding: - It is used for construction of stonework. It is stronger

than the single scaffolding. The rakers and cross braces may be provided to make the scaffolding more
strong. The frame work is similar to the single scaffolding except that two rows of standards are provided.
The both ends of the member supported on the ledgers, is called transoms, is used in double scaffolding. It
is also known as independent scaffolding.

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3. Cantilever or needle scaffolding: - In this type of scaffolding, the general framework may be of
single scaffolding type or of double scaffolding type. But the standards are supported by a series of needles
or ties which are taken out at floor levels or through openings or through holes kept in the masonry.

This type of scaffolding is useful under the following circumstances: -

· The proper hard ground is not available for the standards to rest.

· It is desired to keep the road or pavement near the face of the wall, clear of obstruction caused by
the scaffolding.

· The construction work is to be carried out for upper parts of a multi-storeyed building.

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4. Suspended scaffolding: - This is a very light type of scaffolding and can be used only for the
maintenance works such as painting, pointing, whitewashing, distempering, etc. The working platform is
suspended from the roofs by means of ropes, wires or chains and arrangements are made such that the
platform can be raised or lowered.

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5. Trestle scaffolding: - In this type scaffolding, the working platform is supported on movable
contrivances such as ladders, tripods, etc., mounted on wheels. The maximum height up to which this type
of scaffolding can be adopted is about 5 m from the supporting surface.

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6. Steel scaffolding: - In place of timber, the steel tubes can be effectively used for the
scaffolding work. The scaffolding can be used up to any height. It is strong and more durable. It can be
easily erected and dismantled.

7. Patented scaffolding: - In this type of scaffolding the working platform is supported on a bracket
which can be adjusted to any suitable height.

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2. Shoring
SHORING

SHORING: - A temporary structure provided to support an unsafe structure or required to prevent

movements when certain additions and alterations are being carried out, is known as shoring.

Types of shoring:-

1. Raking shore or inclined shore:

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· It consists of wall plate, needles, cleats, rakers, bracing and sole plate.

· The wall plate is placed against the wall and is secured by means of needles which penetrate into the
wall for a distance of about 150 mm. The wall plate distributes the pressure evenly. The needles are
secured by cleats which are nailed to the wall plate.

· The rakers are interconnected by struts or braces or lacings. The feet of rakers are stiffened by
similar braces or hoop iron and they are connected with the sole plate by means of iron dogs.

· The centre line of the raker and of the wall should meet at the floor level. The rakers should be
inclined at 45⁰ with the ground.

· The top raker should not be inclined steeper than 75⁰ with the horizontal. The length of the top raker
can be reduced by providing a rider raker.

2. Flying or horizontal shores : - In this type of shoring, the horizontal supports are given to parallel
walls which have become unsafe due to the removal or collapse of the intermediate building.

There are two types of flying shore

A. A single flying shore consists of wall plate, needles, cleats, struts, straining pieces and folding
wedges. The centre line of flying shores and those of walls should meet at the floor levels. The struts are
inclined at 45⁰ and in no case, the angle of inclination should increase 60⁰. A single flying shore is suitable
for a maximum distance of about 9 m between the adjacent parallel walls.

B. When the distance is between 9 m to 12 m, a compound or double flying shore is provided.

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3. Dead or vertical shores: - In this shore, the horizontal members, known as the needles are supported
by vertical members known as the dead shores.

A dead shore is used under the following circumstances:

· The lower part of the wall has become defective.

· The foundations are to be deepened.

· The lower part of the wall is to be rebuilt or reconstructed.

· The large openings are to be made in the existing wall

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3. Underpinning
UNDERPINNING

UNDERPINNING: - The placing of new foundation below an existing foundation or the

process of strengthening the existing foundation is known as the underpinning of foundations.

Methods of underpinning: -

1. Pit method: -

In this method, the existing wall is divided into suitable sections of width about 1.20 m to
1.50 m. The holes are made in the wall. The needles with bearing plates are then inserted
through these holes and supported on jacks. If space to support needles on outside is not
available, the cantilever needles, projecting inside and provided with fulcrums and
loadings. A hydraulic jack is placed between the needles and fulcrum.

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2. Pile method: -In this method the piles are driven along both the sides of the existing
wall and then needles in the form of pile caps are provided through the existing wall. Useful
in clayey soils and waterlogged areas

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3. Miscellaneous methods: -

A. Cement grouting

Cement Grouting, also known as Slurry Grouting, is the intrusion under pressure of flowable
particulate grouts into open cracks and voids and expanded fractures. Used to restore slab or
pavement which has settled. Holes are drilled in slab and cement grout is forced under
pressure through these holes. Pressure is maintained until cement grout has set

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B. Chemical consolidation

In this method the foundation soil is consolidated by employing chemicals. Perforated pipes
are driven in an inclined direction beneath the foundation. The slopes are provided such that
the entire area under the existing footing comes under the area used to be strengthened. After
the pipes are installed, solution of sodium silicate in water is injected through the pipes. This
is a two injection method. The pipes are withdrawn and at the time of withdrawal of pipes,
calcium or magnesium chloride is injected through the pipes. Chemical reaction takes place
between these two chemicals and soil is strengthened by consolidation.

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C. Freezing

In this method freezing pipes are driven below existing footing & soil is frozen. This method
is rarely adopted, mainly because of two reasons:

· It is expensive

· More time is required for installation of freezing pipes

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D. Vibroflotation

Underpinning is carried out by vibrating sand & thereby increasing its density which
ultimately results in increase of bearing capacity of soil. Useful for granular or sandy soil &
before process of underpinning starts, building or any of its structural components is shored
carefully. Vibrating equipment or soil to be compacted is to be isolated from building & its
shoring

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4. Brick Masonry
BRICK MASONRY

Size and weight of bricks: -

· The bricks which are not standardized are known as the traditional bricks.

· The BIS has recommended the bricks of uniform size. Such bricks are known as the modular
bricks and the actual size of the modular brick is 190 mm × 90 mm × 90 mm.

· Consider mortar thickness, the size of brick becomes 200 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm and it is known
as the nominal size of the modular brick.

· The nominal size includes the mortar thickness.

· It is found that the weight of 1m3 of brick earth is about 1800kg. Hence the average weight of a brick
will be about 3 to 3.50kg.

Technical terms: -

1. Header: - This is a brick laid with its breadth or width parallel to the face of a wall.

2. Stretcher: - This is a brick laid with its length parallel to the face of a wall.

3. Bed: - The lower surface of the brick when laid flat is known as the bed.
4. Arrise : - The edges formed by the intersection of plane surfaces of brick are called the arrises.

5. Bed joints: - The horizontal layer of mortar upon which the bricks are laid is known as a bed joint.

6. Toothing: - The termination of a wall in such a fashion that each alternate course at the end projects
is known as the toothing, for the purpose of future construction.

7. Frog: - a frog is a mark of depth about 10 mm to 20 mm which is placed on the face of a brick to
form a key for holding the mortar.

8. Racking back: - The termination of a wall in a stepped fashion is known as the racking back.

9. Perpends : - The vertical joints separating the bricks in either length or cross directions are known as
the perpends.

10. Lap: - The horizontal distance between the vertical joints in successive course is termed as a lap.

11. Closer : - A piece of brick which is used to close up the bond at the end of brick courses is known as a
closer and it helps for creating bond.

12. Queen closer: - It is obtained by cutting the brick longitudinally in two equal parts. A queen closer is
generally placed near the quoin header to obtain the necessary lap.

13. King closer: - It is obtained by cutting a triangular portion of the brick such that half a header and half
a stretcher are obtained on the adjoining cut faces.

14. Bevelled closer: - It is obtained by cutting a triangular portion of half the width but of full length.

15. Mitred closer: - This is obtained by cutting a triangular portion of the brick through its width and
making an angle of 45⁰ to 60⁰ with the length of the brick.

16. Bat: - This is a piece of brick, usually considered in relation to the length of the brick and accordingly
known as half bat or three-quarter bat.

17. Bullnose : - A brick moulded with a rounded angle is termed as a bullnose and is used for a rounded
quoin.

18. Quoin: - A connection which is formed when a wall takes a turn is known as a quoin.

19. Cownose : - A brick moulded with a double bullnose on end is termed as a cownose.

20. Squint quoin: - A brick which is cut or moulded such that an angle other than a right angle is formed
in plan is known as a squint quoin.

4. Brick Masonry
4.1. Tools In Brick Masonry
Tools used in brick masonry:

The tools used in brick masonry are: trowel, spirit level, plumb rule and bob, square, line and
pins, club hammer, axe, bolster, hand saw, bevel, straight edge and gauge rod.
1. The Masonry trowel is a hand trowel used in brickwork or stonework for leveling,
spreading and shaping mortar or concrete. They come in several shapes and sizes depending
on the task.

2. A spirit level, bubble level or simply a level is an instrument designed to indicate

whether a surface is horizontal (level) or vertical (plumb)

3. A plumb bob, or plummet, is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the bottom,
suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line, or plumb-line.

4. Mason’s square: it is used for checking right angles

5. Line and pins: Two pins with 10m long cord are used for maintaining the alignment of
courses.

6. Club or Lump Hammer: This is used for hitting cold chisels to break masonry or
simply to bash things up like a tiny sledge hammer.

7. Bolster: Used for cutting bricks and knocking off old mortar beds, especially on
restoration work

8. Hand saw: Used to cut soft stones

9. Bevel: Used for marking angles on bricks, for things like brick arches. Or for keeping
an angle when lying bricks, like in a brick sill.

10. A straight edge is a piece of wood about one meter long and of section 80 mm × 15 mm.
It is used for checking the alignment of brickwork.

11. A gauge rod is similar to straight edge except that its section is about 100 mm × 20 mm
and it may be as long as the height of a storey. It is used to confirm that the courses are
maintained at correct levels.

4. Brick Masonry
4.2. Bonds In Brick Masonry
Bonds used in brick masonry: -

1. Stretcher bond: - All the bricks are arranged in the stretcher courses. It is useful for
one-brick partition walls. It should not be used for walls having thicknesses greater than that
of one brick wall.

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2. Header bond: - All bricks are arranged in header courses. This bond does not have
strength to transmit pressure in the direction of the length of the wall. Hence it is not suitable
for load bearing walls. This bond is suitable for curved surfaces in brickwork.

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3. English bond: - It is the strongest bond in brick work. Following are the features of an
English bond:

· The alternate courses consist of stretchers and headers.

· Each alternate header is centrally supported over a stretcher.

· The queen closer is put next to the quoin header to develop the face lap.

· If the wall thickness is an even multiple of half-brick, the same course shows headers
or stretchers in both the front and the back elevations. But if the wall thickness is an uneven
multiple of half-brick, a course showing stretcher on the face shows header on the back and
vice versa.
· The continuous vertical joints are avoided.

· The number of mortar joints in the header course is double than that in the stretcher
course.

· In the stretcher course, the stretchers have a minimum lap of one-fourth of their length
over the headers

· For walls having thickness of two bricks or more, the bricks are laid as stretchers or
headers only on the face courses of the wall. The interior filling is done entirely with the
headers.

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4. Flemish bond : -

· It creates a better appearance than the English bond. The following are the features of a
Flemish bond.

· The queen closer is put next to the quoin header in alternate courses to develop the face
lap.
· In every course, the headers and stretchers are placed alternatively.

· Every header is centrally supported over a stretcher below it.

The Flemish bond may be divided into two groups:

A. Double Flemish bond: - In this bond, the headers and stretchers are placed
alternatively in front as well as the back elevations.

B. Single Flemish bond: - In this bond, the face elevation is of Flemish bond and the
filling as well as backing are of the English bond. Thus in this type of bond, an attempt is
made to combine the strength of the English bond with the appearance of the Flemish bond.

Minimum thickness of wall required for constructing single Flemish bond is 1 bricks.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN STONE WORK AND BRICKWORK

· Brickwork resist fire better than stone work

· In brickwork mortar joints are thin, hence it is more durable.

· Brick work is less watertight than stone work.

· Brick walls can be constructed with minimum thickness of 100mm or 200mm.
But minimum thickness of stone masonry is 300mm.

1. Garden wall bond: -

· It is used for the construction of the boundary walls, compound walls, Garden walls
etc.

· The wall is one-brick wall and its height does not exceed 2 m.

There are two types of garden wall bonds,

A. English garden wall bond: - In this bond, one header course is provided to three or
five stretcher courses.

B. Flemish garden wall bond : -

· In this type of bond, each course contains one header to three or five stretchers.

· A three-fourth brick bat is placed next to quoin header in every alternate course.

· A header is placed centrally over each middle stretcher. This type of bond is also
known as the Scotch or Sussex bond.

· If, in the Flemish garden-wall bond, each course contains one header to two stretchers,
it is known as a monk bond and in this bond, the header rests over the joint between two
successive stretchers.

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2. Raking bond: - As the filling of thicker walls is done by headers only. Such walls
become weak in the longitudinal direction. There are three types of raking bonds,
A. Diagonal bond: - In this bond the bricks are laid diagonally. The angle of inclination is
so selected that there is minimum breaking of the bricks. This bond is useful for walls having
thickness of 2 to 4 bricks. It is used for the construction of the footings of high walls.

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B. Herring-bone bond: - In this bond, the bricks are laid at an angle of 45⁰ from the centre
in both the directions. This bond is useful for walls having thickness of more than four bricks.

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C. Zig-zag bond: - In this bond, the bricks are laid in a zig-zag fashion. It is commonly
used for making ornamental panels in the flooring of bricks.

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3. Dutch bond: - This is a modified form of the English bond and this bond, the corner of
the wall is strengthened. The following are the main features of this type bond,

· The alternate courses are of headers and stretchers.

· The quoin of a stretcher course is a three-quarter bat.

· A header is introduced next to the three-quarter bat in every alternate stretcher course

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4. Brick on edge bond: - In this bond, the bricks are laid as headers and stretchers in
alternate courses in such a way that the headers are laid on bed and the stretchers are laid on
edge. Thus a continuous cavity is formed. This bond is also known as silvercock’s bond.

