>>>

Kerry Whalley
Carol Neville
Peter Roberson
Greg Rickard
Geoff Phillips
Faye Jeffery
Janette Ellis

Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and

associated companies around the world
Pearson Education Australia
A division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd
Level 9, 5 Queens Road
Melbourne 3004 Australia
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools

Offices in Sydney, Brisbane and Perth, and associated companies

throughout the world.

Copyright © Pearson Education Australia

(a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2005
First published 2005

All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the

Copyright Act 1968 of Australia and subsequent amendments, no
part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the
prior permission of the copyright owner.

Designed by Polar Design

Edited by Kay Waters
Illustrated by Wendy Gorton, Bruce Rankin, Vasja Koman and John Ward
Prepress work by The Type Factory
Set in Melior 10 pt
Produced by Pearson Education Australia
Printed in Hong Kong

National Library of Australia

Cataloguing–in–Publication data:
Science focus 4.

Includes index.
For secondary school students.
ISBN 0 1236 0447 8.

1. Science - Textbooks. I. Whalley, Kerry. II. Title.

500
Acknowledgements iv 5 Motion 135
Introduction v

UNIT
5.1 Describing motion 136
Syllabus correlation grid viii 5.2 Acceleration 147
Verbs 1 5.3 Newton’s first law 153
5.4 Newton’s second law 159
1 Chemical reactions 2
5.5 Newton’s third law 164
1.1 Writing chemical equations
UNIT

3 5.6 Gravity 169

1.2 More and faster! Rate and yield 5.7 Work and energy 176
considerations 10 Chapter review 183
1.3 100% organic 15
1.4 Maths in chemistry (on CD) 6 Health and disease 185
Chapter review 22

UNIT
6.1 Health 186
6.2 Disease 192
2 Materials 23
6.3 Infectious diseases 196
UNIT

2.1 Pure metals and alloys 24 6.4 Transmission and control of infectious
2.2 Mining and minerals 29 diseases 203
2.3 Corrosion of metals 38 6.5 Non-infectious diseases 211
2.4 Plastics and fibres 43 Chapter review 221
Science focus: Nanotechnology 54
2.5 Soaps (on CD) 7 Evolution 222
Chapter review 58
UNIT

7.1 The evolution of a theory 223

7.2 Evolution unravelled 232
3 Electricity and 7.3 Evidence for evolution 239
communications
technology 59 7.4 Human evolution 249
Scence focus: Putting flesh on old bones:
3.1
UNIT

Electricity 60 archaeology and Australia today 255

3.2 Electromagnetism 68 Chapter review 260
3.3 Waves in communication 76
3.4 The communications network 84 8 Global issues 262
Scence focus: Microwaves cook from
UNIT

8.1 Global warming 263

the inside 91
8.2 The ozone layer 272
3.5 Electronics (on CD)
8.3 Nuclear radiation: good or evil? 276
Chapter review 93
8.4 Energy crisis 285
Chapter review 293
4 Genetics 95
UNIT

4.1 Inheritance 96 9 Individual research

4.2 Human inheritance 106 project 294
4.3 The molecule of life 114
UNIT

9.1 Being an individual 295

4.4 Controlling inheritance 120
Science focus: Science can be funny 299
Science focus: Biotechnology and
9.2 My investigation 302
DNA fingerprinting 128
Chapter review 308
Chapter review 133
Periodic table 310
Index 311

iii
 We would like to thank the following for permission
to reproduce photographs and text. The following
abbreviations are used in this list: t = top, b = bottom,
l = left, r = right.
The Age: figure 2.1.5.
Andrea Simonato: figure SF 9.1.
Auscape: figures 7.2.1, 7.2.8(l), 7.3.7.
Australian Associated Press: figure 1.2.1.
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
Organisation: figure 8.4.6.
Australian Picture Library: figures 4.2.3, 5.2.9; Joel
W. Rogers, figure 2.1.3; Sandro Vannini, figure 2.1.4;
William Taufic, figure 2.2.9; Penny Tweedie, figures
2.4.4, 2.4.9, 6.1.5, 6.4.5, 7.1.5; Rob Lewine, figure
4.2.1; Nick Rains, figure 6.1.6; Lester V. Bergman,
figure 6.3.8; Jonathan Blair, figure 7.3.11; Larry
Williams, figure 7.4.9; Pam Gardner, figure SF 7.5;
Les Stone, figure 8.1.9; Ric Ergenbright, figure 9.1.3;
Jim Sugar, figure 9.2.3.
Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety
Agency: figure 8.4.9.
Blackmagic Design: figure 3.5.13
Bureau of Meteorology: figure 8.1.7.
CSIRO: figures 4.4.11, 8.1.5; ©CSIRO Human
Nutrition. Reproduced from 12345+ Food and
Nutrition Plan (K. Baghurst et al., 1990) by permission
of CSIRO Australia, figure 6.1.3.
David Heffernan: figures 3.5.1, 3.5.2, 3.5.5, 3.5.7,
3.5.9.
Dorling Kindersley: p. 2, figures 2.2.2, 3.1.8, 3.4.2,
7.3.5.
The DW Stock Picture Library: figure 7.1.1.
Fairfax Images: figures 5.1.9, 5.7.2.
Getty Images: p. 135, figures 5.7.3, 6.1.7, 6.2.2, 6.4.10,
p. 222, figures 7.1.3, 7.4.2, 8.3.9.
Greg Rickard: figure 2.1.2.
Jim Bowler: figures SF 7.2, SF 7.3(b), SF 7.4, SF 7.6.
iv
Jim DeLillo: photo by Jim DeLillo, figure 3.4.10.
Dr Karl Kruszelnicki: reproduced with kind
permission from the author of Great Mythconceptions,
HarperCollins, 2004. Article can be found on his
website <www.abc.net.au/science/k2/moments>:
p. 91.
NASA: figures 5.5.2, 8.1.1(l), 8.1.1(r), 8.2.6.
Newspix: Anthony Weate, p. 23; Susan Turner, figure
2.2.4; James Knowler, figure 4.4.7; David Crosling,
figure SF 7.7; News Limited, figure 8.4.8.
Pearson Education Australia: Ben Killingsworth,
figures 1.3.3, 4.4.4; Tricia Confoy, figure 2.3.1;
Elizabeth Anglin, figures 2.4.1, 2.5.2, SF 3.1, 4.4.2,
SF 4.3, 6.3.2, 6.5.13, 9.1.4, 9.1.5, SF 9.3; Anna Small,
figures 3.4.11, 4.2.11, SF 9.2; Peter Saffin, figures
4.2.4, SF 9.4.
Photolibrary.com: figures 1.1.5, 1.2.2, 1.3.12, 1.4.5,
2.2.6, 2.4.12, 2.4.13, 2.5.4, SF 2.2, SF 2.4, SF 2.5,
SF 2.6, SF 2.7, p. 59, 3.1.2, 3.2.3, 3.2.12, 3.3.6, 3.3.8,
3.3.10, 3.3.11, 3.4.3, 3.5.14, SF 3.2, p. 95, 4.1.1, 4.1.4,
4.1.6, 4.2.5, 4.3.6, 4.3.7, 4.4.1, 4.4.3, 4.4.9, SF 4.1,
SF 4.2, SF 4.7, 5.1.2, 5.1.3, 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.3.1, 5.3.2,
5.3.3, 5.3.5, 5.6.3, 5.6.4, p. 185, 6.3.5, 6.3.6, 6.3.7,
6.3.9, 6.3.11, 6.4.1, 6.4.2, 6.4.4, 6.4.7, 6.4.8, 6.4.9,
6.5.1, 6.5.2, 6.5.4, 6.5.7, 6.5.8, 6.5.9, 6.5.10, 6.5.12,
6.5.14, 7.1.2, 7.1.4, 7.1.7, 7.1.9, 7.1.12, 7.1.13, 7.2.2,
7.2.11(b), 7.2.11(t), 7.4.4, 7.4.6, 7.4.7, 7.4.8, 8.3.2,
8.3.8, 8.3.11, 8.4.2, 8.4.7, 8.4.12, p. 294, 9.2.1, 9.2.2.
The Picture Source: figure 2.4.10.
South Australian Museum: figure 7.3.3.
Willandra World Heritage Area Three Traditional
Tribal Groups: published with the consent of the
indigenous owners, figure SF 7.3(t).
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge
copyright. However, if any infringement has occurred,
the publishers tender their apologies and invite
copyright owners to contact them.
The Science Focus series has been written for the NSW Science syllabus, stages 4 and 5. It includes material that
addresses the learning outcomes in the domains of knowledge, understanding and skills. Each chapter addresses
at least one prescribed focus area in detail. The content is presented through many varied contexts to engage
students in seeing the relationship between science and their everyday lives. By learning from the Science Focus
series students will become confident, creative, responsible and scientifically literate members of society.

Coursebook Each PFA has one Science Focus special

The coursebook consists of nine chapters with the feature which uses a contextual approach to focus
following features. specifically on the outcomes of that PFA. Student
Chapter opening pages include: activities on these pages allow further investigation
• the key and exploration of the material covered.
prescribed
focus area for
the chapter
• outcomes
presented in
a way that
students
can easily
understand
• pre quiz
questions
to stimulate
interest and test
prior knowledge.

Chapter units open with a ‘context’ to encourage Each unit ends with a set of questions. These
students to make meaning of science in terms of begin with straightforward ‘checkpoint’ questions
their everyday experiences. The units also reinforce that build confidence, leading to ‘think’, ‘analyse’
contextual learning by presenting theory, photos, and ‘skills’ questions that require further thought and
illustrations and ‘science focus’ segments in a format application. Questions incorporate the syllabus ‘verbs’
that is easy to read and follow. so that students can begin to practise answering
questions as required in examinations in later years.
The extension questions
can be set for further
exploration and assignment
work and include a variety
of structured tasks including
research, creative writing
and internet activities
suitable for all students.
Extension questions cater
for a range of learning
styles using the multiple
intelligences approach, and
may be used for extending
more able students.

v
 Key numeracy and literacy tasks are Online review questions
indicated with icons. Auto-correcting chapter review questions can be
Practical activities
used as a diagnostic tool or for revision at school
follow the questions.
or home, and include:
These are placed at the
• multiple choice • matching
end of the unit to
• labelling • fill in the blanks.
allow teachers
to choose when
and how to best
incorporate the Prac 1
practical work. Unit 1.2

Cross references
to practical
activities within
the units signal DYO
suggested points
for practical work. Some
practical activities are ‘design-your-own’ (DYO) tasks.

Chapter review
questions follow
the last unit in Destinations
each chapter. These A list of reviewed websites is available—
cover all chapter these relate directly to chapter content
outcomes in a for students to access.
variety of question
Interactive activities
styles to provide
opportunities for These are activities that apply and review
all students to concepts covered in the chapters. They are
consolidate new designed for students to work independently, and
knowledge and include:
skills. • interactive animations to develop key skills and
knowledge in a stimulating, visual and engaging
way
The use of the Aboriginal flag in the coursebook • drag-and-drop activities to improve basic
denotes material that is included to cover Aboriginal understandings in a fun and engaging way
perspectives in science. • QuickTime videos to enhance the learning of
content in a visual way.

Companion Website
The Companion Website contains
a wealth of support material for
students and teachers, which has been written to
enhance the content covered in the coursebook.

vi
Homework Book Teacher resource centre
The Homework Book provides a structured program A wealth of teacher support material is provided and
to complement the coursebook. These homework is password protected and includes:
activities: • a chapter test for each chapter, in MS Word to
• cover various skills allow editing by the teacher
required in the syllabus • Coursebook answers
• offer consolidation of key • Homework Book answers
content and interesting • Teaching programs.
extension activities
• provide revision activities
for each chapter,
including the construction
of a glossary
• cater for a multiple
intelligences approach
through varied activities
• have ‘Worksheet’ icons in the coursebook to
denote when a homework activity is available.

Worksheet 2.4 Metal experiments

Teacher resource pack

Material in the teacher resource pack consists of a
printout and electronic copy on CD. It includes:
• curriculum correlation grids mapped in detail to
the NSW syllabus
• chapter-based teaching programs
• contextual teaching programs
• Coursebook answers
• chapter tests in MS Word
• Homework Book answers.

Worksheet 4.3 Pedigree analysis

vii
 A fully mapped and detailed
Science Focus 4 Stage 5 Syllabus Correlation correlation of the stage 5
curriculum outcomes is
available in the Science Focus 4
Teacher Resource Pack.

chapter

1 23456789
Electricity
and Individual
Chemical Health and Global
Materials communi- Genetics Motion Evolution research
reactions cations disease issues
project
technology
outcomes

5.1 ▲

5.2 ▲ ▲

5.3 ▲ ▲

5.4 ▲ ▲ ▲

5.5 ▲

5.6 • • •
5.7
5.8 • • •
5.9
5.10 •
5.11 •
5.12 • • • •
5.13 • • • • • • • •
5.14 • • • • • • • •
5.15 • • • • • • • • •
5.16 • • • • • • • • •
5.17 • • • • • • • • •
5.18 • • • • • • • • •
5.19 • • • • • • • • •
5.20 • • • • • • •
5.21 • • • • • • • •
5.22 • • • • • • •
5.23 • • • •
5.24 • •
5.25 • • • • •
5.26 • • • • • • • •
5.27 • •
Note: ▲ indicates the Key Prescribed Focus Area covered in each chapter.
Chapters may also include information on other Prescribed Focus Areas.

viii
 Verbs
Science Focus 4 uses the following verbs in the
student activities.

Account account for: state reasons for; report on Explain relate cause and effect; make the
give an account of: narrate a series of events relationships between things evident;
or transactions provide the ‘why’
Analyse identify components and the relationships and/or ‘how’
among them; draw out and relate Extrapolate infer from what is known
implications Gather collect items from different sources
Apply use, utilise, employ in a particular situation Identify recognise and name
Appreciate make a judgement about the value of Interpret draw meaning from
Assess make a judgement of value, quality, Investigate plan, inquire into and draw conclusions
outcomes, results or size
Justify support an argument or conclusion
Calculate determine from given facts, figures or
List write down phrases only, without further
information
explanation
Clarify make clear or plain
Modify change in form or amount in some way
Classify arrange or include in classes/categories
Outline sketch in general terms; indicate the main
Compare show how things are similar or different features of
Construct make; build; put together items or arguments Predict suggest what may happen based on
Contrast show how things are different or opposite available information
Critically add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, Present provide information for consideration
(analyse/evaluate) knowledge and understanding, logic, Propose put forward (e.g. a point of view, idea,
questioning, reflection or quality to argument, suggestion) for consideration
(analysis/evaluation) or action
Deduce draw conclusions Recall present remembered ideas, facts or
Define state meaning and identify essential qualities experiences
Demonstrate show by example Recommend provide reasons in favour of
Describe provide characteristics and features Record store information and observations for
Discuss identify issues and provide points for and/or later
against Recount retell a series of events
Distinguish recognise or note/indicate as being distinct Research investigate through literature or practical
or different from; note differences between investigation
Evaluate make a judgement based on criteria; State provide information without further
determine the value of explanation
Examine inquire into Summarise express concisely the relevant details

1
 >>>
Chemical
reactions
Key focus area:
>>> The nature and practice of science
1
By the end of this chapter you
Outcomes
5.2, 5.7.3

should be able to:

write the formulas for some
common chemicals
construct word equations for
simple chemical reactions
explain why the equations for
chemical reactions need to be
balanced
construct balanced formula
equations for chemical
reactions
identify some compounds
that use covalent bonding
and others that use ionic
bonding
identify the characteristics
of some families of organic
compounds.

1 List two states that you are in

Pre quiz

right now.
2 Write chemical formulas for
water, carbon dioxide and
hydrochloric acid.
3 What is dephlogisticated air?
4 Can matter be created or
destroyed? If so, how?
5 How can you get two flames
from a Bunsen burner?
6 Can ethanol be dangerous to
your health?
UNIT
1.1
context
Chemical reactions occur around us all the
time. A colour change or release of heat are
signs that a chemical change is probably
taking place. Chemical reactions can be very
simple or highly complex. It is easy to record
Equations and formulas
Chemical equations take the form:
reactants → products
The substances present at the start of a reaction are
called the reactants, and the new substances formed
are called the products.
Chemical equations can be written as either word
equations or balanced formula equations. For example,
the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric
acid may be represented as the word equation:
magnesium + hydrochloric → magnesium + hydrogen
acid chloride
or as a balanced formula equation:
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Whichever way we write it, the reaction probably
looks something like that shown in Figure 1.1.1.
By now you should be able to write the symbols
for many elements and the chemical formulas of many
common compounds. If you are not yet sure how to do
this, refer to Science Focus 3, Chapters 1 and 2, before
H Cl
H H +
Mg + Mg2+
Cl-
H Cl
The reaction between magnesium and
hydrochloric acid
3.1
UNIT
our observations of chemical reactions, but we also
need to be able to represent what is going on at a
chemical level. The easiest way to represent reactions
is to use chemical equations.
going any further. It is essential that you can write
correct chemical formulas, or none of your equations
will be correct.
Here are a few facts you may have forgotten:
General:
• An element consists of only one type of atom,
e.g. Fe, O2 and S6.
• A compound consists of two or more different
atoms, chemically bonded together, e.g. H2O,
H2SO4 and CO2.
• Ions are charged particles. Positive ions are formed
when metal atoms lose electrons, e.g. Na+, Mg2+
and Al3+. Negative ions are formed when non-
metal atoms gain electrons, e.g. Cl–, S2– and N3–.
• A polyatomic ion or radical is a charged particle
made up of more than one type of atom, e.g. NH4+,
SO42– and CO32–.
Pure metals:
• The bonding within metals (e.g. iron (Fe), gold
(Au) and calcium (Ca)) is called metallic bonding.
• All metals are solid at 25°C, except mercury (Hg),
which is liquid.
Covalent bonding:
• Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons and
occurs only between non-metals and other non-
metals, like carbon (C) and oxygen (O), sulfur (S)
Cl-
and hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and fluorine (F).
• A molecule is composed of non-metals and is
the smallest number of atoms that exist bonded
together in a stable form. Atoms of the noble gases
(Group VIII) exist by themselves and are called
monatomic. For carbon dioxide (CO2), a molecule
consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen
atoms covalently bonded together. This molecular
formula represents the number and type of atoms
Fig 1.1.1
in the compound.
3
Writing chemical equations >>>
The bends
• A diatomic molecule When we breathe,
Sometimes more than one of a polyatomic ion is
consists of two non-metal oxygen (O2) in the air is needed in a formula. This is when brackets are used,
atoms covalently bonded absorbed and dissolved for example Fe2(SO4)3, Ca(OH)2, (NH4)2CO3.
together. Elements that into our blood and used
for respiration. Nitrogen Worksheet 1.1 Writing formulas
exist as diatomic molecules (N2) is also absorbed and
are the gases hydrogen (H2), dissolved, but is not used.
oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), If a diver who is breathing
compressed air rises from
Balancing chemical equations
fluorine (F2) and chlorine the deep too fast, the Let’s take another look at the reaction between
(Cl2), the liquid bromine nitrogen forms bubbles in magnesium and hydrochloric acid.
(Br2), and solid iodine (I2). the diver’s blood. Crippling
pain and paralysis (the Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Ionic bonding: ‘bends’) often result.
In this equation there are a lot of twos! But does
• Ionic bonding almost always Divers often use a mix of
compressed oxygen (O2) each 2 mean the same thing?
involves metals combined
and helium (He), to remove The small numbers (like the ‘2’ in H2) are called
with non-metals. Ionic much of the problem of subscript numbers. These show how many of that
compounds are crystalline nitrogen bubbles. It allows
a diver to come to the type of atom or ion are in the formula. If there is
solids, unless dissolved
surface twenty times faster no subscript number after an atom or ion, it means
in water as an aqueous than with compressed air. there is only one of that atom or ion in the formula.
solution.
Brackets with more subscript numbers simply
• The formula of an ionic
multiply everything inside. Take these examples:
compound is not a molecular formula, since
• H2O has 2 hydrogen (H) atoms and 1 oxygen (O)
ionic compounds form large crystal lattices, not
atom.
molecules. Instead the formula shows the ratio
• MgCl2 has 1 magnesium ion (Mg2+) and 2 chloride
of ions in the crystal. For example, the ionic
ions (Cl–).
compound magnesium oxide has the formula MgO.
• Ca(OH)2 has 1 calcium ion (Ca2+) and 2 hydroxide
This doesn’t mean that one atom of magnesium
ions (OH–). The brackets indicate that overall there
and one atom of oxygen move around together; it
are 2 hydrogen (H) atoms and 2 oxygen (O) atoms.
just means that in any sample of magnesium oxide,
• Fe2(SO4)3 has 2 iron (Fe3+) ions and 3 sulfate ions
the ratio of magnesium ions Mg2+ to oxide ions
(SO42–). The brackets indicate overall that there are
O2– is 1:1. A small crystal may contain a thousand
3 sulfur (S) atoms and 12 oxygen (O) atoms.
magnesium ions and a thousand oxide ions, while
You cannot fiddle with or change subscript
a larger crystal may contain a million magnesium
numbers. These numbers are determined by the place
ions and a million oxide ions. Either way, the
of each element in the periodic table. If you change
formula is simply MgO.
subscript numbers then you are actually inventing
Two different ways of representing the structure new chemicals! Water (H2O), for example, is the safe
Fig 1.1.2 of the ionic crystal caesium chloride liquid we drink and wash in. H2O2 is also
a clear and colourless liquid but is a very
strong corrosive bleach called hydrogen
peroxide. See what happens if you fiddle Prac 1
p. 9
with subscript numbers?
The larger numbers in front of formulas
indicate how much of each chemical is being used
and how much is being produced in the reaction.
These are the numbers we can fiddle with to balance
an equation. The Law of Conservation of Matter states
that ‘matter can be neither created nor destroyed; it
Cs+ ion Cl– ion
can only be changed from one form to another’. This
Cs+ ion Cl– ion means that there must be the same number of each
type of atom on each side of the equation. The atoms