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5. English cross bond: - This is another modified form of the English bond and it is used
to add beauty in the appearance of the wall. It is also known as the St. Andrews cross bond.

The following are the main features of this type of bond,

· The alternate courses are of headers and stretchers.

· The queen closers are placed next to the quoin headers

· A header is introduced next to the quoin stretcher in every alternate stretcher course.

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6. Facing bond: -

· In this type of bond, a header course is placed after several stretcher courses. When the
facing and backing vary in size and shape, the facing bond is adopted.

· The least common multiple of the thickness of facing and backing bricks decides
the distance between the successive header courses.

· A header course is placed after every three or five stretcher courses

4.3. Connections
Connections

The walls in different directions are to be united at certain places. These places are known as
the connections. There are two forms of connections.

1. Junctions: - A connection between a main wall and a partition wall is termed as a

junction.

A junction is classified in two categories,

· Right angled junction (Tee junction and cross junction)

· Squint junction.
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2. Quoins: - connection formed when two external wall meet. Alternatively, quoin is the
connection which is formed when a wall takes a turn.

A junction is classified in two categories,

· Right angled or square quoin

· Squint quoin

5. Arches
ARCHES

Technical terms

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1. Intrados: - It is the inner curve of an arch.

2. Extrados or back:-It is the external curve of an arch.

3. Soffit:-It is the inner surface of arch.

4. Voussoirs-Wedge shaped units forming course of an arch.

5. Skewback: Inclined or splayed surface of abutment prepared to receive arch. Arch springs from
skewback.

6. Springing points:-The points from which curve of an arch springs.

7. Springing line: - Imaginary horizontal line joining springing points.

8. Springer:-First voussior at springing level on either side of an arch adjacent to the skewback.

9. Crown: - Highest point of extrados.

10. Key:-It is the voussior placed at the crown of arch.

11. Arcade:- A series of arches is called arcade

12. Abutment: - It is the end supports of arch.

13. Pier: - Intermediate supports of an arcade are called piers.

14. Span: - Clear horizontal distance between supports.

15. Rise: - Clear vertical distance between springing line and highest point on intradose.

16. Centre: - Geometrical centre of curve of an arch.

17. Ring: - It is the circular course forming an arch.

18. Depth or height: - Perpendicular distance between intrados and extrados.

19. Thickness or breadth of soffit: - Perpendicular distance between front and back face of an arch.
20. Spandril: Irregular triangular space between the extrados and horizontal line drawn tangent to the
crown.

21. Haunch: - Lower half portion of arch between crown and skewback.

22. Impost: It is the projecting course at the upper part of an abutment or pier to stress the springing
line.

5.1. C;lassification Of Arches

Classification of arches
a) Flat arch
b) Segmental arch: The centre of the arch is below the springing line, skew back is inclined. This is the
common type of arch used in buildings.
c) Semi-circular arch: The centre of the arch is in the springing line. Skewback is horizontal and thrust
transferred to the abutment is vertical.
d) Semi elliptical arch: It has the shape of a semi-ellipse. It has more than one center.
e) Inverted arch: This arch is constructed to increase the bearing power of the soil.
f) Pointed arch: This type of arch consist of two curves meeting at the apex of a triangle. The triangle
formed may be equilateral or isosceles. The later type is called Lancet arch. The centers may be on or
below the springing line and in between or outside the springing points.

Laggings support the bricks or stones of arches

1. According to shape

g) Relieving arch: This is an arch constructed over a wooden joist or flat arch to relieve the arch from
carrying load.

h) Horse shoe arch: The shape of the arch is more than a semi-circle; centre is above the springing line.
It is used mainly for architectural appearance.

i) Stilted arch: this type of arch has a semi-circular shape attached at the top of two vertical portions.

j) Venetian arch: This is a pointed arch in which the depth at crown is made more than the depth at
the springing line. It has four centers located in springing line.

k) Florentine arch: In this type of arch, the intrados has the shape of a semi-circle and the depth at
crown is made more than the depth at the springing line. It has three centers lying on the springing line.

2. According to the number of centers

a) One-centered arch: It has only one center.

E.g.: flat arch, segmental arch, Horse shoe arch, semi-circular arch, stilted arch and bull‟s eye arch.

b) Two-centered arch: It has two centers. E.g.: Pointed arch

c) Three-centered arch: It has three centers. E.g.: Elliptical arch, Florentine arch.

d) Four-centered arch or Tudor arch: It has four centers.

E.g.: Venetian arch

e) Five-centered arch: It has five centers and it looks like a semi-elliptical arch.

3. According to the workmanship

a) Rough arch: These arches are constructed with rectangular bricks, the joints are made wedge shaped
with thinner at the intrados and thicker at the extrados to get the curve of arch.

b) Axed or rough-cut arch: In this type of arch the bricks are cut to a wedge shape by means of an axe.
Thickness of mortar joint varies from 3mm to 6mm.

c) Gauged arch: In this type of arch the bricks used are cut into wedge shape by means of a wire saw
and the surfaces are finished with a file. Thickness of mortar joint varies from 1.50mm to 0.75mm.

4. According to materials of construction

a) Stone arch: These arches are constructed in rubble masonry or ashlar masonry. The span of rubble
masonry stone arch is limited to about 1m or so. Sometimes rebated or joggled joints are provided to
strengthen the flat stone arches. The stones should be laid with their natural bed normal to the direction of
pressure while constructing stone arches.

b) Brick arches: Brick arches may be constructed with ordinary brick or purpose made bricks or soft
bricks. Rough arches constructed using ordinary bricks with wider mortar joints at extrados than intrados.
Purpose made bricks are used good quality work. These are special bricks of different size and shape
suitable for the construction of arch.

i. Soft bricks or rubber bricks are manufactured from special materials and can cut into
the exact size and shape of voussior by means of a wire saw. The surfaces are finished by a file. These
arches are called gauged brick arch.

c) Concrete arches: Concrete arches may be of pre-cast cement concrete blocks or monolithic concrete.
Monolithic concrete arches are cast in situ and are suitable for big spans.

FAILURE OF ARCH

Following are the four ways of failure of an arch

· Crushing of masonry.

· Rotation of some joints about an edge.

· Sliding of voussior.

· Uneven settlement of abutment or pier.

Centering of arches

· The temporary structure constructed to support arches during their construction is called centering.
· Centering is supported by props at each ends.

· Centering of arch consist of two parallel boards connected by a wooden strip called lagging through
their curved length.

6. Stairs
STAIRS

Terms used in stair case

1. Stair:- A stair is defined as a sequence of steps and it is provided to afford the means of ascent and
decent between the floors or landings.

2. Staircase: - The apartment or room of a building, in which the stair is located, is known as a
staircase.

3. Baluster:- This is the vertical member which is fixed between string and handrail to give support to
the handrail.

4. Balustrade or barrister:- The combined framework of handrail and balusters is known as the
balustrade or barrister.

5. Flight: - This is defined as an unbroken series of steps between the landings.

6. Going: - This is the horizontal distance between the faces of two consecutive risers.

7. Landing:- The horizontal platform between two flights of a stair is known as the landing.

8. Handrail: - The inclined rail over the string is known as a handrail.

9. Newel post: - This is the vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to connect the ends of
strings and handrail.

10. Pitch: - The angle of inclination of the stair with the floor is known as a pitch.

11. Nosing: - It is the projected edge of a tread usually moulded.

12. Rise: - This is the vertical distance between two successive treads.

13. Riser: - The vertical or front member of the step, which is connected to the treads, is known as a riser.

14. Tread: - The horizontal upper portion of a step is known as a tread.

15. String: - The inclined member of a stair which supports the ends of steps is known as a string.

16. Scotia: - This is an additional finish or moulding provided to the nosing or tread to improve the
elevation of the step and to provide strength to nosing.

17. Soffit: - The under surface of a stair is known as the soffit.

18. Step: - A combination of tread and riser is known as step.

a) Bullnose step: - This is generally provided at the bottom of flight. It projects in front of the newel
post and its end forms a circular quadrant in plan.

b) Commode step: - This step has a curved riser and tread.

c) Dancing or balancing step: - These steps do not radiate from a common centre.

d) Flier: - This is an ordinary step of rectangular shape in plan.

e) Round-ended step: - This step is similar to a bullnose step except that its end or ends are semi-
circular in plan. f. Splayed step: - This step has one end or both ends splayed in plan.

f) Winder: - This is a tapering step and it is used to change the direction of a flight. The winders radiate
from a common centre.

19. Waist: - The thickness of structural slab in case of an R.C.C. stair is known as a waist.

20. Walking line : - The approximate line of movement of people on a stair during ascending or
descending is known as a walking line.

21. Ramps : - A ramp is a sloping surface and it is adopted as a substitute for stair for easy connection
between the floors.

https://i2.wp.com/civilblog.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Components-of-Stairs.jpg?fit=651%2C386

Types of stairs

1. Straight stairs: - This type of stair may consist of one or more flights and they are used when the
space available for staircase is long but narrow in width. All steps lead in one direction only.

http://www.classicstairs.com/wp-content/grand-
media/image/Straight_Stair_with_White_Risers_and_Stringers.jpg
2. Turning stairs : - In this type stairs, the flights take turn. The usual types of turning stairs are
described below.

a. Quarter-turn stairs : - A stair turning through one right angle is known as a quarter-turn stair. If a
quarter-turn stair is branched into two flights at a landing, it is known as bifurcated stair.

http://www.ebizbydesign.com/data/img/amazing-quarter-turn-stairs-design-free-stair-models-stair-design-
software.jpg

b. Half-turn stairs :- A stair turning through two right angles is known as a half-turn stair. A half-turn
stair may be of dog-legged type or open-well type. In case of a dog-legged stair, the flights run in opposite
directions and there is no space between them in plan. These stairs are useful where total width of space
available for the staircase is equal to twice the width of steps. Its name is derived from its appearance in
the sectional elevation.

https://sites.google.com/a/nngroups.com/n-n-groups/_/rsrc/1466857504634/types-of-stairs/N.N.Groups-
N.N.Interior%20Decorators%20Half%20turn%20Stairs.jpg
c. Three-quarter-turn stairs : - A stair turning through three right angles is known as a three- quarter-
turn stair.

https://sites.google.com/a/nngroups.com/n-n-groups/_/rsrc/1466857795980/types-of-stairs/N.N.Groups-
N.N.Interior%20Decorators%20Three%20Quarter%20%20turn%20Stairs.jpg

3. Circular or helical or spiral stairs : - In this type of stair, the steps radiate from the centre and they
do not have either any landing or any intermediate newel post. The flights consist of winders only.

https://sites.google.com/a/nngroups.com/n-n-groups/_/rsrc/1466857795980/types-of-stairs/N.N.Groups-
N.N.Interior%20Decorators%20Three%20Quarter%20%20turn%20Stairs.jpg

4. Geometrical stairs : - These stairs have any geometrical shape and they require no newel posts. The
handrail of a geometrical stair continues without interruption and without any angular turns.

Stairs of different materials: -

1. Stone stairs

2. Wooden stairs
3. Brick stairs

4. Metal stairs

5. R.C.C.

7. Stone Masonry

STONEMASONARY

1. Natural bed: - The surface of stone which is perpendicular to the line of pressure is
called bed surface.
2. String course: - This is a continuous horizontal course of masonry which projects
from the face of wall and is intended to throw off water. It also improves the elevation of
structure.
3. Sill: - The bottom surface of a door or a window opening is known as a sill.
4. Corbel : - A corbel is a projecting stone which is usually provided to serve as support
for roof truss, beam, weather shed, etc
5. Cramp: - This is a slate or metal connection used in stone work.
6. Course: - A layer of stones or bricks is known as a course.
7. Coping: - A coping is a course of stone which is laid at the top wall so as to protect
the wall from rain water.
8. Cornice: - A cornice is a course of stone provided at the top of wall for ornamental
treatment.
9. Weathering: - The upper surface of stones used for sill, cornice, and coping is
dressed in a sloping way so that the water may flow off easily. This is termed as the
weathering.
10. Plinth: - The projecting course at ground floor level is known as the plinth.
11. Throating: - A groove is provided on the underside of the sill, cornice and coping so
that the rain water can be discharged clear of the wall surface. This is known as the throating.
12. Lacing course: - The horizontal course provided to strengthen a wall of irregular
small stones is known as a lacing course.
13. Bond: - A bond is an arrangement of layers of stones or bricks by which no
continuous vertical joints are formed.
14. Spalls: - The chips of stones used to fill up the empty spaces in the stone masonry are
known as the spalls or snecks.
15. Quoins: - The external corners or angles of a wall surface are called the quoins.
16. Through stone; - In stone work, some stones at regular intervals are placed right
across the wall, such stones are known as the through or bond stones.
17. Reveals; - The exposed vertical surfaces at right angles to the door or window frames
are known as the reveals.
18. Jamb: - The sides of the openings such as doors windows etc. are called jamb.
19. Label: - The projecting course from an arch or window head is known as a label. It is
usually moulded and is sometimes known as a drip stone.
20. Stoolings : - The horizontal seatings which are provided to receive jamps and
mullions are called the stoolings.
21. Heads: - The horizontal stones provided at the top of openings for doors, windows,
etc. are known as the heads or lintels.
22. Apex: - The coping provided at the summit of a gable wall is known as an apex or
summit stone.
23. Skew corbel; - The corbel provided below a gable coping is known as a skew corbel.
24. Kneeler: - The coping between apex and skew corbel in case of a gable wall is known
as a kneeler.
25. Springer: - The coping provided at the foot of the gable wall is known as a springer.
26. Finial: - The ornamental finish to an apex or summit stone is termed as a finial.
27. Buttress: - It is a sloping or a stepped pier and it is provided to work as lateral
support of the wall.
28. Face: - The surface of wall exposed to the weather is known as face.
29. Facing: - The material used in the face of the wall is known as facing.
30. Back: - The surface of wall which is not exposed to the weather is known as back.
31. Backing: - The material used in the back of the wall is known as backing.
32. Hearting: - The portion of a wall between facing and backing is called hearting.