4
 1.1

UNIT
The easiest way to
Fuel cells
Putting a ‘2’ in front of a formula means two of that species balance equations is to
The hydrogen–oxygen fuel
cells used in the Apoll o space follow steps. To show
e.g. 2HCl means H Cl H Cl missions produced pure water this we will use another
as a by-product. The astronauts example.
then used this for drinking. The
The smaller subscript numbers are different. equation for this reacti on is: Sodium carbonate
They show how many of each type of
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O is added to nitric acid,
atom are present. O
H2O represents H H producing sodium nitrate,
water and carbon dioxide.
H • Step 1: Write the word equation for this reaction.
sodium + nitric sodium + water + carbon
CH4 represents H C H
carbonate acid → nitrate dioxide
H
• Step 2: Find the formula for each substance in the
word equation.
Fig 1.1.3 What do the numbers in chemical
equations mean? Sodium carbonate is Na2CO3 and nitric acid is
HNO3.
are simply being rearranged by the reaction. The Sodium nitrate is NaNO3, water is H2O and carbon
unbalanced equation for the above reaction is: dioxide is CO2.
Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2 • Step 3: Use these formulas to write an unbalanced
There is one magnesium on each side of the formula equation.
equation, so they are already balanced. Na2CO3 + HNO3 → NaNO3 + H2O + CO2
However, while there is only one hydrogen atom
• Step 4: Balance each element, one by one, until
on the left, there are two on the right. These can be
there are the same numbers of each type of atom
balanced by doubling the amount of HCl we use. A
on both sides.
large ‘2’ is added in front of the HCl, giving us two
hydrogen atoms on both sides. Sodium (Na): Two on the left, but only one on
the right. Put a big ‘2’ in front of the formula for
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2 sodium nitrate (NaNO3):
This also balances the chlorines. When an equation
is balanced, the mass of the products is equal to the
Na2CO3 + HNO3 → 2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2
mass of the reactants. Nothing has been destroyed and Carbon (C): One on each side. No balancing
nothing new has been created. All the atoms required.
have just been rearranged. This is known
Oxygen (O): Six on the left, but nine on the right.
as the Law of Conservation of Mass,
Placing a big ‘2’ in front of the formula for nitric
and is another way of stating the Law
Prac 2 acid (HNO3) solves the problem:
of Conservation of Matter. p. 9
Na2CO3 + 2HNO3 → 2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2
The other way to balance for oxygen would
have been to put a ‘2’ in front of the formula for
O
H H sodium carbonate. This would have solved the
H H
oxygen problem, but it would have unbalanced the
+ O O
numbers of sodium and carbon.
H H O
H H Hydrogen (H): There are now two on each side, so
no more balancing is required.
2H2 + O2 2H2O • Step 5: Double check the numbers of atoms on
each side to make sure your final equation is
correct.
A balanced equation has the same number and Fig 1.1.4
types of atoms on each side of the equation. Na2CO3 + 2HNO3 → 2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2
5
Writing chemical equations >>>
Reactant side: 2 Na, 1 C, 9 O, 2 H, 2 N • (aq) to show that a substance is in aqueous
solution (i.e. dissolved in water).
Product side: 2 Na, 1 C, 9 O, 2 H, 2 N
Including states, the above reaction would look
Problem solved! Sometimes a bit of trial and like this:
error is required before you successfully balance an
2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)
equation.
Following the steps above, you should find that All the details of the reaction are now clear. Two
atoms of solid calcium react with one molecule of
Al2O3 + C → CO + Al gaseous oxygen, producing two
becomes the balanced equation solid calcium oxide ion clusters.
Al2O3 + 3C → 3CO + 2Al This gives a lot more information
than before. From this point on, try
Which state are we in? to write all your chemical equations The fall of Rome
including state subscripts. Lead poisoning probably
The reaction between calcium and oxygen, forming
Unless told otherwise, you played a significant part
calcium oxide, may be represented as: in the fall of the Roman
should always write the states of
2Ca + O2 → 2CaO Empire. Infertility was
reactants and products as they caused by drinking wine
But what form is each occur at Standard Laboratory from leaden vessels. Lead
chemical in? Are they solid or Conditions (25°C and ‘normal’ was also used as a cure
for diarrhoea. Cosmetics
liquid, a gas or dissolved in 1 atmosphere pressure). used by ancient peoples
water? In order to complete the For example, at Standard included white lead on
picture of the reaction, we use Lights, action! Laboratory Conditions, mercury the face, mercury sulfide
as lipstick, and arsenic
more subscripts to indicate the Calcium oxide (quicklime) (Hg) is a liquid and sulfur (S) sulfide as eyeshadow; the
physical states of the reactants produces an intense white a yellow solid. They react to ultimate self-poisoner’s
light when it is burnt and
and products. These were briefly so was used as an early form mercury sulfide (HgS), the make-up kit!
introduced in Chapter 2 of spotlight in theatres. The reaction being:
Science Focus 3. The subscripts performers on stage were
used are: ‘in the limelight’, a term
Hg(l) + S(s) → HgS(s)
that is still used for a
• (s) for a solid substance person who is the centre
• (g) for a gas of attention.
• (l) for a pure liquid

Normally we think of nitrogen as a gas but it can

+
Fig 1.1.5 also be cooled down to make it into a liquid.

liquid mercury solid sulfur solid mercury

(II) sulfide

Hg(l) + S(s) HgS(s)

Fig 1.1.6 Compounds have very different

physical properties from the
elements that made them.

Worksheet 1.2 Writing and balancing chemical equations

Worksheet 1.3 Revising chemical equations

6
 1.1

UNIT
1.1 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint 15 Identify the equation that is not balanced.

A C5H12 + 8O2 → CO2 + 6H2O
Equations and formulas
B Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
1 Chemical equations have three main parts. State the
C 2Zn + O2 → 2ZnO
name of each part.
D 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
2 State what ‘+’ and ‘→’ mean in chemical equations.
3 List the three main types of chemical bonding. Skills
Balancing chemical equations 16 At Standard Laboratory Conditions (SLC), oxygen
4 State the Law of Conservation of Matter. exists as O2(g). Construct the formula for each of these
5 Explain how the Law of Conservation of Matter applies substances at SLC, including the appropriate state: (aq),
to chemical equations. (l), (s), (g).
a water
Which state are we in?
b carbon dioxide
6 State the symbols and name used to show the state of
c dilute sulfuric acid
matter of chemicals in chemical equations.
d calcium chloride
7 State the Standard Laboratory Conditions of
e neon
temperature and pressure.
f hydrogen
Think g magnesium carbonate crystals
h dilute nitric acid
8 Compare the Law of Conservation of Mass with the
Law of Conservation of Matter. 17 For each of the following substances, state:
i the chemical formula
9 Compare the use of subscript numbers in chemical
ii the type of bonding as metallic, ionic or covalent
equations with the use of larger-sized numbers.
a magnesium
10 Contrast NaCl(s) with NaCl(aq). b strontium sulfate
11 Identify the molecules in the list below. c oxygen gas
a CO2 d carbon monoxide
b H2O e calcium chloride
c NaCl f sulfur dioxide
d Li2CO3 g sodium
e N2 h argon
f CaO 18 Modify the following equations so that they are
g Ar balanced.
12 Calcium forms the ion Ca2+ and chlorine forms the a P4 + O2 → P2O5
chloride ion, Cl–. Identify the correct ionic formula for b KClO3 → KCl + O2
calcium chloride. c BaO + HNO3 → Ba(NO3)2 + H2O
A CaCl d Pb3O4 → PbO + O2
B Ca2Cl e Pb(NO3)2 → PbO + NO2 + O2
C CaCl2
19 Modify these equations so that they are balanced.
D Ca2Cl Include any missing states.
13 Explain why Na2SO4 is not a molecular formula, but a H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O
H2O is. b Na + Cl2 → NaCl(s)
14 Identify the equation that is correctly balanced. c CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + O2
A HNO3 + MgO → Mg(NO3)2 + H2O d CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O(g)
B 2HNO3 + MgO → Mg(NO3)2 + H2O e HNO3 + Ca(s) → Ca (NO3)2(aq) + H2
C 2HNO3 + 2MgO → 2Mg(NO3)2 + H2O 20 Jessica heated some bright blue copper(II) nitrate
D 2HNO3 + 3MgO → Mg(NO3)2 + H2O crystals in a test tube. She noticed brown nitrogen

7
Writing chemical equations >>>
dioxide gas being produced. A glowing splint held Analyse
at the top of the test tube re-lit, proving that oxygen
gas was also produced. A fine black solid, copper(II) 22 David added some dilute hydrochloric acid to some
oxide, was left in the test tube. solid limestone (calcium carbonate) in a beaker. When he
a In this reaction state the reactants and the weighed the products after the bubbling had stopped,
products. he noticed that there had been a reduction in mass.
b Construct the word equation for this reaction. Explain why his results did not seem to agree with the
c Construct the balanced chemical equation, Law of Conservation of Mass.
including states. 23 Solid sodium reacts with oxygen to produce solid
21 For each of the following reactions, construct: sodium oxide. The following experimental data were
obtained for the reaction between sodium and oxygen,
i the word equation
producing sodium oxide:
ii the balanced formula equation, including states
a Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with grains of
sodium hydroxide. Water and sodium Mass of sodium Mass of oxygen Mass of sodium oxide
chloride are the products. reacting (grams) reacting (grams) produced (grams)
b Ammonia (NH3) gas is produced when
2.00 0.70 2.70
nitrogen gas is added to hydrogen gas.
c Carbon monoxide gas combines with 3.00 1.04 4.04
oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas. 4.00 1.39 5.39
d Solid iron combines with chlorine gas
to produce solid iron(III) chloride.
e Dilute sodium hydroxide solution is added a Construct a word equation for this reaction.
to dilute sulfuric acid. Sodium sulfate and b Construct an unbalanced chemical equation for the
water are produced. reaction, then balance it.
f Ammonium nitrate dissolves in water to produce c Modify the equation to include the states of the
ammonium and nitrate ions. reactants and products.
g Hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium metal. A d Explain how the above results prove the Law of
solution of calcium chloride is produced, through Conservation of Mass.
which rise bubbles of hydrogen.

[ Extension ]
Complete the following activities by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 1 and clicking on the destinations button.
1 Investigate green chemistry.
a Describe what is meant by ‘green chemistry’.
b Outline some examples of what is being done in
the study of green chemistry.
c Present your information as a poster to convince
the general public that green chemistry is important
for society and the environment.
2 Connect to the CSIRO double helix website
and locate the ‘Cool Experiments’ page.
a Identify an experiment that involves a
chemical reaction and can safely be done DYO
at home.
b Perform the experiment and present a scientific
report on your findings.
3 Complete the tutorial on balancing chemical equations.
This may mean spending some time each day over
about two weeks working through the tutorial. Record
your self-assessment in a log during this time.

8
 1.1

UNIT
1.1 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT

Studying a reaction Conservation of mass

Aim To make quantitative observations of the
Prac 1 reaction of magnesium metal and an acid
Unit 1.1
Equipment
Magnesium strips, 1 M sulfuric acid, large beaker,
small filter funnel, 100 mL measuring cylinder,
cling wrap, gloves, lab coat, safety glasses
Aim To investigate conservation of mass in a
Prac 2 chemical reaction
Unit 1.1
Equipment
Solid calcium carbonate, 0.5 M hydrochloric
acid, 200 mL conical flask, balloon, spatula,
100 mL measuring cylinder, lab coat, safety
glasses, access to an electronic balance

Fig 1.1.8
inverted measuring
cylinder of acid
balloon
large beaker

water

filter conical flask

cling funnel
wrap 30 mL acid
magnesium
calcium
carbonate

Fig 1.1.7
Method
1 Cut a 4 cm long strip of magnesium. Place it under the
filter funnel in the beaker.
2 Fill the beaker with water until it covers the filter funnel.
3 Fill the measuring cylinder with acid and cover it in cling
wrap.
4 Carefully invert the measuring cylinder on top of the filter
funnel. Let the neck of the filter funnel pierce the cling
wrap.
5 After the bubbling seems to have stopped, measure the
volume of gas collected in the measuring cylinder.
Questions
1 Construct a word equation and the balanced formula
equation for this reaction. The products are hydrogen H2
and magnesium chloride MgCl2.
2 Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas that you would
expect to have been produced if you had used instead:
a an 8 cm strip of magnesium
b a 1 cm strip of magnesium
Method
1 Measure out approximately 0.2 g of calcium carbonate
in the conical flask.
2 Measure out 30 mL of hydrochloric acid into the
measuring cylinder.
3 Place the conical flask, measuring cylinder and balloon
on the balance and record their total weight.
4 Pour the acid into the conical flask and quickly place the
balloon on top.
5 When the reaction is complete, re-weigh the flask (with
balloon attached) and empty measuring cylinder.
Questions
1 Construct a word equation and balanced formula
equation for this reaction.
2 Assess whether your results agree with the Law of
Conservation of Mass.
3 If your results do not agree with the Law, propose
reasons why.

9
UNIT
>>>

1. 2
Some reactions are slow. Others are fast.
context

When we take an antacid, we hope its

reaction with the acids in our stomach
will be a quick one, since it will relieve our
indigestion. Some reactions are so fast,
however, that they explode!
When solid potassium is added to
water, large volumes of explosive
hydrogen gas are rapidly
produced, the energy released by
the reaction setting the hydrogen
alight. Other reactions like the
rusting of iron, or milk turning
sour, are very slow. How quickly
a reaction happens can make the
difference between it being safe or
dangerous. The speed of a reaction
is also important in industry.
When producing chemicals a slow
reaction may be unprofitable.
Speeding up industrial reactions is
a very important area of chemistry.
An especially important Australian
example of this is the production of
sulfuric acid.
The Hindenburg disaster
On 6 May 1937, the hydrogen-filled
Hindenburg airship burst into flame
while landing in New Jersey, USA. The
hydrogen was viewed as the culprit
for many years. Extensive recent
research has, however, discovered For a long time, hydrogen was Fig 1.2.1
that hydrogen did not cause the initial blamed for the Hindenburg disaster.
fire. The actual cause was the high
flammability of the fabric cover. It was
made of a cotton substrate with an If, for various reasons, only 5 g was
aluminised cellulose acetate butyrate obtained then the yield was 5/11.3 × 100 =
covering. The observations at the
scene were consistent with a huge
44%.
aluminium fire. The fabric was ignite d So how are a fast reaction rate and a good
by electrical activi ty in the atmo spher e. yield achieved?
The hydrogen only exploded once the
fire had burnt through the covering.
The electrolytic refinement of copper
produces copper bars like these. Fig 1.2.2

Industrial reactions
For a reaction to be carried out profitably in industry
it must occur fairly quickly, and it must give a good
yield. The yield is the amount of product obtained,
and can be expressed as the percentage of the
expected product that is obtained. For example, if 6 g
of aluminium reacts according to the equation:
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)
we could expect to obtain 11.3 g of Al2O3.

10
 1.2

UNIT
Methods commonly used to improve yield include:
Fig 1.2.3 Some products made using sulfuric acid
• carrying out the reaction at a reasonably high
temperature. The higher the temperature, the
superconductors
greater the energy of the reactants, making the nitroglycerine
reaction more likely to occur.
• using a catalyst. Catalyst are substances that are
not consumed in a reaction, but help the
reaction to proceed more quickly.
• removing the products as they are formed.
• constantly adding reactants to replace Prac 1
p. 13
those used up.
Specific reactions may have car
battery
particular conditions associated with
them. Prac 2 DYO dyes
p. 14 rayon
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4
As an example of an industrial process, we will
look at the production of sulfuric acid, a chemical • Boiling point 340°C
very important to our everyday lives. Sulfuric acid • Very soluble in water
production dates back to the early alchemists. At one • Dissolving the concentrated acid in water releases
stage, concentrated sulfuric acid was called ‘oil of a lot of heat (highly exothermic).
vitriol’ because it was prepared by distilling hydrated • Is a dessicant (absorbs water from surroundings)
ferrous sulfate, FeSO4.7H2O, otherwise known as iron • Can cause severe ‘burns’ to skin
vitriol. • Can cause blindness if it gets in eyes.
Sulfuric acid is the cheapest bulk acid, and is
Production of sulfuric acid
sometimes referred to as the ‘king of chemicals’ because
The contact process is the most commonly used
it is produced in such huge quantities worldwide. A
method for producing sulfuric acid.
country’s sulfuric acid production is considered an
excellent indicator of its industrial well-being.