7.1. Classification Of Stone Masonry

Classification of stone masonry

A. Rubble masonry : - The following are the different types of the rubble masonry,

1. Coursed rubble masonry : - The coursed rubble masonry is further divided into three
categories,

a) Coursed rubble masonry first sort: In this type, the stones of the same heights are
used and the courses are also of the same heights. The face stones are dressed by means of a
hammer and the bushings do not project by more than 40 mm. The thickness of mortar joint
does not exceed 10mm.

b) Coursed rubble masonry second sort: The stones to be used are of different heights.
The courses need not be of equal heights. Only two stones are to be used to make up the
height of one course. The thickness of the mortar joints is 12mm.

2. Uncoursed rubble masonry: In this type masonry, the stones are not dressed. But they
are used as they are available from the quarry, except knocking out some corners. The
courses are not maintained regularly. The larger stones are laid first and the spaces between
them are then filled up by means of spalls or snecks.

3. Random rubble masonry: - In this type of rubble masonry, the stones of irregular
sizes and shapes are used. The stones are arranged so as to have a good appearance. If the
face stones are chisel-dressed and the thickness of mortar joints does not exceed 6mm, it is
known as the random rubble masonry first sort. If the face stones are hammer-dressed and the
thickness of mortar joints does not exceed 12mm, it is known as the random rubble masonry
second sort.

4. Dry rubble masonry: - This is just similar in construction to the coursed rubble
masonry third sort except that no mortar is used in the joints.

B. Ashlar masonry: - The square or rectangular blocks of stones are used. The courses are
not necessarily of the same height. The height of stones varies from 250mm to 300mm.
Following are the different types of ashlar masonry,

1. Ashlar fine masonry: - In this type of ashlar masonry, the beds, sides and faces are
finely chisel- dressed. The stones are arranged in proper bond and the thickness of the mortar
joints does not exceed 3mm.

2. Ashlar rough-tooled masonry: - In this masonry, the beds and sides are finely chisel-
dressed. But the face is made rough by means of tools. A strip, about 25mm wide and made
by means of a chisel, is provided around the perimeter of every stone exposed for view. The
thickness of mortar joints does not exceed 6mm. This type of work is also known as the
bastard ashlar.

3. Ashlar rock or quarry faced masonry: - In this type of masonry, a strip about 25mm
wide and made by means of a chisel is provided around the perimeter of every stone exposed
for view as in case of rough-tooled ashlar. But the remaining portion of the face is left in the
same form as received from quarry. Only projections on the face, known as the bushings,
exceeding 80mm are removed by a hammer.

4. Ashlar chamfered masonry: In this type ashlar masonry, the strip is provided as
above. But it is chamfered or bevelled at an angle of 45 degrees by means of chisel for a
depth of about 25mm. Another strip 12mm wide is then provided on the remaining exposed
face of the stone and the surface inside this strip is left in the same form as received from
quarry. The large bushings projecting more than 80mm are removed by a hammer.

5. Ashlar block-in-course masonry: This type of ashlar masonry occupies an

intermediate position between the rubble masonry and the ashlar masonry.

7.2. Tools In Stone Masonry

Tools used for rubble masonry

No Name of tool Uses

1 Trowel To lift and spread mortar.
2 Spirit level To check horizontality
3 Plumb rule &bob To check verticality
4 Square To set right angles
5 Line and pin To maintain alignment
6 Spall hammer To dress stone in the quarry
7 Scabbling hammer To remove irregular bushing
8 Mash hammer

9 Wallers hammer To dress the stone

10 Club hammer To strike the narrow headed chisels
11 Mallet To strike the mallet headed-chisels
12 Dummy Similar to mallet but used for carving work
13 Axe

14 Ordinary pick Scabbling

pick Serrated
15
pick Crow
16 To dress roughly and to split the stones in the quarry

17
18 Pitching tool To make the stones of required size
19 Punch To dress roughly the stones
20 Point To dress roughly the hard stones
21 Gauge To dress the stones for cornices, string courses etc
22 Broad tool or nicker To form fine chisels lines on the surface of stone
23 Boaster To cut the soft stones
24 Wood handled chisel To dress the soft stones
25 Claw chisel

26 Tooth chisel To dress the hard stones

27 Jumper To bore holes for blasting purposes in a quarry
28 Drag To make a level surface
29 Gad To split the stones
30 Hand saw To cut the soft stones
31 Cross cut saw To cut the hard stones
32 Frame saw To cut the large blocks of stones
33 Bevel To set out angles

8. Doors And Windows

DOORS AND WINDOWS

A door may be defined as an opening left in a wall for the purpose of providing access to the users of the
structures. A window may be defined as an opening made in a wall for the purpose of providing day light,
vision and ventilation.
A door or window mainly consists two parts.

(1) Frame

(2) shutter

Size: - The minimum widths for interior doors, external doors and doors in public buildings such as
hospitals, library, etc. are 800 mm, 1 m, and 1.2 m respectively. Regarding the height and width of a door,
the general rule followed in India, is as follows:

v Height = width + 1 m to 1.20 m (approx)

v Width = 0.4 to 0.6 of height.

Following general rules may be observed while deciding the size of window:

v Breadth of window = 1/8 ( width of room + height of room )

v The total area of the window openings should be at least 15 percent of the floor area of the
room.

v For 30 m 3 inside contents of the room, there should be at least one m2 of window
opening.

v The total area of glass panels in the window openings should be at least 10 percent of the
floor area of the room.

v The height of opening for door is considered from below the floor finish to the bottom of
lintel.
 Technical terms
(http://www.owenhenrywindows.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/door-terminology.jpg)

1. Frame: This consists of a group of members which form a support for a door or a window.

2. Style: This is the outside vertical member of the shutter of a door or a window.

3. Head: The top horizontal part of a frame is called the head.

4. Sill: The bottom horizontal part of a window frame is known as the sill.

5. Top rail: This is the top most horizontal member of the shutter.

6. Bottom rail: This is the lower most horizontal member of the shutter.

7. Lock rail: This is the middle horizontal member of the shutter where the locking arrangement is
provided.

8. Frieze rail: A rail which is fixed between the top rail and lock rail is called the frieze rail.

9. Intermediate rails or cross rails: The additional horizontal rails fixed between the top and bottom
rails of a shutter are known as the intermediate or cross rails.
10. Shutter: The entire assembly of styles, panels and rails is known as the shutter.

11. Horn: This is a horizontal projection of head or sill beyond the face of the frame. The length of the
frame is about 100 mm to 150 mm.

12. Panel: This is the area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails.

13. Sash: This is a special type of frame, made of light sections and designed to carry glass. A sash can
be divided vertically or horizontally by providing bars. These bars are known as the sash bars or glazing
bars.

14. Holdfast: This is a mild steel bar of section 30 cm × 6 mm and of length 200 mm, keeps the frame in
position.

15. Mullion: This is a vertical member which is employed to sub – divided a window or a door opening
vertically.

16. Louver: This is a piece of timber which is fixed in an inclined position within a frame.

17. Transom: This is a horizontal member which is employed to sub – divide a window opening
vertically.

18. Jamb: The vertical wall face of an opening which supports the frame of door and window is known
as the jamb.

19. Reveal: The external jamb of a door or a window opening at right angles to the angles to the wall
face is known as the reveal.

20. Rebate: The depression or recess made inside the door frame to receive the door shutter is known as
the rebate.

21. Architrave: This is strip of wood, usually moulded or splayed, which is around the sides and head of
openings.

8.1. Types Of Doors

Types of doors:

1. Ledged doors: A ledged door is formed of the vertical boards, Known as the battens, which are
secured by horizontal supports, known as the ledges. The battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 20 mm
to 30 mm thick. This is the simplest form of door and it is used where strength and appearance are not
important.

2. Ledged and braced doors: These are similar to the ledged doors except that the diagonal member,
known as the braces, is provided. The braces are generally 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 30 mm thick.

3. Ledged and framed door: In this type of doors, a framework for shutters is provided to make the
doors stronger and better in appearance.

4. Ledged, framed and braced doors: This is just similar to the above type except that the braces are
introduced. This type of door is more durable and stronger and hence it can be adopted for external use.
5. Framed and paneled door: This is the most usual variety of door and it consists of a framework in
which panels are fitted. This type of doors reduces the tendency of shrinkage and presents a decent
appearance. The thickness of panels is about 20 mm.

6. Glazed or sash doors: In order to increase the area of the glazed portion, the width of styles above
lock rail is decreased; these are known as the diminished styles or gunstock styles.

7. Flush doors: A flush door consists of a framework of rails and styles and it is covered with plywood
or hard board.

8. Louvered doors: In this type of doors, the shutters are provided with louvers, either fully or partly.
The louvered doors allow free passage of air when closed and at the same time, maintain sufficient
privacy.

9. A collapsible steel door: A collapsible steel door thus works without hinges and it is used for
compound gates, residential buildings, schools, sheds, etc. for providing increased safety and protection to
the property. The steel collapsible doors are also recommended in situations where light and ventilation are
desired even when the opening is closed.

10. Revolving doors: A revolving door essentially consists of a centrally placed mullion or pivot in a
circular opening. A revolving door simultaneously provides entrance on one side and exit on the other end.

11. Rolling steel doors : a rolling steel door consists of a frame, a drum and a shutter of thin steel plates
or iron sheets of thickness about 1 mm.

12. Sliding door: In this type of doors, the shutter slides on the sides with the help of runners and guide.

13. Swing doors: A swing door is provided with special hinges known as the double action spring hinges
and thus the shutters of the door are held in position, when the door is not in use.

8.2. Types Of Windows

TYPES OF WINDOWS

1. Casement window: - These are the windows, the shutters of which open like
doors. It consists of a frame, styles, rails, vertical and horizontal sash bars and sometimes, it
also includes mullions, transoms.

2. Pivoted windows: - In this type window, the shutters are allowed to swing round
the pivots. It is easy to clean and they admit more light than the side hung windows.

3. Sliding window: - These windows are similar to the sliding doors and the shutters
move on the roller bearings, either horizontally or vertically.

4. Double hung windows: - These windows consist of a pair of shutters which can
slide within the grooves provided in the frame. The ventilation can be controlled and cleaning
of shutters can be carried out easily.
5. Louvered windows: - In this type windows, the louvers are provided as in case
of louvered doors. They allow free passage of air when closed and at the same time, they
maintain sufficient privacy. The shutter consists of top rail, bottom rail and two styles which
are grooved to receive the louvers. The inclination of louvers are generally provided as 45⁰.
The louvers should slope downward to the outside so that the rain water does not get entry to
the inside of building.

6. Gable window: - A window provided at the gable end of a roof is called as gable
window.

7. Circular windows: - These are pivoted windows of circular shape. They are
useful for factories, workshops, etc.

8. Corner windows: - They are placed at the corner of a room and thus they have
two faces in two perpendicular directions. Special lintel will have to be cast at the corner and
the jamb post of the window at the corner will have to be made of heavy section.

9. Dormer windows: - The windows provided on the sloping roofs are called
dormer windows. The main purpose of providing dormer windows is to admit light and air to
rooms which are constructed within or below the roof slopes.

10. Bay windows: - The windows, projecting outside the external walls of a room are
called bay window. They may be square, splayed, and circular. Polygonal or of any shape.
These. Windows admit more light, increase opening area, provide ventilation and improve
the appearance of the building.

11. Sash or glazed windows: - These are fully glazed casement windows.

12. Metal windows: - The metal used in the construction may be mild steel, bronze or
other alloys.

13. Clerestorey windows: - These windows are provided near the top of main roof.
The pivoted windows are used for this purpose. The clerestorey windows provide ventilation
to the inside of the room as the front is blocked by the verandah.

14. Lanterns or lantern lights: - These are the windows which are fixed on flat roofs
to provide light to the inner portion of the building where light coming from the windows in
the external wall is insufficient.

15. Skylights: - These are the windows which are provided on the sloping surface of a
pitched roof. Generally parallel to the sloping surface of the pitched roof

Ventilators: - A small window provided for the purpose of ventilation is known as ventilator

9. Damp Proofing Course And Termite Proofing

DAMP-PROOFING COURSE AND TERMITE PROOFING
 Damp-proofing course: The courses provided at different levels of building to prevent the entry of damp
into the building is called damp proofing course. DPC is generally provided on plinth level.

Causes of dampness:

1. Rising of moisture from the ground

2. Action of rain

3. Exposed top of wall

4. Condensations

5. Bad orientation of building

6. Improper drainage of site

Materials used for damp-proofing:

1. Hot bitumen

2. Mastic asphalt

3. Bituminous felt

4. Metal sheet

5. Combination of sheet and felt

6. Stones

7. Bricks

8. Mortar

9. Cement concrete

10. Plastic sheet

Methods of damp proofing:

1. Integral damp proofing: This consists of adding certain water proofing compounds of materials to
the concrete mix,so that it becomes impermeable.

2. Cavity wall construction: In this the main wall of building is shielded by an outer skin wall,leaving
a cavity between the two.

3. Guniting: This consist of depositing under pressure,an impervious layer of rich cement mortar over
the exposed surfaces for water proofing or over pipes,cisterns .
4. Membrane damp proofing:This consists of introducing a water repellent membrane or damp proof
course between the source of dampness and the part of building adjacent to it.

5. Surface treatment: The surface treatment consists of application of layer of water repellent
substances or compounds on these surfaces through which moisture enters.

6. Pressure grouting :This consists of forcing cement grout, under pressure, into cracks ,voids
,fissures etc.

Water-proofing: The treatment given to the roof a building to prevent the entry of damp into the building
is called water proofing.

TERMITE PROOFING

The treatment which is given to a building so as to prevent or control the growth of termite in a building

Types of termites

1. Dry wood termites: Dry wood termites cause great damage to the buildings in humid coastal areas.
They live in dry wood without maintaining any connection with the soil. These termites are generally
found in the humid coastal regions of South India. It is also known as non subterranean or wood nesting
termites

2. Subterranean termites: Subterranean or ground nesting termites require adequate moisture and it is
supplied either from the soil through the tunnels or through wet spots in the building or through any other
available source. The mud tubes betray the presence of these termites. Such termite damage a variety of
wood and other cellulosic material like paper, cardboard, clothes, etc. It is also known as ground nesting
termites.

10. Floors And Floorings

FLOORING

Floor is the solid construction carried out to subdivide the portion between the plinth level
and the roof level. The exposed surface of floor is known as flooring. The floors resting
directly on the ground surface is known as ground floor. The other floors of each storey,
situated above the ground level are known as upper floors. The major problem of ground
floors is damp exclusion and thermal insulation. The upper floors have the major problems of
strength and stability. Upper floors do not have problems of damp resistance. The problem of
fire resistance does not arise for the lowest floor of a building, but is often important for
upper floors. Ground floors may either rest directly on the ground, or may be supported a
little distance above the ground. The floors supported directly on the ground are known as
solid floors. While the floors supported above the ground level are called suspended floors.
TIMBER FLOORS
Different types of timber floors are:

(1) Basement or ground floor of timber

(2) Single joist timber floors

(3) Double joist timber floors

(4) Framed or triple joist timber floors

1. Basement or ground floor of timber:

Click here to view basement of timber

In auditoriums, to carry out dances or drama, the timber floors are constructed on the ground
floor. The sleeper walls are constructed at centre to centre distance of 1.20m to 1.80m. The
wall – plates are provided along the walls and the sleeper walls. Bridging joists are provided
over the wall plates to finish up the wall
2. Single joist timber floors:

Click here to view single joist timber floors:

The single joist timber floors can be adopted for a maximum span of about 3.60m. These
floors consist of single joists which are placed below the floor boards. The joists are usually
placed at a centre t centre distance of 300mm to 450mm. When the span of joist exceeds
about 2.40 m herring bone strutting are provided to strengthen the joists.

3. Double joist timber floors:

Click here to view double joist timber floors

These types of timber floors are suitable for spans upto 3.60m to7.50m. In this type of floors,
binders are provided for the intermediate support of bridging hoists. The binders are generally
placed at centre to e centre distance of 1.80 m to 2.40 m.

4. Framed or triple joist timber floors:

Click here to view framed timber floors

This type of timber floor is suitable for spans greater than 7.50m. In this type o floors, the
intermediate supports, known as the girders, are provided for the binders. The girders are
generally placed at a centre to centre distance of 3m.

FEATURES OF TIMBER FLOORS

Floor ceilings:

Ceilings may be provided to make the underside of the floor flat and to improve the
appearance.

Pugging:

In order to make the timber floors sound –proof, the pugging may be done.The pugging
plaster is a mixture of chopped straw and mortar.

Composite floors

Different types of composite floors are

(1) Double flagstone floors

(2) Filer joist floors

(3) Jack arch floors

(4) R.C.C floors

(5) Hollow block and rib floors Pre-cast concrete floors

Double flagstone floors:

In this type of floors, the steel beams are placed at a distance of bout 3m centre to centre and
the hoists are placed at right angles to the beams. The flagstones of about 40mm thickness
and of suitable widths are fixed on the lower flanges and upper flanges. The joints of top
layer of flagstones are finished in a better way to give a nice appearance. The filling of
selected earth or concrete is done o in the space between the two layers of the flagstones.

Filler joist floors:

In this type of floors, the small sections of rolled steel hoists are placed in concrete. The
hoists ct as a reinforcement and are spaced at a centre to centre distance of 600mm t 900mm.

Jack arch floors:

In these types of floors, the brick arches or cement concrete arches are constructed and these
arches rest on the lower flanges of mil steel joists. The joists are placed at a distance of about
800mm to 1200 mm centre to centre.The rise of arch should be 100mm 200mm and the
minimum depth of concrete at the crown should be 150mm.

RCC floors:

In this type of floors, the steel bars and concrete are used to form a floor. This type of floor is
widely used in modern construction. The slab and beam are designed as per loading coming
on the floor and proper reinforcement is placed at a suitable place. The flat slab may either be
with drop or without drop. Drop is the part of slab around the column having greater
thickness than the rest of the slab.

Hollow block and rib floors:

In this type of floors, the hollow blocks of clay or concrete are used to reduce the total weight
of the floor. This type of floor is economical, fire-proof, sound-proof and light in weight. If
properly designed, this type of floor can even be used to catty heavy loads. The plumbing and
electrical installations can be conveniently carried through the hollow blocks without
affecting the appearance.

10. Floors And Floorings

10.1. Factors affecting Choice of Flooring Materials
FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF FLOORING MATERIAL

(1) Appearance: It should give pleasing appearance, i.e., it should produce a desired
colour effect and architectural beauty.

(2) Cleanliness: The flooring should be capable of being cleaned easily, and it should be
non-absorbent.

(3) Durability: The flooring material should be durable and it should be strong enough to
impart resistance to wear, tear, chemical action, temperature changes etc.

(4) Damp resistance: Flooring should offer sufficient resistance against dampness, so
that healthy environment is obtained in the building.

(5) Sound Insulation: Flooring should insulate the noise. It should not be such that noise
is produce d when users walk on it.

(6) Thermal Insulation: The flooring should offer reasonably good thermal insulation.

(7) Cost: The cost f flooring material should be reasonable as compared to the utility of
the building.

(8) Smoothness: The flooring material should be smooth, and should have even surface.
However, it should not be slippery.

(9) Maintenance: The flooring material should be such that minimum maintenance is
required. It should be possible to carry out repairs works speedily, easily and with minimum
cost.

(10) Hardness: It should be sufficiently hard so as to have resistance to indentation surface.

However, it should not be slippery.

(11) Fire resistance: It should offer sufficient fire resistance so that the fire barriers are
obtained between different levels of a building.

10. Floors And Floorings

10.2. Materials used For Flooting
MATERIAL USED FOR FLOORING
1) ASPHALT: At present, the asphalt flooring can be carried out in a variety of colours
and in different forms. The asphalt flooring is water –proof, vermin-proof, dustless and joint
less. It is used for surfaces subjected to heavy wear as in case of dairies, breweries, hospitals,
shops, restaurants, loading platforms, swimming pools, terrace floors, etc.

2) BRICK: This flooring is specially suited to ware houses, stores, and godowns etc.
where heavy articles are to be stacked .It is non-slippery, durable, sufficiently hard and easily
repairable. The only drawback of this flooring is that it absorbs water.

3) CONCRETE: The thickness of concrete layer is about 40mm and it is carried out in
proportion of 1:2:4. The size of coarse aggregate varies from 20mm t 6mm. The square or
diagonal lines are marked on the concrete surfaces when it is still wet. This type of
construction is known as the Indian Patent stone.

4) CORK: The natural cork is the outer bark of the cork oak tree. This flooring is available
in tiles and carpet. The floors made of cork are warm, non-slipping and attractive in
appearance. This flooring material is used to obtain a noiseless floor as in case of hospitals,
churches, art galleries, schools, offices, etc.

5) GLASS: This flooring material is used when it is desired to transmit light to the floor
below or to admit light to the basement from the upper floor it is very costly. The structural
glass is available in the form of tiles or slabs or bricks and it can be placed in suitable frame
work.

6) LINOLEUM: This flooring material is a mixture of linseed oil, gums and resins,
pigments, wood flour, cork dust and other filling materials. The linoleum flooring is attractive
in appearance, cheap, durable, resilient, comfortable, and moderately warm and it can be
easily cleaned. It is not recommended for basement floors, bathrooms, kitchens, etc. because
it is subjected to rotting when kept wet or moist for some duration of time.

7) MAGNESITE: This flooring is known as the composition flooring or jointless flooring.

This flooring material is cheap and it can be laid over rough surface. It is used as flooring for
schools, office buildings, light factories, etc.

8) MARBLE: This flooring material is used for superior work and especially where
extraordinary cleanliness is required as in case of operation theatres in hospitals, temples,
bathrooms, kitchens, etc.

9) MOORUM: The moorum is the cheapest flooring material and it can only be adopted
for ground floor. The moorum is a form of disintegrated rock with binding material. To
maintain the moorum floor in good condition, a coating of mud-cow-dung mix or cement-
cow-dung is applied over the surface. This type of flooring is cheap, hard, smooth and easy to
construct. It grants comfortable temperature in all seasons.

10) MUD: This flooring is just similar to moorum flooring except that mud is used in place
of moorum. This type of flooring is cheap, hard, fairly impervious, easy to construct and easy
to maintain. It also possesses good thermal insulation property and hence, it remains cool in
summer and fairly warm in winter.
11) PLASTIC: It is fabricated in the form of tiles of different sizes and various colour
shades. The P.V.C. tile flooring is resilient, smooth and good looking. It is costly and can be
easily damaged when it comes into contact with burning objects.

12) RUBBER: This flooring material is a mixture of raw rubber fillers such as fibre, corks,
etc. and pigments. A small percentage of sulphur is added to accelerate the process of
vulcanization. This flooring material is elastic, attractive in appearance, noiseless, sanitary,
and comparatively warm and soft, but it is affected by oil and grease. This flooring material is
used for bathrooms, hospitals, X-ray rooms, etc.

13) STONE: The flooring of this material consists of square or rectangular slabs of
stones.The stones to be used for flooring should be hard, durable and of good quality. The
stone slabs may be rough or polished. The former variety is used for inferior work such as
godowns, sheds, stores, etc. and the latter variety is used where there is considerable wear
and tear as in case of bus shelters, schools, hospitals, etc.

14) TERRAZO: Terrazzo is a concrete in which marble chips are used as aggregates. The
proportion of terrazzo mix depends on the size of marble chips, but it is generally 1:2 to
1:3.This mixture is laid on a sound and rough base. This flooring material is used for
residential buildings, bathrooms, cloakrooms hotels, breweries, temples, theatres, etc.

15) MOSAIC TILE: The pre-cast concrete tiles with marble chips at top surface, known as
the mosaic tiles. They are available in standard sizes. The polishing is done after fixing the
tiles in position.

16) TIMBER: Timber flooring is used for dancing halls, auditoriums, etc. The timber
flooring can be carried out in three types.

· Strip flooring: This consists of wooden planks or boards which are suitably joined
together. The strips are tongued and grooved at the edges and ends. The nails are fixed in
such a way that their heads are not seen.

· Block flooring: This consists of blocks which can be laid in suitable designs over a
concrete base. The size of blocks varies from 200mm X 80mm to 300mm X 80mm and the
thickness varies from 20mm to 40mm. The blocks are suitably joined together.

· Parquet flooring: This is similar to the block flooring except that the blocks are
supported on sub-floors and their thickness does not exceed 10mm.

11. Shallow Foundation

Foundation is the lowermost part of a structure which is in direct contact with the ground
and transmits the load of structure to the ground. The soil on which foundation rests is called
the foundation bed or foundation soil. The lowermost part of foundation which is in direct
contact with the sub-soil is called footing.

Superstructure: It is the structure above the ground level.

Plinth: It is the part of superstructure located between ground level and floor level.
Functions of foundation:-

1. REDUCTION OF LOAD INTENSITY: Foundation distributes the loads of the super

structure, to a larger area so that the intensity of the load at its base (i.e. total load divided by
the total area) does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the sub-soil.
2. EVEN DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD: Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of
the super structure evenly to the sub soil. Due to this, unequal or differential settlements are
minimized.
3. PROVISION OF LEVEL SURFACE: Foundation provide leveled and hard surface
over which the super structure can be built.
4. LATERAL STABILITY: It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting
lateral stability to the super structure. The stability of the building, against sliding and
overturning, due to horizontal forces (such as wind, earthquake etc.) is increased due to
foundations.
5. SAFETY AGAINST UNDERMINING: It provides the structural safety against
undermining or scouring due to burrowing animals and flood water.
6. PROTECTION AGAINST SOIL MOVEMENTS: Special foundation measures
prevents or minimizes the distress (or cracks) in the super structure, due to expansion or
contraction of the sub soil because of moisture movement in some problematic soils.

11.1. Types of Shallow Foundation

TYPES OF FOUNDATION:-

1. Shallow foundation or open foundation: In shallow foundation, generally, the depth at which the
foundation is placed is less than its width i.e. the ratio of depth of foundation to its width is less than unity.
This type of foundation spreads the load of superstructure into the ground laterally.

2. Deep foundation: In deep foundation, the depth at which foundation is placed is greater than its
width. The depth to width ratio of the foundation is usually greater than 1. Unlike shallow foundations,
deep foundations distribute the load of superstructure into the ground vertically rather than laterally.

Types of shallow foundation:-

1. Isolated footing: - Footings which are provided under each column independently are called as
isolated footings. They are usually square, rectangular or circular in section. These footings are most
economical when compared with the other kind of footings. These kinds of footings are provided where
the soil bearing capacity is generally high. Isolated footings comprise of a thick slab which may be flat or
stepped or sloped called as isolated flat footing, stepped footing, sloped footing respectively.

Click here to view isolated footing

2. Combined footing: When an exterior column is situated near the boundary line of the plot ant it is
not possible to project its footing symmetrically, a common footing is provided for two or more columns
called combined footing.

Click here to view combined footing

3. Continuous footing: - A strip footing is another type of spread footing which is provided for a load
bearing wall. A strip footing can also be provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that
their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such cases, it is more economical to provide a
strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as
continuous footing.
 Click here to view continuous footing

4. Cantilever footing (Strap):- It consists of a cantilever beam connecting the eccentric footing of an
exterior column and concentric footing of an interior column. Continuous footing In this type the footing
of two or more columns are made continuous by providing beams between them.