Uses of sulfuric acid air SO2 SO2 + air

In the nineteenth century, the German chemist Baron Sulfur burner Deduster
molten
Justus von Liebig discovered that when sulfuric sulfur
acid was added to soil, it increased the amount of
phosphorus in the soil for plants to use. The current Converter Drying tower
Diluter
largest single use of sulfuric acid is in making
fertilisers, both superphosphate and ammonium SO2 + air
SO3
sulfate. It is also used to make many organic
Water Heat exchanger
compounds, including ether, nitroglycerine and dyes.
Absorption
It is important in refining petroleum, making tower
paints and pigments, processing metals and Conc. H2SO4 SO3
Storage tanks
making rayon. It is found in car batteries
and used in the superconductor industry for Prac 3
p. 14
cleaning.
The contact process for the production of Fig 1.2.4
Some properties of sulfuric acid sulfuric acid

• Strong acid
Step 1
• Corrosive
Molten sulfur is burned in air to produce sulfur
• Colourless liquid
dioxide gas.
• Density 1.85 g/cm3
• Melting point 10.4°C S(l) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
11
More and faster! Rate and yield considerations
The O2 comes from air which has been dried with
96% H2SO4 and then had dust particles removed.
The yield is increased by making sure that plenty of
oxygen is available.
Step 2
In the converter, the reaction rate is increased by
heating the sulfur dioxide in oxygen. The catalyst
vanadium oxide turns it into sulfur trioxide. This is a
reversible reaction—it can occur in both directions.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
The converter used for
Fig 1.2.5 sulfuric acid production
>>>
The gases are passed over several catalyst beds,
rather than just one, to give them more chance of
reacting, thus increasing the yield further.
Step 3
In the absorber, oleum (H2S2O7) is produced. Like the
other reactions involved in sulfuric acid manufacture,
this is exothermic. The energy released can be used
to make electricity, which helps maintain the cheap
price of sulfuric acid.
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) → H2S2O7(l)
Step 4
Oleum is hydrated to form sulfuric
acid.

10% SO2
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → 2H2SO4(l)
feed gas
11% O2 You can see that to make
this series of reactions occur Who was the
faster and with high yield, they False Geber?
heat are maintained at a reasonably The man who discovered
420°C
exchangers high temperature and a catalyst sulfuric acid around 1300
reaction bed 1 did not write under his
is used. Products are removed
600°C 63% conversion real name. Instead, he
as they are formed, and fresh borrowed the name of
450°C
reactants are injected. This Geber from a long-dead
reaction bed 2
combination gives the industrial Arabic alchemist. His real
510°C 84% conversion name was never revealed,
process for sulfuric acid so this great chemist has
450°C to oleum or production a 99% yield. always been known as the
reaction bed 3 intermediate False Geber.
absorber
475°C 93% conversion Worksheet 1.4 Rates of reaction
from
420°C intermediate
reaction bed 4 absorber

535°C 99.5% conversion to final 6 Describe two ways to obtain a faster reaction rate.
absorber
Sulfuric acid
7 Sulfuric acid is known as ‘the king of chemicals’.

1.2
Explain why.
8 State three major uses of sulfuric acid.
[ Questions ] 9 State five properties of concentrated sulfuric acid.
UNIT

10 Identify the catalyst used in the contact process.

Checkpoint 11 State the formula for the following substances:
Industrial reactions a sulfuric acid
b sulfur dioxide
1 State an example of:
c sulfur trioxide
a a fast reaction
d oleum
b a slow reaction
2 Clarify what is meant by the ‘yield’ of a reaction. Think
3 Clarify what is meant by the ‘rate’ of a reaction. 12 Several catalyst beds are used in the contact process.
4 State what the ‘ideal’ yield of a reaction would be. Explain why.
5 A fast reaction rate and a good yield are particularly 13 Propose a reason why it is called the contact
desirable for industrial reactions. Explain why. process.

12
 1.2

14 Explain what happens in the converter, including how
the rate and yield are maximised.
15 Construct balanced equations for each step in the
production of sulfuric acid by the contact process.
16 Draw a simplified flow chart to demonstrate the four
steps in the contact process.
17 Evaluate the importance of considering the rate and
yield in an industrial reaction.
UNIT
Skills
18 Identify the elements that make up sulfuric acid.
19 It was expected that 2 tonnes of aluminium was to be
obtained from 4 tonnes of ore, but only 1.65 tonnes
was obtained. Calculate the percentage yield.

[ Extension ] 2 The airbag in a car works because of a very fast

chemical reaction.
Investigate a Investigate how an airbag works.
b Present your findings in a brochure that explains
1 Research a chemical reaction of industrial importance. this clearly to car owners.
This may include one of the following:
3 Sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide can cause problems
• the Haber process for producing ammonia
in the environment. Research what these problems
• the Ostwald process for producing nitric acid may be and produce a web page or PowerPoint
• the production of margarine presentation that outlines your information.
• the catalytic converter in car engines and power plants
• the Solvay process for producing sodium hydrogen Surf
carbonate
4 Find out more about the Hindenburg disaster by
• the production of superphosphate connecting to the Science Focus 4
a Construct a labelled diagram or flow chart outlining Companion Website at
the chemical process. www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
b Describe how the reaction conditions are controlled chapter 1 and clicking on the destinations
to obtain: button. Write a newspaper article to assess the true
i the maximum yield of product chemical nature of the Hindenburg disaster.
ii a fast reaction rate
c Outline three significant uses for the product
obtained in the industrial process researched.
d Present your information in a form that is suitable for
display at a science fair.

1.2 [ Practical activities ] acid + Mg ice water

UNIT

Rates of reactions 1 acid

Aim To investigate the variables that affect
Prac 1 reaction rates
Unit 1.2 1 Time the reaction from 2 For the second experiment,
Equipment the moment the magnesium cool the acid before adding
Lab coat, safety glasses, gloves, magnesium strips, ice, is dropped into the acid, until the magnesium.
there is no magnesium left.
1 M HCl, hydrogen peroxide solution, solid manganese
dioxide, stopwatch, spatula, 4 test tubes, test-tube rack,
10 mL measuring cylinder, 2 ×100 mL beakers
Fig 1.2.6
>>

13
More and faster! rate and yield considerations
Method
1 Add a 2 cm strip of magnesium to a test tube.
2 Add 5 mL of acid and time how long it takes for the
reaction to finish. The reaction is
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
3 Place 5 mL of acid in the second test tube and sit it in a
beaker of ice water.
4 Once again, add a 2 cm strip of magnesium and time
how long it takes for the reaction to finish.
5 Add 2 mL of acid and 3 mL of water to a third test
tube.
6 Add a 2 cm strip of magnesium and time how long it
takes for the reaction to finish.
Rates of reactions 2
Aim To investigate how the surface area affects
Prac 2 reaction rate
Unit 1.2
Equipment
Lab coat, safety glasses, gloves, marble chips
(large and small), powdered calcium carbonate,
dilute hydrochloric acid, stopwatch, spatula, 4 test
DYO
tubes, test-tube rack, 10 mL measuring cylinder,
electronic balance
TEACHER DEMONSTRATION
Dehydrating action of sulfuric acid
Prac 3
Unit 1.2 Note: This experiment should be performed in a fume cupboard.
Aim To observe the dehydration action of
concentrated sulfuric acid
Equipment
Lab coat, safety glasses, gloves, conc. H2SO4,
blue copper(II) sulfate crystals, glucose or sucrose,
2 × 100 mL beakers, 2 spatulas
Method
1 Add 2–3 spatulas of blue copper(II) sulfate crystals to a
beaker.
2 Carefully pour about 10 mL of conc. H2SO4 over the
crystals.
14
>>>
7 Add 5 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution to each of two
beakers. Hydrogen peroxide gradually breaks down
according to the equation
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
8 To one beaker, add a very small amount of manganese
dioxide.
9 Compare the two beakers and record your observations.
Questions
1 Identify factors that made the reactions proceed faster
or slower.
2 Predict the effect of heating the reactions.
3 Identify the role of the manganese dioxide in the
hydrogen peroxide reaction.
Method
1 Using the equipment listed, design and perform an
experiment to test the effect of surface area on the rate
of reaction.
2 Construct a graph to display your results.
Questions
1 Use your results to deduce how surface area affects
the rate of reacton.
2 Propose how your experiment could be improved.
3 Leave for a few minutes.
4 Add 2–3 spatulas of glucose or sucrose to another
beaker.
5 Carefully add about 15 mL of conc. H2SO4.
6 Leave for several minutes.
Questions
1 Describe your observations for each experiment.
2 Construct an equation for each reaction.
UNIT
.
13
context