Click here to view cantilever footing

Special Foundations:-

5. Grillage foundation: In this type the depth of foundation is limited to 1m to 1.50m and the width is
considerably increased to bring the pressure on the soil within permissible limit. The superstructure
rests on two perpendicular tiers of R.S.J which is embedded on concrete. Steel grillage foundations are
useful for structures having concentrated loads. (e.g.: theatres, factories, town halls etc.) If a steel
reinforcement bar of required diameter is used instead of R.S.J, then the foundation is known as mat
foundation.

Click here to view grillage foundation

6. Raft foundation/Mat: This type of foundation is suitable when the foundation soil consist of soft
clay, reclaimed soil etc and the load coming on the soil is uniform. This type consists of R.C.C slab of
suitable thickness. Raft foundation with RCC slab and beam is constructed if necessary. If the raft is
designed such that the weight of excavated earth is equal to the total load of the building, it is known as
floating foundation.
 Click here to view raft foundation

7. Inverted arch foundation: In this method inverted arch is constructed between piers. The rise of
inverted arch is about 1/5 to 1/10 of span. This type is suitable for foundations of bridges, reservoirs,
support for drainage lines, tanks etc.

Click here to view inverted arch foundation

Foundation on black cotton soil:-

The black cotton soil is very loose and they swell and shrink by variations in moisture content and serious
cracks will form. Hence extreme care should be taken while constructing a foundation on black cotton soil.

Complete black cotton soil should be removed and there should be no direct contact between foundation
and black cotton soil. The filling is to be done using sand. The depth of foundation of ordinary building
should be taken as maximum depth of cracks plus 300mm. This was ancient method. Raft foundations are
adopted for important structures. In these days we provide under reamed pile foundation in black cotton
soil.

Under reamed piles:

· These piles are developed by Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) at Roorkee, for serving
foundation for black cotton soils, filled up ground and other type of soil having poor bearing capacity.
· Under reamed pile is bored cast-in-situ concrete pile having one or more bulbs or under reamed in
its lower level.

· The bulb or under reamed are formed by under reaming tool.

· Diameter of pile is 20 to 50 cm and bulb diameter is 2-3 times of diameter of pile.

· Length of pile is 3 to 8 m and spacing between piles is 2 to 4 m.

· Load carrying capacity can increase by making more bulbs at the base.

· The vertical spacing between two bulb is varies from 1.25 to 1.5 times diameter of bulb.

· For black cotton soil the bulb is increase bearing capacity and also provides anchorage against uplift.

Click here to view under reamed pile

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF FOUNDATION:-

1. Unequal settlement of subsoil

2. Unequal settlement of masonry

3. Withdrawal of moisture from subsoil

4. Lateral pressure on superstructure

5. Horizontal movement of earth

6. Transpiration of trees and shrubs

7. Atmospheric action

12. Pile Foundation

PILE FOUNDATION

Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation. It is used where foundation work is not possible
by ordinary method of pit excavation. It is used where the soil is having low bearing capacity,
for tall structures etc.

Functions of pile foundation:

1. To transmit a foundation load to a solid ground

2. To resist, vertical, lateral and uplift load

Classification of pile based on function:

1. End bearing pile: These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a
considerable depth below the base of the structure and they derive most of their carrying
capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW END BEARING PILE

2. Friction or cohesion piles: - Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the adhesion or
friction of the soil in contact with the shaft of the pile. These piles transmit most of their load
to the soil through skin friction

CLICK HERE TO VIEW FRICTION PILE

3. End Bearing cum Frictional Piles:-In few cases, the load transfer will be a
combination of both end bearing and frictional resistance.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW END BEARING CUM FRICTIONAL PILES

12. Pile Foundation
12.1. Classification Based On Materials And Composition
Classification based on materials and composition

1. CONCRETE PILES:

(a) Precast: Reinforced concrete pile which is moulded in circular, square, rectangular or
octagonal form. The piles are cast and cured in a casting yard and then transported to site for
driving. Require space for casting and storage. More time to set and cure before installation.
Heavy equipments are required for handling and driving.

(b) Cast-in-situ: A bore is dug into the ground by inserting a casing. Then bore is filled
with cement concrete after placing reinforcement. The casing be kept in position or it may be
withdraw.

• The piles with casing are known as cased cast in situ concrete pile.

• The piles without casing are known as uncased cast in situ concrete pile.

1. Cased piles
a. Raymond standard pile and step-taper pile :

i. RAYMOND STANDARD CONCRETE PILE is used primarily as a friction pipe. It

is uniform heavy taper of 1 in 30 results in short piles for equal driving resistance or higher
driving resistance for equal lengths, than piles of lesser or no taper. Length of piles varies
from 6 to 12m, diameter of piles vary from 40 to 60cm at top and 20 to 30 at bottom. The
shell is driven into the ground with a collapsible steel core in it having the same taper. When
the pile is driven to desired depth the core is mechanically collapsed and withdrawn, leaving
the shell inside the ground. Shell is inspected internally by using the flash or drop light. Shell
is gradually filled with concrete up to the top.

ii. RAYMOND STEEP TAPER CONCRETE PILE: This type of core driven pile is
used either as an end bearing pile. Can be driven in any type of soil. The pile uses shell
section in different length. The bottom most section is made of heavier gauge and enclosed
with flat steel. Joints between the sections of shell are screwed and connected. Shell are
driven with a rigid core, rigid core provides high degree of penetration and efficiently
transmit the hammer energy to the bearing strata. The pile diameter increases at rate 2.5cm in
each successive shell section. Pile can be drawn up to maximum depth of about 36m.The
method of forming piles is same as of standard pile.

b. Cobi pneumatic mandrel piles: It is formed by driving a constant-diameter thin

corrugated metal shell by an internal mandrel, which is of smaller diameter than the pile
when placed in the shell but is then expanded, to grip the pile, by gas applied under high
pressure to a central flexible core

c. Monotube piles: A monotube pile consists of a tapered fluted steel shell without
mandrel. The pile shells are driven to the required depth and then, the interior of the shell is
inspected. The shell is then filled with concrete and excess shell if any, is cut off. The
extension of shell up to the required length is carried out by the welding. The shells are rigid
and watertight. These piles are suitable for a wide variety of soil conditions ranging from
eng-bearing to friction load carrying sols.

d. Mac Arthur piles: Mac Arthur is pile of uniform diameter using the corrugated steel
shell which remains in place as in Raymond piles. A heavy steel casing with a core is driven
into the ground. When the desired depth is reached, the core is withdrawn and a corrugated
steel shell is placed in the casing. Concrete is placed in the shell by gradually compacting and
withdrawing the steel casing.

e. BSP base driven piles: This pile consist of a helically welded shell of steel plate. A
concrete plug is provided at the bottom of the shell. Driving is done by allowing hammer to
fall on the concrete plug. The casing is driven to the desired depth and then it is filled with
concrete.

f. Swage piles: It is used with advantage of driving in very hard or it is designed to leave
water tight shell for some time filling of the concrete. Steel shell is placed on a precast
concrete plug. Pipe is driven over plug until the core reached the plug, then pipe is swage out
by tapper of plug which form water tight joint. • Pipe is driven up to specified depth by help
of driven force of core. Core is removed and pipe is filled with concrete.
g. Button bottom piles: It is used where increase of end bearing area is required. Pile use
concrete plug shape of button which enlarge hole in soil during driving. It used for length up
to 23 m and load up to 50 tones.12 mm thick steel pipe set on concrete button which have
diameter of 25 mm. Pipe and button driven to specified depth. The casing is removed and
concrete is placed with reinforcement.

2. Uncased piles

a. Simplex Piles: Simplex piles can be driven through soft or hard soil. Steel tube fitted
with a cast iron shoe is driven into ground up to desired depth. If Reinforcement is necessary
it put in tube then concrete is poured in pile. Tube is withdrawn slowly without concrete
being tamped.

b. Franki Piles: It is used at placed where high load is transfer.(e.g .marine structure).
Plug of dry concrete is formed on ground by heavy removable pipe shell. By help of Diesel
operated hammer of 20 to 30 KN weight plug is driven at desired depth. Diameter of pile is
50 to 60 cm, while at enlargement is about 90 cm. Capacity of pile is 60 tones to 90 tones.

c. Vibro Piles: This type of pile is best suited for places where the ground is soft and
offers little frictional resistance to the flow of concrete. A steel tube fitted with a cast iron
shoe is first driven to the required depth. There is a water-tight joint between the shoe and the
casing so that even if the pile is to be driven in water-logged ground, the soil and the sub-soil
water cannot find an access in the tube before the concreting is done. The reinforcement cage
(if needed) is lowered in the tube at this stage. The charge of concrete is then poured in the
tube. The extraction of the tube and the ramming of concrete is effected by the upward and
the downward blows of the hammer. The tube is connected to the hammer by extracting
links. During the upward blow of hammer the tube is raised up by a short distance and the
concrete moves down to fill the space left by the tube. During the downward blow, the
concrete is compacted and rammed outwards thereby forming corrugated surface for the pile.
This results in increased friction between the pile surface and the surrounding ground.

Vibro enlarged pile: In situations where it is desired to have increased frictional resistance
between the pile stem and the surrounding ground, the surface of a vibro-pile is expanded
greatly to achieve the object. This increases the bearing resistance of a vibro pile. In this
process, a steel tube- of the required diameter of the pile having a detachable cast iron conical
shoe at its base is driven to the required depth. A charge of concrete (tilling a good length of
tube) is poured and the tube is completely withdrawn leaving the cast iron shoe and the
charge of concrete down in the pile hole. The withdrawn tube is fitted with a special flat iron
shoe and once again driven in the same hole. The charge of concrete down below gets
expanded to nearly double its area by this process. If required, another charge of concrete is
poured and the process repeated. The reinforcement cage is there after lowered in the tube (if
needed) and the pile is completed as usual

d. Pedestal Pile: It is used where thin bearing stratum is reached with reasonable depth.
Pedestal pile gives the effect of spread footing on thin bearing stratum. Core and casing are
driven together into the ground till reached the desired level. Core is taken out and a charge
of concrete is placed in the tube. The core is again placed in the casing to rest on the top of
poured concrete. Pressure is applied on the concrete though the core, and as the same time the
casing is withdrawn.

e. Pressure Pile: These piles are especially suitable for congested site where heavy
vibration and noise are not permissible. Boring is done up to required depth to tube. After
withdrawn boring tool reinforcement is placed if required. A layer of concrete is laid and
pressure cap is provided at the top of tube. Compressed air is admitted through pipe which
cause rise the tube. Tube is lifted same time of concreting is doing by means of compressed
air. Care should be taken that some portion of concrete remains at bottom when tube is lifting
for receiving new layer.

f. Under reamed piles: Under reamed pile is bored cast-in-situ concrete pile having one
or more bulbs or under reamed in its lower level. The bulb or under reamed are formed by
under reaming tool. Diameter of pile is 20 to 50 cm and bulb diameter is 2-3 times of
diameter of pile. Length of pile is 3 to 8 m and spacing between piles is 2 to 4 m. Load
carrying capacity can increase by making more bulbs at the base. The vertical spacing
between two bulb is varies from 1.25 to 1.5 times diameter of bulb. For black cotton soil the
bulb is increase bearing capacity and also provides anchorage against uplift.

2. Timber piles: Timber piles may be circular or square prepared from the trunks of trees.
At the bottom of pile, a cast-iron shoe is provided at the top, a sheet plate is fixed. The timber
piles should be properly treated so as to make them durable

(a) Simple timber pile: A timber pile with a single log of timber is known as simple timber
pile

(b) Build-up or spliced timber piles: When it is desired to have the length of pile
exceeding that of one log of timber suitable connecting joints with overlapping lengths are
made at the junction of two piles and bolts or large nails are passed through them

(c) Packaged timber piles: When it is desired to increase the cross-sectional area of the
pile, the packaged timber piles are made. Here, three or four logs are fitted in vertical plane
and bolted together.

3. Steel piles

(a) H-piles

(b) Pipe piles

(c) Sheet piles

4. Composite piles

(a) Concrete and Timber

(b) Concrete and steel

1. Compaction piles: - Compaction piles are used to compact loose granular soil, thus
increasing their bearing capacity. The compaction piles themselves don’t carry load. The pile
tube driven to compact the soil, is generally taken out and sand is filled on its place thus
forming sand pile.

2. Uplift piles: - These piles anchor down the structure subjected to uplift due to
hydrostatic pressure o due to over-turning moment

3. Anchor piles:- These provide anchorage against the horizontal pull from sheet pulling
or any other pulling

4. Fender piles: These are used to protect water from structure against impact from ships
or other floating objects

5. Dolphin piles: It is cluster of piles provided to protect hydraulic structures

6. Sheet piles: - These piles are used to function as retaining wall for retaining soil that is
liable to escape laterally when subjected to pressure or to enclose the area required for some
foundation and protect it from the action of running water or leakage.

7. Batter piles: - These are piles which are driven at some inclination. The inclination of
batter piles generally varies from 1 in 6 to 1 in 2.5. Such a type of piles is used for bridge
piers, retaining walls, abutments etc. These are used to resist large horizontal or inclined
forces.

12. Pile Foundation

12.2. Pile Group
GROUP OF PILES

CLICK HERE TO VIEW PILE GROUP

In some cases piles are designed to act in a group. After driving the piles to required depth,
their tops are cut off to a uniform level and a pile cap is provided.

PILE DRIVING

The process of forcing a pile into the ground without excavation is termed as pile driving.
The equipments required for pile driving are as follows

1. Pile frames: depending upon the nature of work, suitable type of pile frame is to be
selected. Generally made of steel and the height varies from 10m to 25m or more. Frame
should be light and easily transportable. The pile frame consists of platforms for supporting
drives, engines, winches etc.

2. Pile hammers: The function of a pile hammer is to impart energy required to drive a pile

3. Leads: These are also known as leaders and are employed to guide the hammer and pile

4. Winches: These are required to lift the hammer and pile

13. Caissons
CAISSONS

Caisson is a box like structure round or rectangular, which is sunk from the surface of either
land or water to some desired depth.

Caissons are of three types

1. Box caisson

2. Open caisson

3. Pneumatic caissons

Box caisson

· Open at top and closed at bottom

· Caisson is built on land and floated to pier site where it is sunk in position.

· Such a type of caisson is used where bearing stratum is available at shallow depth, and
where loads are not heavy. Closed box caissons are used for break waters and sea walls.

Click here to view the image of box caisson

Open caissons (Well foundation)

· An open caisson is a box of timber, metal, reinforced concrete or masonry which is

open both at the top and at the bottom and is used for building and bridge foundations.

· Open caissons are called well foundations

· Components of well foundation are:

1. Well curb and cutting edge: Well curb is designed for supporting the weight of the well
with partial support at the bottom of the cutting edge

2. Steining: The thickness of steining is

3. Bottom plug designed for an upward load equal to the soil pressure minus self weight of
the bottom plug and filling.

4. Well cap

Click here to view the image of open caisson

Pneumatic caissons

· Pneumatic caissons are closed at top and open at the bottom.

· Compressed air is used to exclude or remove water from the working chamber at the
bottom, and the excavations are thus carried out in dry conditions.

· The method of construction of pneumatic caisson is similar to that for open caissons
(well) except that the working chamber is kept air tight.

· Maximum pressure is limited from the considerations of health of persons who work
inside the chamber. Normally the tolerable air pressure under which a man can work is
limited to 3.5 kg/cm2

· Inorder to avoid subsoil water entering the working chamber, the pressure in the air
shaft is kept just higher than that of water at that depth

Click here to view the image of pneumatic caisson

14. Site Investigations And Ground Techniques
SITE INVESTIGATION AND GROUND TECHNIQUES

Significant depth: The depth up to which the increase in pressure due to the structural loading is likely to
cause perceptible settlement or shear failure of foundation.

Methods of site exploration

1. Test pits: This method is useful when hard soil is available within 1.5m depth. In this method square
pit of about 1.5m side is excavated to a depth at which sufficiently hard soil is available. The various strata
of soil can be inspected from the pit.

2. Probing: In this method a hollow tube with a slit at the end or solid rod of iron or steel with a
pointed end is driven into the ground. It is then withdrawn and the material stuck up at the pointed end is
examined. This method can be adopted to a maximum depth of 3m

3. Auger boring: This method is useful for a depth of 6m to 8m and in case of loose soil up to 15m
depth. The auger is driven into the ground by turning like a screw. Then it is withdrawn and the material
caught in the slit is inspected
4. Wash boring: This method gives a reliable result about a depth of 30m to 45m. The process of wash
boring consists driving a casing into the ground and the material inside the casing is washed out and
collected in a tank. The material collected in the tank is then inspected

5. Subsurface sounding: In this method, the standard penetration resistance (SPT) is found out using
penetrometer. SPT is the number of blows required to drive penetrometer through a distance of
300mm. From the curve correlating SPT and corresponding characteristics of soil, the bearing capacity of
the soil is obtained

6. Test piles: Test piles are driven into the ground to get the information of the solid strata.

7. Deep boring: In addition to the stability of superstructure, the properties of soil such as non- leakage
of stored water, seepage etc is essential for the structures like dam. Deep boring is done in such cases.
Percussion boring machine or core or rotary drilling machines are used for deep boring. Methods of
finding bearing capacity of soil

8. Geophysical methods:

a. SESMIC REFRACTION METHOD: This method is based on the fact that seismic waves have
different velocities in different types of soils and besides the wave refract when they cross boundaries
between different types of soils. In this method an artificial impulse are produced either by detonation of
explosive or mechanical blow with a heavy hammer at ground surface or at the shadow depth within a
hole. It is primarily the velocity of longitudinal or the compression waves which is utilized in this method.
The time required for the impulse to travel from the shot point to various points on the ground surface is
determined by means of geophones which transform the vibrations into electrical currents and transmit
them to a recording unit with a timing mechanism. The detectors are generally placed at varying distance
from the shot point but along the straight line. The arrival time of the first impulse at each geophone is
utilized. If the successfully deeper strata transmit the waves with increasingly greater velocities the path
travelled by the first impulse will be similar to those. Those recorded by the nearest recorders pass entirely
through the overburden, whereas those first reaching the after detectors travel downward through the lower
velocity material, horizontally within the higher velocity stratum and return to the surface.

Click here to view seismic refraction method

b. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD: It is based on the difference in the electrical conductivity or

electrical resistivity of different soils. In this method the electrodes and driven approximately 20 cms in to
the ground and a very low frequency ac current of known magnitude is passed between the outer electrodes
thereby producing within the soil an electrical field and the boundary conditions. The electrical potential is
measured by means of the inner electrodes. The voltage measured can then, using the parameters of the
survey, be converted into an apparent resistivity value. This value can provide a range of information
regarding the material being tested. Different types of soil compositions have different resistivity. Thus can
determine the different types of soil at different depths

Click here to view electrical resistivity method

Bearing capacity: The maximum load per unit area which the soil will resist safely without displacement

Ultimate bearing capacity or Gross bearing capacity (qu): It is the least gross pressure which will cause
shear failure of the supporting soil immediately below the footing.

Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnf ): It is the net pressure that can be applied to the footing by external
loads that will just initiate failure in the underlying soil. It is equal to ultimate bearing capacity minus the
stress due to the weight of the footing and any soil or surcharge directly above it.

qnf = qu + γf

Net safe bearing capacity (qns): It is the net soil pressure which can be safety applied to the soil
considering only shear failure. It is the net ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety

qns =qnf / F

Safe bearing capacity (qs): It is the maximum gross pressure which the soil can carry safely without shear
failure. It is equal to the net safe bearing capacity plus original overburden pressure.

qs = qns + γf

Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa): It is the maximum soil pressure without any shear failure or settlement
failure.

Net pressure intensity: It is defined as excess pressure, or the difference in intensities of the gross
pressure after the construction of the structure and the original overburden pressure.
Floating foundation: A floating foundation for a building is defined as a foundation in which the weight
of the building is approximately equal to the full weight including water of the soil removed from the site
of the building. Or it is when the net pressure intensity becomes zero.

Plate load test: Plate Load Test is a field test for determining the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and the
likely settlement under a given load. The Plate Load Test basically consists of loading a steel plate placed
at the foundation level and recording the settlements corresponding to each load increment. The test load is
gradually increased till the plate starts to sink at a rapid rate. The total value of load on the plate in such a
stage divided by the area of the steel plate gives the value of the ultimate bearing capacity of soil.
The ultimate bearing capacity of soil is divided by suitable factor of safety (which varies from 2 to 3) to
arrive at the value of safe bearing capacity of soil. For better understanding, this Plate Load Test can be
sub-divided into the following heads,

Methods of increasing bearing capacity of soil

· Chemical treatment

· Sheet piles

· Compacting soil

· Increasing depth of foundation

· Sand piles

· Stone columns

· Grouting

· Compaction by deep blasting

15. Types Of Building (Group A,B,C)

TYPES OF BUILDING AS PER NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF INDIA

According to National building code of Indiabuildings are classified based on occupancy as per following

Group A: Residential Buildings

These shall include any building in which sleeping accommodation is provided for normal residential
purposes, with or without cooking or dining or both facilities, except any building classified under Group
C.

Residential types of building are further sub divided as per following

1. A-1 Lodging or rooming houses

2. A-2 One-or two-family private dwellings

3. A-3 Dormitories

4. A-4 Apartment houses (flats)

5. A-5 Hotels

1. A-1 Lodging or rooming houses: Any building or group of building under the same management,
provided with separate sleeping accommodation for total of not more than 15 persons, on either transient
or permanent basis with or without dining facilities, but without cooking facilities for individuals.

2. A-2 one-or two-family private dwellings: Any private dwelling which is occupied by members of a
single family and has a total sleeping accommodation for not more than 20 persons. The house may consist
of a single tenement or a number of tenements. In housing parlance, a tenement means a family unit

A dwelling can further classified under following six different types

1. Detached houses: The design of detached house can be made by considering the individual
requirement of the family to be accommodated in that house. Sufficient margins are left on sides, front and
rear. It may also include amenities such as private garden, swimming pool etc

2. Semi detached houses: A common boundary wall in the form of structural barrier divides an
independent plots into two units

3. Row of houses: For providing reasonable accommodation to the laborers or workers, a row of houses
with minimum requirements such as living room and kitchen, may be constructed. It may be single storied
or two storied

4. Apartments or flats: A apartment or flat consists of three to ten storeys and each floor or storey may
accommodate two to six flats or apartments

5. Duplex apartments: duplex is an apartment having rooms on two adjoining floors connected by an
internal staircase.

6. Skyscrapers: The growing need of land and consequently sudden shooting rise in price of land in big
cities further led to the conception of multistoried buildings (above 10 storeys) or as they are popularly
known as skyscrapers.

3. A-3 Dormitories: Any building in which group sleeping accommodation is provided, with or without
dining facilities.

4. A-4 Apartment houses (flats): Any building in which living quarters are provided for two, three or
more families living independently of each other and with independent cooking facilities

5. A-5 Hotels: Any building under single management in which sleeping accommodation, with or
without dining facilities is provide for hire to more than 15 persons who are primarily transient.

Group B: Educational Buildings

These shall include any building used for school, college or day-care purposes involving assembly for
instruction, education or recreation and which is not covered by Group D.

Group C: Institutional Buildings

These shall include any building or part thereof, which is used for purposes, such as medical or other
treatment or care of persons suffering from physical or mental illness, disease or infirmity; care of infants,
convalescents or aged persons and for penal or correctional detention in which the liberty of the inmates is
restricted. Institutional buildings ordinarily provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants.
Institutional types of building are further sub divided as per following

1. C-1 Hospitals and sanatoria

2. C-2 Custodial institutions

C-3 Penal and mental institutions

15. Types Of Building (Group A,B,C)

15.1. Group D, E, F, G, H, I
Group D: Assembly Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building, where groups of people congregate or
gather for amusement, recreation, social, religious, patriotic, civil, travel and similar
purposes, for example, theaters, motion picture houses, assembly halls, auditoria, exhibition
halls, museums, skating rinks, gymnasiums, restaurants, places of worship, dance halls, club
rooms, passenger stations and terminals of air, surface and marine
public transportation services, recreation piers and stadia, etc.

Assembly types of building are further sub divided as per following

1. D-1 Buildings having a theatrical stage and fixed seats for over 1000 persons

2. D-2 Buildings having a theatrical stage and fixed seats for less than 1000 persons

3. D-3 Buildings without a stage having accommodation for 300 or more persons but
no permanent seating arrangement

4. D-4 Buildings without a stage having accommodation for less than 300 persons

5. D-5 All other structures designed for assembly of people not covered by subdivisions
D-1 -to D-4

Group E: Business Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for transaction of
business for keeping of accounts and records and similar purposes, professional
establishments, service facilities, etc. City halls, town halls, court houses and libraries shall
be classified in this group so far as the principal function of these is transaction of
public business and keeping of books and records

Business types of building are further sub divided as per following

1. E-1 Offices, banks, professional establishments, like offices of architects,engineers,

doctors, lawyers, etc.

2. E-2 Laboratories, research establishments and test houses.

3. E-3 Computer installations.

Group F: Mercantile Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building, which is used as shops, stores, market,
for display and sale of merchandise, either wholesale or retail.

Mercantile types of building are further sub divided as per following

1. F-1 Shops, stores, markets with area up to 500 m’.

2. F-2 Underground shopping centers, departmental stores with area more than 500 m2
Storage and service facilities incidental to the
sale of merchandise and located in the same building shall be included under this group.

Group G: Industrial Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building or structure, in which products or
materials of all kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed,
for example, assembly plants, laboratories, dry cleaning plants, power plants, pumping
stations, smoke houses, laundries, gas plants, refineries: dairies and saw-mills.

Industrial types of building are further sub divided as per following

1. G-1 Buildings used for low hazard industries

2. G-2 Buildings used for moderate hazard industries

3. G-3 Buildings used for high hazard industries.

Group H: Storage Building

These shall include any building or part of a building, used primarily for the storage or
sheltering of goods, wares or merchandise (except those that involve highly combustible or
explosive products or materials), vehicles or animals, for example, warehouses, cold storage,
freight depots, transit sheds, storehouses, truck and marine terminals, garages, hangars (other
than aircraft repair hangars), grain elevators, barns and stables.
Storage properties are characterized by the presence of relatively small number of persons in
proportion to the area, Any new use which increases the number of occupants to a figure
comparable with other classes of occupancy shall change the classification of the building to
that of the new use, for example, hangars used for assembly purposes, warehouses used for
office purposes, garage buildings used for manufacturing.

Group I: Hazardous Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for the storage, handling,
manufacture or processing of highly combustible or explosive materials or products which
are liable to burn with extreme rapidity and/or which may produce poisonous fumes or
explosions; for storage, handling, manufacturing or processing which involve highly
corrosive, toxic or noxious alkalis, acids or other liquids or chemicals producing flame, fumes
and explosive, poisonous, irritant or corrosive gases; and for the storage, handling or
processing of any material producing explosive mixtures of dust which result in the division
of matter into tiny particles subject to spontaneous ignition.

16. Functional Planning Of Bulding

FUNCTIONAL PLANNING OF BUILDINGS

There are certain general essential factors which an architect should bear in mind while
planning a structure. Following are such essential factors of planning:

1. Aspect: The term aspect was formerly used to mean the regulation of admitting more or
less sunshine in the room. But its meaning has now been given wider scope and it includes
the arrangement of doors and windows in the external walls of buildings, particularly of
residential buildings, so as to fully enjoy the natural gifts of sunshine, breeze, scenery, etc.

2. Circulation: The term circulation is used to mean the link between the various rooms
and floors of building. The proper provision of circulation makes the building comfortable
and convenient. The circulation in a building is of two types:

I. Horizontal circulation: If the circulation is on the same floor, it is known as

horizontal circulation and it includes passages, corridors, halls and lobbies, All such means of
horizontal circulation should be sufficiently lighted, well ventilated, straight, definite,
independent and short to grant comfort and convenience to the users.