It is common nowadays to see organically
grown produce in shops, and see labels
that say ‘100% organic’ or ‘made from
organic ingredients’. This means the food
has been grown by natural
methods, avoiding the use of
synthetic chemicals such as
insecticides. In chemistry, the
term ‘organic’ refers to the
Organic water
chemistry of substances in
One brand of mineral water is
currently being marketed as
‘100% organic’. Does this mean
that the water was ‘grown’ by
natural methods or does it mean Organic chemistry
that it is full of both living and Organic chemistry is
dead organisms? Marketing
the chemistry of carbon
campaigns frequently misuse
terminology and should be
treated with care—for example,
compounds. Carbon has
four outer-shell (or valence)
a brand of marshmallows is
electrons and can covalently
currently being labelled as ‘fat
free’. Marshmallows have always bond with up to four other
been fat free, but are full of atoms, usually other carbon
sugars, which will be converted
atoms, hydrogen or oxygen.
to fat if you eat too many!
In this way, carbon is unique
My necklace was once
my grandmother!
Humans are built from
organic substances and are
therefore a good source of
carbon. Diamonds are one
of the forms pure carbon
takes. A company in the
United States, LifeGem
Memorials, is developing a
process to exploit these two
facts: they intend to convert
cremated human remains into
diamonds, which can then be
worn as jewellery by grieving
relatives!
Fig 1.3.1 This person contains many organic
compounds, including proteins, lipids
and carbohydrates.
which carbon is the main element. Organic substances
also contain other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen, but carbon is always the ‘backbone’.
Organic substances are the basis of
all living things, and of everything that
was once living.
Deadly rhubarb
Rhubarb contains high
in that it is able to form millions levels of a deadly organic
of different stable compounds. compound, oxalic acid.
Compounds like carbon monoxide Although the edible stalks
contain a very low level of
(CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) oxalic acid, the level in the
are inorganic compounds, as are
methane (CH4) and vinegar (acetic
leaves is high, so high that
during World War I, people
died from eating them
acid, CH3COOH).
as a vegetable. Beetroot
and peanuts also contain
Multiple bonds significant amounts of oxalic
acid, but you would have to
Before we go any further, it is
eat a lot to overdose. Oxalic
important that you understand the acid kills by lowering our
difference between single bonds, blood calcium below the
critical level.
double bonds and triple bonds.
Some information to help you
understand the bonds:
• A single bond is one pair of electrons being shared
between two atoms.
• A double bond is two pairs of electrons being
shared between two atoms.
• A triple bond is—you guessed it—three pairs of
electrons being shared between two atoms.
Carbon has atomic number 6, which means it
contains six protons and six electrons. It has two
electrons in the first shell, and four electrons in
its outer (valence) shell, giving it an electronic
configuration of 2.4. Its four valence electrons place it
in Group IV of the Periodic Table. To achieve a stable
eight valence electrons, carbon needs to gain four
more electrons. It does so by forming four covalent
bonds.
These can be:
• four single bonds, or
• two double bonds, or
• a single and a triple bond, or
• one double bond and two single bonds.

15
100% organic >>>
Multiple bonds Fig 1.3.2
where n is the number of carbon atoms. Put
simply, the number of hydrogen atoms equals double
Single bond Double bond the number of carbon atoms plus two.
For example, if the compound contains two carbon
C C C C
atoms,
O shared T o shared
pair of electrons pairs of electrons n=2

H H H H then the number of hydrogen atoms in the molecule is

H C C H C C 2n + 2 = (2 × 2) + 2 = 6
H H H H The molecular formula is therefore C2H6.
Ethane contains Ethene contains one carbon-carbon The alkanes form a related series of molecules
only single bonds double bond and four carbon-hydrogen
single bonds
called a homologous series. Each molecule in the
series is a little bigger than the previous one: each
Triple bond
subsequent molecule has an additional –CH2 unit
C C added to it. The first two members in the homologous
Th shared series of alkanes are methane, CH4, and ethane, C2H6.
pairs of electrons
H C C H
Ethyne contains one carbon-carbon triple bond Fig 1.3.4 Methane and ethane
and two carbon-hydrogen single bonds

H H H

Hydrocarbons H C H H C C H
The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons. H H H
These are compounds that consist only of carbon and H H H
hydrogen. Hydrocarbon compounds are important in
our everyday lives. Cars run on hydrocarbon fuels and C H C C H
other hydrocarbons lubricate their engines. The many H H H H
H
plastics we use are derived from hydrocarbons. methane ethane
CH4 C2H6

The first part of the

name indicates how Prefix Number of
carbon atoms
many carbon atoms
are in the compound. Meth 1

The prefixes used for Eth 2

naming are listed in the Prop 3
table. But 4
The second part of
Pent 5
the name indicates what
type of compound it is. Hex 6
Fig 1.3.3 These items are all hydrocarbon-based.
For alkanes, the Hept 7
name ends in –ane. For Oct 8
Alkanes example, the alkane
Non 9
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain only single containing four carbons
bonds. They have the general formula Dec 10
is called butane. It has
CnH2n + 2 the formula C4H10.

16
 1. 3

Crude oil is formed from the remains of plants
and animals that lived millions of years ago, and
is composed mostly of alkanes. The crude oil is
refined (separated into its components) by fractional
UNIT
distillation. This means that the crude oil is
heated and passed into a column where the
components are separated according to their
boiling points into the different fractions.
Some of the fractions are used as is, while others
are cracked to produce shorter-chain alkanes and
some new chemicals, alkenes. Cracking involves
heating the large molecules in the presence of a
catalyst. An example of one of these cracking reactions
is shown in Figure 1.3.7.

A cracking reaction Fig 1.3.7

H H H

H H
H C C C H
heat
H C C C C H
H H H
H H
H H
heptane
H H

H
H H H C C H
C C + H C C C H
H H
H H H H
H
ethene pentane
Fig 1.3.5 Crude oil forms from the remains of dead
animal and plants under the Earth’s crust.
Oil rigs are used to extract the oil.

Alkenes
cool
(25°C)
Name of How many What is it Alkenes contain a double bond and
fraction carbons in used for?
chain? have the general formula
CnH2n
Gas 1–4 Fuel
This means the number of hydrogen
Petrol 4–10 Fuel for cars
atoms in the molecule is exactly
Kero 10–16 Fuel for jets double the number of carbon atoms.
Diesel oil 16–20 Fuel for central The two smallest alkenes are ethene
heating. Can also be and propene. Alkenes are named in the
cracked to make
smaller molecules same way as alkanes, except that their
Lubricating 20–30 Oil for machines like names end in –ene.
oil cars. Can be cracked The major use for alkenes is in
making plastics such as polyethene,
crude Fuel oil 30–40 Fuel for ships and
oil in power stations the material used to make shopping
bags. The double bond can break, and
Paraffin wax 40–50 Waxy papers,
candles, polishing
the molecules can join end-on-end to
form long polymer chains. You will
very hot
(400°C) Bitumen 50 and Roads learn more about this in Chapter 2,
over
Materials.
Fig 1.3.6 Fractional distillation of crude oil

17
 100% organic >>>
Alkenes Fig 1.3.8 Alkynes
Alkynes contain triple bonds and have the general
H H formula
H H H
C2H2n – 2
C C H C C C
The number of hydrogen atoms in an alkyne
H H H
H molecule is equal to double the number of carbon
H atoms minus two. Two alkynes are shown in
H H H
Figure 1.3.11.
C C H C C
Alkynes Fig 1.3.11
H H H C H
ethene propene H
H
C2H4 C3H6 H CC C C H
H C C H

H
H
H H
H C C H H C C C H
heat H
C2H4 C C ethyne propyne
catalyst
Checking out H H
C2H2 C3H4
Twenty million Australians
use nearly seven billion Part of a polyethene polymer looks like:
plastic check-out bags every H H H The simplest alkyne is ethyne, commonly called
year! Organic chemicals have
changed the way we live and H H acetylene. It is highly reactive due to the presence
C C C
the resources we use. But of a triple bond. If acetylene is burned in a stream
we must also think careful ly C C
H H H of oxygen, very high temperatures (almost 3000°C)
about how we use them.
Many organic chemic als H H
are reached. This is why the oxyacetylene torch is
are not biodegradable. This used in welding. Other alkynes are used in many
means they do not break manufacturing processes.
down naturally, but instead
Fig 1.3.9 The formation of
environ ment for polyethene
stay in the
hundreds and sometimes
thousands of years. Plastic
bags in the ocean are a great Plastic bags kill thousands
cause of concern as they of sea birds and marine
are mistaken for jellyfish by animals every year. Fig 1.3.10
turtles, whales, sea birds
and other animals that eat
them. Once in the gut the
bags slowly and painfully
kill the animal. The bag is
then released back into the
ocean, to kill again when the
animal’s body decomposes.
Do you use alternatives to
plastic bags when shopping?

Welders use an oxyacetylene torch that Fig 1.3.12

reaches temperatures of up to 3000°C.

Alcohols
Alcohols contain the hydroxy group, –OH. The
hydroxy group is known as a functional group. A
functional group is an atom, or group of atoms, that
affects the properties of a compound.

18
 1. 3

UNIT
The biological molecule cholesterol is an alcohol and
H an important component of our bodies.

H O H C O Combustion of hydrocarbons and

H
H C C H H H C C alcohols
H
H H H H When hydrocarbons or alcohols burn in lots of
H
May be called ethanol May be called 1-propanol oxygen, carbon dioxide and water are produced.
or hydroxyethane. or 1-hydroxypropane. This is called complete combustion. These reactions
The hydroxy group is attached
H to the first carbon. also produce heat energy, which may be harnessed,
H for example in coal-fired power stations, to produce
H
H C C H May be called 2-butanol electricity.
H or 2-hydroxybutane. The
H C
H
C
hydroxy group is attached
In complete combustion:
H
O
to the second carbon. ethane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
H 2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
Sometimes, if the supply of oxygen is limited,
Fig 1.3.13 How to name alcohols incomplete combustion may occur. This is usually
characterised by a black, smoky flame.
Ethanol is the alcohol in beer, wine and spirits In incomplete combustion, two reactions tend to
and is the best known of the alcohols. Ethanol has occur simultaneously:
many other uses, however: it is an excellent solvent, is ethane + oxygen → carbon monoxide + water
found in many glues, paints and inks, and is used as a
reactant to make rubbers and flavourings.
2C2H6(g) + 5O2(g) → 4CO(g) + 6H2O(g)
One way to produce ethanol is by fermentation
ethane + oxygen → carbon + water
of fruit or vegetable matter. This reaction may be
2C2H6(g) + 3O2(g) → 4C(s) + 6H2O(g)
represented as: Incomplete combustion produces less heat energy
than complete combustion and can also produce a
glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide
deadly pollutant, carbon monoxide gas.
C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
The catalyst for this
reaction is yeast.
Another widely
used alcohol is 1,2-
ethanediol, better Zero limit for L and P platers
known as antifreeze. Since May 2004 the legal blood
The addition of this alcohol content in New South Wales
for all learner and provisional licence
molecule to radiator holders has been zero. The reason for
fluid lowers the this limit is that a little bit of ethanol
melting point of has a huge effect on your body. Low
doses affect the reticular system—the
the liquid so that it primitive part of the brain that maintains
won’t freeze in cold consciousness and responsible
weather. Methanol is behaviour. The initial effect you feel
depends on how much sensory input
the main component
you are getting, as this determines
of methylated spirits. which brain pathways are affected. In
Propanol is used quiet settings, you may become drowsy.
as rubbing alcohol. In a social setting, you are more likely
to feel stimulated. This is the result Incomplete combustion in car engines Fig 1.3.14
1,2,3-propanetriol, of the alcohol affecting the pathways produces carbon, carbon monoxide and other
known as glycerine dealing with inhibition. Ethanol is not chemicals that contribute to photochemical
a stimulant—it is a central nervous smog and air pollution.
or glycerol, is a
system depressant. Even in very small
component of many amounts, it slows your reflexes and
Prac 1
moisturisers. impairs your judgement. Worksheet 1.5 Organic chemistry p. 21