II. Vertical circulation: For achieving access to the upper floors, stairs or staircases or
lifts are provided. All stairs and staircases should be well-designed and they should satisfy
the minimum requirements regarding layout, treads, risers, width, pitch, headroom, light,
landings, handrail and ventilation.

3. Economy: As a matter of fact, the economic factor is not one of the principles of
planning. But in actual practice, (if the architect is unable to control his scheme within the
financial limit of the client, the project miserably fails. It is, therefore, of utmost importance
for an architect to know well in advance the amount the client intends to spend for the project
and advance the amount the client intends to spend for the project and accordingly, he should
proceed to finalize his scheme

4. Elegance: The term elegance is used to indicate the architectural effect produced by
elevation in relation to width, height position of doors and windows, materials employed in
construction of exterior walls, rig

5. Flexibility: The plan of the building should be prepared by keeping in mind the future
requirements. In fact, the design should be such that with minor, adjustments, it becomes
possible to satisfy future needs when the occasion arises.

6. Furniture requirements: The architect should bear in mind the furniture requirements
of a room or space in a structure
7. Grouping: The placing of various rooms or units of a structure in correlation of their
functions and in due proximity with each other is known grouping and the correct grouping
grants the status of a balanced design.

8. Privacy: One of the important requirements of good planning is the privacy Offered to
the occupants.

I. External privacy: It indicates the privacy of all parts of the building as a whole
from neighboring buildings, public streets and byways. External privacy can be achieved by
screening entrance, planting of trees, etc.

II. Internal privacy: It indicates privacy of different rooms in a structure and it can be
achieved by correctly positioning the openings.

9. Prospect: The term prospect is used to mean the external views as seen from certain
rooms of the building and it is thus dictated by the surrounding peculiarities of the site of the
project.

10. Roominess: The term roominess is used to refer the effect derived from space of a room
i.e. its length, width and height. The planning of room should be such that maximum benefit
is obtained from the minimum dimensions of the room.

Sanitation: As a principle of planning, the term sanitation is used to mean architectural

hygiene and it includes broadly the following four components: (i) Cleanliness (ii) lighting
(iii) sanitary units (iv) ventilation.
16.1. Orientation Of Building
ORIENTATION OF BUILDING
· Orientation is the process of fixing the position of other direction with respect to the direction
of rising sun ie east.
· In case of building, orientation is the art of placing different rooms of the building along
different directions to get the maximum benefit of sun light, wind and for getting encouraging views of
nature.
Suggestions for obtaining optimum orientation
During the planning of building the following points to be kept in mind, for getting optimum
orientation:
I. Cross ventilation: When placing ventilation openings, you are placing inlets and outlets
to optimize the path air follows through the building. Windows or vents placed on opposite sides of
the building give natural breezes a pathway through the structure. This is called cross-ventilation.
II. Placing of wall:
a. Long wall of the building should not be given in East or West
b. Projections should be given in East or West , this can reduce heat inside room since heat
doesn’t fall directly on the walls
SET BACK OR BUILDING LINE
A specified distance from the sides of a plot that denote where a building cannot be placed. Building
lines are often called setbacks, because a building must be "set back" a specified distance from the
property line. Or it is the the minimum distance between the plot boundary abutting any street other
than National Highways, State Highways, district roads and other roads.

SIZE OF ROOMS
Considering the point of health and ventilation, NBC has fixed certain minimum area and sizes for
individual rooms.
· The size of all rooms for human habitation shall not be less than 2.75m from the surface of
floor to lower part of the ceiling or bottom of slab, provided that the minimum headroom at any point
in the room shall not be less than 2.4m.
· Height of bathroom or water closet should not be less than 2.2m.

Type of room Minimum area

One habitable room
Two habitable room
Kitchen only
Kitchen with store room
Kitchen with dining
Bathroom
Water closet
Bath – w/c combined
living room
9.5m2 with width min 2.4m
Min area of one room 9.5 m2 and other 7.5 m2 with min width
2.4m
4.5 m2 with min width 1.8m
5.5 m2 with min width of kitchen 1.8m
9.5 m2 with min width 2.4m
1.8 m2 or min (1.5m x 1.2m)
1.1 m2
2.8m2 with min width 1.2m
9.5 m2 (not more than 1/3 of the plinth area of building.

FLOOR SPACE INDEX (FSI) OR FLOOR AREA RATIO (FAR):

The ratio of the total floor area inclusive of all floors to the area of the plot on which the building
stand.

Plot Area MAX PERMISSIBLE F.A.R

<200 m2 60%
200 – 500 m2 50%
500-1000 m2 40%
 >1000 m2 33.33%

SITE PLAN
The detailed sketch of the plot with the sketch of the proposed building and necessary
surrounding data is called site plan. Site plan should be drawn to a scale not less than 1: 1000
KEY PLAN
Key Plans are floor plans showing primary architectural elements of each building by floor level.
They graphically represent walls, doors, windows, room numbers, and other features

17. Lintels
LINTELS

Lintel is a horizontal member placed across an opening to support the portion of structure
above it. The bearing of the lintel should be minimum of the following.

1. 100mm

2. Height of lintel

3. One-tenth to one-Twelfth of the span

Materials for lintels

· Wood or timber

· Stone

· Brick

· Steel

· Reinforced cement concrete

1. Wood or timber lintel: These consist of single or built-up sections of timber placed
across the opening. Built-up section consist of two or more timber pieces bolted together to
form a lintel. The timber lintel strengthened by providing MS plates at top and bottom are
called flitched lintel

2. Stone lintel: Stone lintels consist of stone slabs placed over an opening.

3. Brick lintels: These lintels are constructed using bricks laid on ends or edges. The
temporary support used to construct brick lintel is known as turning piece. Brick lintels are
suitable up to 1m span with light loading.

4. Steel lintel: Steel lintels are constructed using steel angles or rolled steel joists.
5. Reinforced cement concrete lintels: RCC lintels are commonly used nowadays.
These are strong, durable, fire-resistant and economical. RCC lintels may be precast or cast-
in-situ.

6. Boot lintels are provided over the openings of cavity walls.

18. Carpentry And Joinary

Carpentry is a term applied to that form of wood construction which has to resist stresses,
due to loads coming on it.

The term joinery may be defined as the trade in wood work in which skilled labor is required
to render the wooden members capable of framing together. It is the art of preparing internal
fittings and finishing of timber.

TECHNICAL TERMS IN CARPENTRY

1. Sawing. It is the art of cutting wood by means of a saw.

2. Shooting. It is the art of dressing of edges of timber pieces so as to make them straight
and square with the face.

3. Chamfering. It consists of taking off the edge or corner or arras of a wooden member.
The chamfered member has a sloping edge which usually has a slope of 45°. If the angle of
chamfer is other than 45°, it is known as bevel. If the chamfer does not continue for full
length of a member, it is known as stopped chamfer.

4. Planning. It is the process of taking the shaving off wood, With the help of a tool
known as a planer. Due to this, timber surfaces are made smooth. Planed or smoothened
surface is known as dressed or wrought surface.

5. Mitring and Scribing. Mitring is the process of joining two wooden members at an
angle. If one end of moulding is cut to suit the profile of another moulding, it is known as
scribing.

6. Moulding. It is the process of shaping various units of construction, either by hand or by

machine, to produce moulded sections.

7. Rebating. It is the process of cutting a rectangular groove on the edge of a timber piece
so as to enable the edge or tongue of another timber piece to fit in the former.

8. Housing. It is the process of sinking of edge of one piece of timber into another, by
cutting groove across its grains. Housing may be plain, shouldered or dove-tailed.
9. Groove and grooving. Groove is a term used to indicate a recess formed in a timber
member. If the groove is made parallel to the grains, it is known plough grooving, while if the
groove is made across the grains, it is known as cross grooving.

10. Nosing: Nosing is the edge of portion overhanging a vertical surface.

11. Studding. It is the term applied to the fixing of small timber battens to timber
walls, to which lathes, and boards are to be nailed.

12. Veneering. It is the process of covering of entire or part of exposed surface of

timber by means of veneers, for decorative purposes.

13. Wain-Scot. It is the wooden panelling applied on masonry walls for a height of 60
cm from the floor level.

14. Bead. It is rounded or semi-circular moulding provided on the edges or surface of

wood.

18.1. Joints
JOINTS

Various types of joints used in wood work may be classified under the following heads:

1. Lengthening joints.

2. Widening joints or side joints.

3. Bearing joints.

4. Framing joints.

5. Angle or corner joints.

6. Oblique shouldered joints

LENGTHENING JOINTS

These are also known as spliced or longitudinal joints. These joints are used to increase the
length of wood members, such as lies, struts, etc. Lengthening joints are of the following
types:

1. Lapped joints.

2. Fished joints.

3. Scarfed or spliced joints.

4. Tabled joints.
1. Lapped joints

This is the simplest type of joint, formed by placing the two ends of the members one over
the other for a short distance and binding them together by means of wrought iron strap If the
member carries tensile stress, it is essential to provide bolts passing through both the pieces.

2. Fished Joint

In this joint, the ends of the two members are cut square and placed touching each other (or
butted). They are then joined together placing wooden or iron fish plates on opposite faces
and securing these by passing bolts through them. The ends of fish plates are slightly bent
and then pressed into the members

3. Scarfed or spliced joint

In this joint, projections are made in the end of one piece and corresponding depressions are
formed in the other piece. The two pieces are then secured together by means of bolts, straps,
fish plates and keys. Such joints give good appearance since the uniform depth of the member
is obtained.

4. Tabled joints

These joints are formed when the member is subjected to both tension as well as
compression. It is similar to spliced joint, but is formed by cutting special shape in both the
pieces and securing them with fish plates, bolts, keys etc.

WIDENING JOINTS

These joints are also called side joints or boarding joints, and are used for extending the
width of boards or planks. The members are placed edge to edge. These are used for wooden
doors, floors etc. They are of the following types:

1. Butt Joints: It is also known as square, plain or ordinary joint.

2. Rebated joint: It is formed by overlapping the cut portions. The joint remains dust
proof after shrinkage of timber.

3. Rebated and filleted joint: It is formed by introducing wooden fillet in the rebated
portions, having small depression. It is used for floors of factories etc.

4. Ploughed and tongued joint: It is formed by introducing wooden fillet in the grooves cut
in the two pieces.

5. Tongued and grooved joint: It is formed by making fillet in one piece and groove in the
other.

6. Rebated, tongued and grooved joint: It is formed by forming a rebate in addition to

tongue and groove. Nail is placed in such a way that it cannot be seen.
7. Splayed joint: It is formed by splaying the ends. The joint is used only for ordinary
purposes, but is superior to butt joint.

8. Dowelled joint: It is formed by making grooves in the centre portion of end of each
piece and inserting dowels of slate, gun-metal brass, bronze or copper. This is very strong
joint.

9. Matched and beaded joint: This joint is formed by tongue and groove arrangement, and
has special moulding on one side to give good appearance.

10. Matched and V-jointed joint: This is similar to the beaded joint, except that it is
chamfered in the shape of

11. Dovetailed Joint: It is formed by providing key of dovetail shape to fit in the
corresponding grooves in the connecting members.

ANGLE JOINT

These are the corner joints which are employed to connect the members at ends so as to form
a corner or angular edge. This joints are secured by nailing and glue is used for making this
joints

OBLIQUE – SHOULDERED JOINT

These joints are employed to connect the members at an angle other than right angles.

1. Bridsmouth joint: An angular notch is made in the inclined member

2. Bridle joint: A mortice is cut I the inclined member and corresponding bridle is left in
the horizontal member

3. Dovetailed halving joint: Half the thickness of each timber piece is cut in the shape of
dovetail

4. Mitre jont

5. Oblique tenon Joint: used to connect members of bigger size

BEARING JOINTS

Bearing joints are provided when two members meet at right angles, to give sufficient
strength to the functions (load bearing). Bearing Joints are of the following types :

1. Halved joints: These joints are formed by cutting half the depth of each member
meeting at right angles, top surfaces of both the members flush.

2. Notched Joint: It is formed by forming notch in one or both the members to be

connected
3. Cogged joint: This joint is formed by cutting small notch in the beam or timber member
and providing notches on the lower member with a projection in the centre. The projection is
known as cog. The upper portion, in which only small notch has been formed, retains its
strength.

4. Housed joint: It is formed by fitting the entire thickness of the end of one member for a
short distance into another piece. It is used in stairs in which the ends of risers and treads are
housed in the strings.

FRAMED JOINT

The joints employed to construct timber doors, windows and ventilators and partitions are
known as the framing joint.

18.2. Tools In Carpentry

TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY WORK

The following tools are used for carpentry work

1. Marking tools. These are used for marking lines on wood.

a. Marking and cutting tools.

b. Square-To set right angles.

c. Bevel- To set angles other than a right angle.

d. Marking gauge and mortise gauge-Used for marking lines parallel to the edges.

e. Marking point and scribing knife-To mark points and lines on wood.

2. Cutting tools :

a. Compass saw: Used for cutting wood.

b. Coping saw: Used for cutting timber members

c. Cross-cut saw: Used for cutting timber members

d. Dovetail saw: Used for cutting timber members.

e. Tenon saw: Used for cutting and shaping joints

f. Firmer chisel: Used for cutting and shaping joints

g. Mortise chisel: Used for cutting and shaping joints

h. Paring chisel: Used for cutting and shaping joints.

3. Boring tools: Used for driving holes in timber members.

a. Ratchet brace-Cutting bit is attached to its lower end. The bit is rotated with the help of
brace handle

b. Centre bit: Used for boring holes of different size and shapes.

c. Auger bit: Used for boring holes of different size and shapes.

d. Rose counter-Sunk bit: Used for boring holes of different size and shapes.

e. Screw drive bit: Used for boring holes of different size and shapes.

f. Brad awl: These have sharpened and pointed ends with the help of which small and fine
holes can be made.

g. Pointed awl: These have sharpened and pointed ends with the help of which small and
fine holes can be made.

h. Gimlet: It has screwed end with the help of which small holes can be bored.

i. Auger. : Used for deep boring.