19
100% organic >>>

1. 3 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint 15 Complete the table by identifying the molecule or its

formula.
Organic chemistry
1 Clarify what is meant by ‘organic chemistry’.
Molecule name Molecular formula
2 List the main elements in organic compounds.
Pentane
3 Explain what is meant by a ‘hydrocarbon’.
C4H8
Multiple bonds
C10H18
4 Contrast single, double and triple bonds.
Hexene
Hydrocarbons
5 List two examples of hydrocarbons that have: Octane

a single bonds only C3H8

b a double bond Propyne
c a triple bond
6 List five important hydrocarbon products.
7 Explain what is meant by a ‘homologous series’. 16 Fractional distillation separates the alkane fractions in
Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes crude oil. Outline how this is achieved.
8 Identify the three homologues series of hydrocarbons. 17 State the name of the alcohol we drink.
9 State the name and formula for the: 18 State another name for:
a first three alkanes a antifreeze
b fourth alkene b acetylene
c first alkyne c methylated spirits
d polymer made from ethene 19 Identify the products formed from:
10 State the purpose of: a the complete combustion of methane
a fractional distillation b the incomplete combustion of methane
b cracking alkanes 20 Compared with the blue flame of a Bunsen burner, the
yellow flame is relatively cool and very dirty, leaving
Alcohols a layer of black carbon on anything heated in it.
11 Identify the special functional group that alcohols Propose reasons why two flames can be so different
contain. when they burn the same gas.
Combustion of hydrocarbons and alcohols
Analyse
12 Distinguish between complete and incomplete
combustion. 21 a Identify the reactants and the products in the
fermentation equation.
Think b State two uses for fermentation.
13 Identify one carbon-based compound that is not an 22 Explain the meaning of the statement: ‘Fermentation
organic compound. is catalysed by yeast’.
14 It is not possible for the molecules methene and 23 Evaluate complete and incomplete combustion in
methyne to exist. Account for this fact. terms of their efficiency in releasing the energy in fuel,
and their effect on the environment.
24 Discuss the importance of organic chemistry for
society.

20
 1. 3

UNIT
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Carbon compounds play an important role in our ACTIVITY
everyday life. Research information on ten useful carbon
compounds. For each compound: Making molecules
a State the correct chemical name and common name. Use a molecular model building kit to construct models
b Construct a model. of some alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and alcohols. Draw
c Describe one significant use. and name the models you make.

1. 3 [ Practical activity ]
UNIT

Complete and incomplete combustion

Aim To examine the products of complete and Method
Prac 1 incomplete combustion 1 Light the candle and note things like the colour of the
Unit 1.3
Equipment flame and any sign of soot.
Ethanol, Pasteur pipette, kerosene with wick, lab coat, safety 2 Put a few drops of ethanol on a watch-glass and light it
glasses, heat mat, watch-glass, candle carefully. Observe the flame.
3 Light the kerosene burner and observe the flame.

Questions
1 Describe any evidence observed for:
a complete combustion
ethanol kerosene b incomplete combustion
2 The molecular formula of ethanol is C2H5OH. Kerosene
is a mixture of hydrocarbons with an average formula
of C12H26. Explain the difference in the way these
compounds burned, in terms of their formulas.
3 Is the burning of petrol in cars an example of complete
combustion or incomplete combustion? Justify your
Fig 1.3.15 answer.

21
 UNIT
>>>

1. 4
context

In any reaction billions of atoms, ions and
molecules are colliding with each other
and rearranging each other. A single drop
of water, for example, contains billions of
water molecules and a beaker of water has
many, many more. When chemists run an
experiment, they deal with very large numbers of
atoms, ions and molecules and not just single atoms
or small groups of them. The numbers involved are
so huge that a new way of counting is needed. This
is where the mole comes in. The maths involved in
chemistry is tricky at first, but very useful once you
get the hang of it!
mole of carbon atoms must be 12 grams. The mass of
one mole of oxygen atoms is 16 grams. Likewise, if we
weighed out 127.6 g of tellurium (Te) then we would
have a mole of tellurium atoms.

Typical information from the periodic

table. Some periodic tables may be
The mole Fig 1.4.1 arranged slightly differently.
If you were asked how many eggs are in a dozen, you
would of course say 12. We use a dozen instead of atomic mass
atomic (the mass in
counting individual eggs, so three dozen is 36 eggs, number grams) of
10 dozen is 120 eggs and so on. The mole also stands 1 mole of
for a group of things, although a mole has many more these atoms

things in it than a dozen. The mole in chemistry

has nothing to do with small, furry, burrowing
element
animals but instead stands for a huge number, called symbol
Avogadro’s number. This number is an incredibly
large 6.02 × 1023, or 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 element
name
or 602 thousand billion billion! There would be
6.02 × 1023 eggs in a mole of eggs, and a mole of
people means 6.02 × 1023 people. This is well over a
thousand billion times the current world population!
In chemistry, a mole of carbon atoms would contain
6.02 × 1023 carbon atoms and a mole of water would
have 6.02 × 1023 water molecules in it. The mole is
useful in chemistry because it gives us a number of
atoms or molecules that we can actually see and
measure out. A single atom or molecule is far too
small to work with.

Weighing a mole
The periodic table on page 310 of the Science Focus 4
coursebook includes all the details of each element. It
also includes the atomic mass (sometimes called the
atomic weight) of the element. The atomic mass is the How big is a mole? A mole of cane toads would Fig 1.4.2
cover an area the size of Queensland with a
mass in grams of a mole of those atoms. For example, layer of amphibians many kilometres thick!
the atomic mass of carbon C is 12, so the mass of one Maybe we should call it a ‘toad’ instead!

CD2
 1.4

UNIT
Masses in a reaction Calculating formula masses Fig 1.4.3
The mole is useful because it allows us to use the
periodic table and balanced chemical equations. We CALCULATING FORMULA MASSES
can calculate exactly what mass of a reactant is
e.g. calculate the formula mass of C2H6O2
required for a reaction and how much product the
reaction will produce. This is made up of:
2 carbons 2 oxygens
2 carbons
As an example, let’s look at the reaction of liquid 6 hydrogens 6 hydrogens
mercury with sulfur powder to form mercury sulfide. 2 oxygens
The word equation is: The formula mass is then:
mercury + sulfur → mercury sulfide (2 × atomic mass of carbon) + (6 × atomic mass of hydrogen)
+ (2 × atomic mass of oxygen)
This formula equation is already balanced: = (2 × 12 g/mol) + (6 × 1 g/mol) + (2 × 16 g/mol)
Hg(l) + S(s) → HgS(s) = 62 g/mol

This tells us that one atom of mercury reacts with

one atom of sulfur to form one ion cluster of mercury
The mass of 1 mole of a
sulfide. It also tells us that one mole of mercury atoms
compound is called the
would react with one mole of sulfur atoms to produce
formula mass. To calculate
one mole of mercury sulfide. So:
formula mass, simply break the Did Lecoq crow?
1 mole Hg(l) + 1 mole S(s) → 1 mole HgS(s) substance down into its For a scientist to name a new
or, using the atomic masses from the periodic table elements. For example, discovery after himself is simply
on page 310 of the coursebook: not done. The element gallium was
ammonium carbonate has the discovered and named in 1874 by
200.6g Hg(l) + 32g S(s) → 232.6g HgS(s) formula: (NH4)2CO3. Frenchman Paul Emile Lecoq de
This is made from 2 Boisbaudran. The name ‘gallium’
In words, this means that 200.6 g of mercury will came from Gallia, the Latin name
react with 32 g of sulfur to produce 232.6 g of mercury nitrogen atoms, 8 hydrogen
for France. But gallus is rooster in
sulfide. atoms, 1 carbon atom and 3 Latin, while ‘le coq’ is French for
Let’s look at another reaction, this time between oxygen atoms. From the rooster. A coincidence, or was this
periodic table, the atomic Frenchman cleverly putting his
gallium and oxygen. Its word equation is: personal stamp on his find?
masses of these elements are:
gallium + oxygen → gallium oxide
The balanced chemical equation is:
4Ga(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Ga2O3(s) Element Symbol Atomic mass (grams)
In other words, four gallium atoms react with three Nitrogen N 14
molecules of oxygen gas to produce two ion clusters of Hydrogen H 1
gallium oxide.
Carbon C 12
It also tells us that:
Oxygen O 16
4 moles Ga(s) + 3 moles O2(g) → 2 moles Ga2O3(s)
Unlike the example above, here we need to do
some calculations for masses:
Hence, the formula mass = (14 g × 2) + (1 g × 8) +
4Ga(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Ga2O3(s)
(12 g × 1) + (16 g × 3) = 96 g
(69.7 g × 4) (16 g × 6) (69.7 g × 4) + (16 g × 6) This means that one mole of (NH4)2CO3 has a mass
278.8 g 96 g 374.8 g
of 96 grams.
This means that 278.8 g of gallium reacts with 96 g
of oxygen to give 374.8 g of gallium oxide, or: Taking it a step further …
278.8g Ga(s) + 96g O2(g) → 374.8g Ga2O3(s) Let’s look at the combustion of methane.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Prac 1
Formula mass of methane (CH4)
p. CD7 = (12 g × 1) + (1 g × 4) = 16 g