4. Planing tools :Used for planing surfaces and for cutting small mouldings along the
edges

a. Bead plane

b. Jack plane

c. Rebate plane |

5. Hammers and screw drivers: Used for driving nails and screws, and other fastenings.

a. Claw hammer.

b. Mallet hammer.

c. Spall hammer.

d. Waller's hammer.

e. Screw drivers

f. Ratchet screw driver.

6. Miscellaneous tools :
a. Cramp: For clamping timber piece, to cut or make groove.

b. Nail Punch: Making small hole, before driving nail so that timber does not split on
surface.

c. Oil stone: Used for sharpening various tools and blades.

d. Pincers, Pliers: For taking out the damaged nails.

19. Plastering And Pointing

PLASTERING

Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings and other
building components with thin coat of plastic mortars to form a smooth durable surface. The
coating of plastic material (i.e. mortar) is termed as plaster. Plastering on external exposed
surfaces is known as rendering.

Objects of plastering:

(1) To protect the external surfaces against penetration of rain water and other atmospheric
agencies.

(2) To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.

(3) To give decorative effect.

(4) To protect surfaces against vermit.

(5) To conceal inferior maserials or defective workmanship.

Requirements of good plaster:

The plaster material should fulfill the following requirements:

(1) It should adhere to the background, and should remain adhered during all variations in
seasons and other atmospheric conditions.

(2) It should be hard and durable.

(3) It should possess good workability

(4) It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions

(5) It should be cheap.

(6) It should effectively check penetration of moisture

DEFECTS IN PLASTERING

The following defects may arise in plaster work:

1. Blistering of plastered surface. This is the formation of small patches of plaster

swelling out beyond the plastered surface, arising out of late' slaking of lime particles in the
plaster.

2. Cracking. Cracking consists of formation of cracks or fissures in the plaster work

resulting from the following reasons :

(i) Imperfect preparation of background.

(ii) Structural defects in building

(iii) Discontinuity of surface

(iv) Movements in the background due to its thermal expansion or rapid drying

(v) Movements in the plaster surface itself, either due to expansion (in case of
gypsum plaster) or shrinkage (in case of lime-sand plaster)

(vi) Excessive shrinkage due to application of thick coat.

(vii) Faulty workmanship.

3. Crazing. It is the formation of a series of hair cracks on plastered surface, due to same
reasons which cause cracking.

4. Efflorescence. It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears on the surface due
to presence of salts in plaster-making materials as well as building materials like bricks, sand,
cement etc. This gives a very bad appearance. It affects the 1 of paint with wall surface.
Efflorescence can be removed to some extend by dry brushing and washing the surface
repeatedly.

5. Flaking. It is the formation of very loose mass of plastered Surface, due to poor bond
between successive coats.

6. Peeling. It is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered surface, resulting in

the formation of a patch. This also results from imperfect bond.

7. Popping. It is the formation of conical hole in the plastered surface due to presence of
some particles which expand on setting.

8. Rust stains. These are sometimes formed when plaster is applied on metal laths.
9. Uneven surface- This is obtained purely due to poor workmanship.

SPECIAL MATERIALS USED IN PLASTERING

1. Acoustic plaster. This contains gypsum mixtures applied as final coat in finishing the
plastered surface. Such a coat undergoes chemical reaction resulting in production of gas
bubbles and consequent formation of tiny openings in the coat. These honey-combed minute
openings absorb sound. Such plaster is useful in the interior walls of halls, auditoriums etc.
The plaster is applied in two coats each of 6 mm thickness, using wooden float.

2. Asbestos marble plaster. This plaster is made of cement, asbestos and finely crushed
marble, imparting marble like finish.

3. Barium plaster. It is made from cement, sand and barium sulphate and is provided in
X-ray rooms, to protect the persons working in it.

4. Granite silicon plaster: This plaster is used for superior type of construction, since it
is quick setting and possesses highly elastic properties which eliminate cracks.

5. Gypsum plaster (plaster of Paris) Plaster of Paris is obtained from heating finely
ground gypsum heated at 160° to 170°C. It hardens within 3 to 4 minutes of adding water. To
extend the setting time, suitable retarders are used. Plaster of Paris is generally used in
combination with lime, for ornamental work, and for repairing holes and cracks. Gypsum
plaster has the following properties :

(1) It is fire-resisting, and hence can be effectively used on timber and metal components
of buildings.

(2) It is light weight.

(3) It has sound insulating properties.

(4) It is highly useful for ornamental work.

(5) It has good adhesion to fibrous materials.

(6) It sets with little change in volume. Thus there is no shrinkage on drying. However,
gypsum plaster is soluble in water, hence it can be used only for interior work

6. Kenee's cement plaster: Kenee's cement is obtained by the calcinating plaster of paris
with alum. This is very hard and sets in few days. It is used for situations such as angles,
Skirtings etc.

7. Martin's cement plaster. Martin's cement is obtained when pearl ash is calcined with
Plaster of Paris. It has quick setting properties and forms a white hard surface on drying. It is
used for internal finishing work.
8. Parian cement plaster. Parian cement is obtained when borax is calcined with Plaster
of Paris. Like Kenee's cement, it is also used for interior work. However it is cheaper than
Kenee's cement.

9. Scagliola plaster. Scagliola is obtained by dissolving Kenee's cement and colouring

pigments in glue. It is used for plastering pilasters, panels, columns etc. It appears like
marble.

10. Sirapite plaster. Sirapite is obtained when plaster of Paris is slaked in petroleum. It is
quick setting and fire resisting. It produces white hard surface on drying.

11. Snowcrete and colourcrete cements. These are the trade names given to white and
coloured cement respectively. These are used on external walls to create good appearance.

12. Thistle hard wall. It is a product of high grade gypsum. It sets rapidly and produces
excellent finish. It is used for interior work

19. Plastering And Pointing

19.1. Pointing
POINTING

The term pointing is applied to the finishing of mortar joints in masonry. In exposed
masonry, joints are considered to be the weakest and most vulnerable spots from which rain
water or dampness can enter. Pointing consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 to 20 mm
and filling it with better quality mortar in desired shape.

Types of pointing

1. Flush pointing

This type of pointing is formed by pressing mortar in the raked joint and by finishing off
flush with the edge of masonry units. The edges are neatly trimmed with trowel and straight
edge. It does not give good appearance. However, the pointing is more durable since it does
not provide any space for the accumulation of dust, water, - etc. Due to this reason, flush
pointing is extensively used.

2. Recessed pointing

The pointing is done by pressing the mortar back from the edges by 5 mm or more. The face
of the pointing is kept vertical, by a suitable tool. The pointing gives very good appearance.

3. Rubbed, keyed or grooved pointing

This pointing is a modification of flush pointing by forming a groove at its mid height, by a
pointing tool. It gives better appearance.

4. Beaded pointing
This is the special type of pointing formed by steel or ironed with a concave edge. It gives
good appearance, but is liable to damage easily.

5. Struck pointing

This is a modification of flush pointing in which the face of the pointing is kept inclined, with
its upper edge pressed inside the face by 10 mm. This pointing drains water easily.

6. Tuck pointing

The pointing is formed by first pressing the mortar in the racked joint and finishing flush with
the face. While the pressed mortar is green, groove or narrow channel, having 5 mm width
and 3 mm depth is cut in the centre of the groove. This groove is then filled in or tucked in
with white cement putty, kept projecting beyond the face of the joint by 3 mm. If projection
is done in mortar, it is called Bastard pointing or half tuck pointing.

7. V-pointing

This pointing is formed by forming V-groove in the flush finishing face.

8. Weathered pointing

This pointing is made by a projection in the form of V shape

20. Roof
ROOF

A roof is defined as the uppermost part of a building which is constructed in the form of a
frame work to give protection to the building against rain, heat, snow, wind, etc.

Technical terms

1. Gable - The triangular upper part of a wall formed at the end of a pitched roof is known
as a gable.

2. Ridge : - A wooden piece provided at the ridge line of a sloping roof is known as the
ridge

3. Rafters: - These are the pieces of timber which extend from the eaves to the ridge.

4. Common rafter: - These are the intermediate rafters which give support to the roof
covering.

5. Hip rafters: - These are the rafters which are provided at the junction of two roof
slopes.

6. rafters : - Any rafter which is shorter than a common rafter is known as a jack rafter
7. Principal rafters : - These are the inclined members of a truss

8. Hip: - The angle formed at the intersection of two roof slopes is known as the hip.

9. Pitch: - The inclination of sides of a roof to the horizontal plane is known as the pitch.

10. Barge board: - These are the wooden planks or boards which are fixed on the gable end
of a roof. They connect the ends of ridge, purlins and wall-plates

11. Eaves : - The lower edges of a roof which are resting upon or projecting beyond the
supporting walls are known as the eaves

12. Purlins : - The wooden pieces which are placed horizontally on principle rafters to carry
the common rafters are known as the purlins.

13. Cleats: - These are the small blocks of wood which are fixed on the trusses to prevent
the sliding of purlins.

14. Battens: - These are the thin strips of wood which are fixed on the rafters. They support
the roof coverings.

15. Dragon beam: - The lower end of a hip rafter is generally supported on a diagonal piece
of wood which is laid across the corner of the wall. This diagonal piece is known as a dragon
beam or a dragon tie or an angle tie.

16. Verge: - The edge of a gable, running between the eaves and ridge , is known as verge.

17. Wall-plates : - These are the long wooden members which are embedded on top of walls
to receive the common rafters

18. Template: - A bedding block is provided at the end of a truss. This block is known as
template.

19. Span: - The horizontal distance between the internal faces of walls or supports is known
as a span.

20. Truss: - The frame work, usually of triangles and designed to support the roof covering
or ceiling over rooms, is known as a roof truss.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW

20. Roof
20.1. Classification Of Roof
Classification of roofs

1. Pitched or sloping roofs

2. Flat roof

Types of pitched roofs

1. Single roof

a. Lean to roof: - It is also known as the Pent or Aisle roof. In this type of roof, one wall
is carried up sufficiently higher than the other one to give necessary slope to the roof. It is
suitable for a maximum span of 2.40 m.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW LEAN TO ROOF

b. Couple roof: - A couple roof is suitable for spans upto about 3.60m. In this type of roof,
the common rafters slope upwards from the opposite walls and they meet on a ridge piece in
the middle. It has the tendency to spread out at the feet.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW COUPLE ROOF

c. Couple-close roof: - In this roof, the legs of common rafters are connected by a tie
beam. It is suitable for upto a span of 4.20 m. The tendency of rafters to sag in the middle can
be prevented by providing a central rod connecting the ridge piece and the tie beam. Such a
member is known as the king rod or king bolt.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW COUPLE CLOSE ROOF

d. Collar beam roof: - The tie beam is raised and placed at a higher level. The tie beam is
then known as a collar or a collar beam. It is suitable for span upto 4.80m.
 CLICK HERE TO VIEW COLLAR BEAM ROOF

e. Collar and scissors roof: - This roof is similar to the collar beam roof except that two
collar beams which are crossing each other to present an appearance of scissors are provided.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW COLLAR AND SCISSORS ROOF

2. Double or purlin roofs: - When the span exceeds about 2.40m, the necessary size for
the rafters becomes uneconomical. Hence, in order to reduce the size of rafters, the
intermediate supports, called the purlins, are introduced under the rafters. It can be
economically adopted upto a span of 4.80m. It is also called as the rafter and purlin roof.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW DOUBLE OR PURLIN ROOF

3. Trussed roofs: - When the span exceeds 4.80 m then trusses are used. The spacing is
generally 3 m for wooden trusses.

a. King post truss: - In this type of truss, the central post, known as a king-post, forms a
support for the tie beam. The inclined members, known as the struts, prevent the principal
rafters from bending in the middle. It is suitable for roofs of span varying from 5m to 8m.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW KING POST TRUSS

b. Queen post truss: - This truss differs from a king post truss in having two vertical
members, known as the queen posts. The upper ends of the queen posts are kept in position
by means of a horizontal member, known as a straining beam. A straining sill is introduced
on the tie beam between the queen posts to counteract the thrust of struts. A queen post truss
is suitable for roof of spans varying from 8m to 12 m. A convenient combination of the king
post and queen post trusses can be made to increase the suitability of queen post truss upto a
span of 18m. For this purpose, the queen post truss is strengthened by one more upright
member, known as the princess-post, on either side.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW QUEEN POST TRUSS

c. Mansard truss: - The Mansard truss is a two-storey truss with upper portion consisting
of the king- post truss and the lower portion of queen-post truss. The Mansard truss has two
pitches. The upper pitch varies from 30⁰ to40⁰ and the lower pitch varies from 60⁰ to 70⁰.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW MANSARD TRUSS

d. Truncated truss: - This truss is just similar to the Mansard truss except that the top is
finished flat with a gentle slope to one side.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW TRUNCATED TRUSS

e. Bel-fast truss: - This truss is in the form of a bow. It consists of thin sections of timber
with its top chord curved. This truss can be used for long spans of about 30m, provided the
light roof covering is used. It is also known as the latticed roof truss or bow string truss

CLICK HERE TO VIEW BEL-FAST TRUSS

f. Steel trusses: - For spans greater than 12m, it becomes economical to use the steel
trusses. As steel can resist the stresses, compression and tension.

CLICK HERE TO VIEW STEEL TRUSSES

g. Composite trusses: - These are composed of wooden members and steel or wrought-
iron members.

Types of flat or terraced roofs: -

The two types of flat roofs which are commonly used in Madras and Bengal are Madras
terrace roof and Bengal terrace roof respectively.

A roof which is nearly flat is known as the flat roof.

Curved roofs: - The shell roofs and domes are the varieties of the curved roofs. There are two
common forms of a shell roof.

(1) A north-light shell roof :click here to view

(2) A barrel vault shell roof: click here to view
(3) A dome is a rounded vault forming a roof: click here to view