CD3
 Maths in chemistry! >>>
Dephlogisticated air
Formula mass of oxygen (O2)
Joseph Priestley first isolated
= 16 g × 2 = 32 g oxygen in the eighteenth century,
Formula mass of carbon dioxide (CO2) calling it ‘dephlogisticated air’.
= (12 g × 1) + (16 g × 2) = 44 g Priestley was an English clergyman
and was dubbed ‘Dr Phlogiston’
Formula mass of water (H2O) by newspaper reporters of the day.
= (1 g × 2) + (16 g × 1) = 18 g He was delighted with the effects
of breathing his pure oxygen,
dephlogisticated air. He wrote that
The combustion of methane Fig 1.4.4 ‘my breast felt peculiarly light and
easy for some time afterwards. Who
can tell but that, in time, this pure
air may become a fashionable article
O in luxury. Hitherto only two mice
H H and myself have had the privilege
O O of breathing it’. Unfortunately, the
H mice died soon after in Priestley’s
O experiments. As predicted by
H C H + H H Priestley, breathing pure oxygen
+ became fashionable for a short time
H
O O in the early 2000s, particularly in
California, USA. Patrons of ‘oxygen
O C O bars’ would be hooked up to breathe
Fig 1.4.5 A portrait of bottled oxygen.
Joseph Priestley

Using the atomic masses from the periodic table,

This equation shows that 1 mole of methane the formula masses are found to be:
molecules (16 g) reacts with 2 moles of oxygen H2S = 34 g
molecules (2 × 32 g = 64 g), producing 1 mole of Cl2 = 71 g
carbon dioxide molecules (44 g) and 2 moles of water HCl = 36.5 g
molecules (2 × 18 g = 36 g). Another way this could be S = 32 g
written is: In terms of masses we have:
16g CH4(g) + 64g O2(g) → 44g CO2(g) + 36g H2O(l) H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s)
32 g 71 g 2 × 36.5 g 32 g
The mass of reactants is 80 g and so is the mass of
Another way of writing this could be:
products: the Law of Conservation of Mass is obeyed.
Let’s say that we only have 8 grams of methane, 32g H2S(g) + 71g Cl2(g) → 73g HCl(g) + 32g S(s)
and not 16 g as assumed in the equation above. The But what if we don’t want 32 g of sulfur, but only
formula mass of methane is 16 g so this is equal to 8/16 want to produce, say, 4.5 g? How much of each
or half of a mole. Half a mole of methane will only reactant will we need to mix?
need half the oxygen and will obviously only produce Mass of one mole of sulfur = 32 g
half the amount of carbon dioxide and water, i.e.: We don’t need one mole of sulfur, but need only a
Mass of oxygen used fraction of a mole. The fraction of sulfur produced =
= 1/2 × 64 g = 32 g 4.5/32 mole.

Mass of carbon dioxide produced So we only need this mass of hydrogen sulfide
= 1/2 × 44 g = 22 g reacting:
Mass of water produced = 4.5/32 × 34 g = 4.8 g
= 1/2 × 36 g = 18 g The mass of chlorine reacting needs to be:
Getting the hang of it? Let’s try another example to = 4.5/32 × 71 g = 10 g
make sure. Hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine gas
to give hydrogen chloride gas and solid sulfur. The Breaking down formulas
balanced chemical equation for this reaction is: If you take a look at the formula for carbon dioxide,
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s) you can see that 12 g of its formula mass comes from

CD4

carbon, and the rest comes from oxygen. Calculated as
a percentage of the total mass of 44 g we get:
Percentage of carbon in carbon dioxide
= 12/44 × 100 = 27%
Percentage of oxygen in carbon dioxide
= 32/44 × 100 = 73%
Carbon dioxide can be formed in many ways. For
example:
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
or
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
Whichever way carbon dioxide is formed, it will
always contain the same proportions of carbon and
oxygen. This is called the Law of Constant
1. 4
[ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
The mole
1 Clarify what is meant by the term ‘mole’ in chemistry.
2 Outline why the ‘mole’ is used instead of individual
atoms in chemistry.
Masses in a reaction
3 The large numbers that appear in front of compounds are
the only ones we can alter to balance a chemical equation.
Explain how these numbers relate to the number of moles
of each chemical taking part in the reaction.
4 The formula mass of water is 18 g. Explain how this was
calculated.
Taking it a step further
5 Explain how the mole ratios of reactants and products
can be used practically in chemistry.
6 The Law of Conservation of Mass is obeyed in chemical
reactions. State how the mole can be used to show this.
Breaking down formulas
7 Outline how the percentage of carbon in carbon dioxide
can be calculated.
8 Clarify what is meant by the ‘Law of Constant Proportions’.
Think
9 Calculate the number of each in the following examples:
a socks in a pair of socks
b eggs in a dozen eggs
c gold atoms in a mole of gold
d H2O molecules in a mole of water
e dozens of eggs in a mole of eggs
f pairs of socks in a mole of socks
1. 4
UNIT
Proportions: this simply states that a compound will
always have the same proportions of each element,
regardless of how it was made.
10 Iron reacts with sulfur, producing iron(II) sulfide.
a Given that iron(II) is Fe2+ and sulfide is S2–, construct
the formula for the compound iron(II) sulfide.
b Construct a balanced chemical equation for this
reaction.
c 55.9 g of iron completely reacts with sulfur.
Calculate the mass of sulfur needed and the mass
of iron(II) sulfide that will be produced.
Skills
11 Using the following equation:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
calculate
a the number of moles of each reactant required
b the number of moles of water produced
c the masses of each reactant required and the
expected mass of the product
12 Use the information from the periodic table on page 310
of the coursebook to calculate the formula mass of:
a glucose, C6H12O6
b calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2
c hydrogen peroxide, H2O2
d sodium phosphate, Na3PO4
13 Given that the formula of lead oxide is PbO2 calculate
the masses missing in the table below.
Mass of lead Mass of oxygen Mass of lead oxide
reacting (g) reacting (g) produced (g)
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
14 Calculate the percentage by mass of each element in
potassium hydrogen carbonate, KHCO3.
Analyse
15 Consider these two reactions:
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
In a flask, 2.5 g of calcium reacted with sufficient
hydrochloric acid. In another flask, 2.5 g of
magnesium reacted with sufficient hydrochloric acid.
a Identify the common product from both reactions.
CD5
 Maths in chemistry!
b Which flask would produce more gas? Justify your
answer. (Hint: Think about how many moles of each
metal there are at the start.)
16 Copper(II) carbonate (CuCO3) decomposes when
heated, producing copper(II) oxide (CuO) and carbon
dioxide (CO2).
a Construct a formula equation for this reaction and
balance it.
b If 6 g of copper(II) oxide is produced, calculate the
mass of copper(II) carbonate that must have reacted.
17 When methane gas (CH4) burns in oxygen (O2), carbon
dioxide and water vapour are formed.
a Construct a balanced formula equation for this
reaction.
b Calculate the minimum mass of oxygen needed for
4 g of methane to completely burn.
>>>
18 Nitrogen forms many different compounds with oxygen.
One of these was found to contain 28 g of nitrogen for
every 64 g of oxygen.
a Calculate how many moles of nitrogen and of
oxygen this is equivalent to.
b Identify the probable formula of this compound.
19 Is it cheaper to buy sodium carbonate (washing soda)
as the anhydrous (waterless) salt Na2CO3 at $2.00 per
kilogram, or as the decahydrate salt, Na2CO3·10H2O, at
$1.00 per kilogram? Justify your answer.
20 A student produced a compound that he believed was
Al2O3. He found that his compound was 45% aluminium
and 55% oxygen. Is it Al2O3? Justify your answer.
21 Sarah conducted an experiment where she burned 0.3 g
of magnesium in oxygen. From her results she calculated
that 0.7 g of magnesium oxide was produced. Her prac
partner, Stephen, said that was impossible. Decide which
of them is correct, and justify your answer.

[ Extension ]
b Antoine Lavoisier deduced the Law of Constant
Investigate Proportions. Explain how he did this.
c Outline the contribution of one other chemist in this
1 Research information to discover how scientists have area.
contributed to the understanding of maths in chemistry.
2 Estimate how many people are alive in the world today.
a Describe how Amadeo Avogadro came to have a
Is this equal to, more than, or less than a mole of people?
very important number named after him.

ACTIVITY
Reacting ratios
The following table shows the results of an Mass of mysterium Mass of sulfur Mass of mysterium
experiment in which various masses of the fictional reacted (g) reacted (g) sulfide produced (g)
metallic element mysterium, symbol M, were reacted
1.00 1.41
with sulfur, producing mysterium sulfide:
xM(s) + yS(s) → MxSy(s) 2.00 2.82
1 List the reacting masses of sulfur in the table. 3.00 4.23
2 Construct a line graph of the mass of mysterium
4.00 5.64
reacting (vertical axis) against the mass of sulfur
reacting (horizontal axis). 5.00 7.05
3 Justify whether this graph proves the Law of 6.00 8.46
Constant Proportions. 7.00 9.87
4 Explain why logically the graph should pass
through the origin.
5 Use rise/run to calculate the slope or gradient of
the graph.
6 Construct an equation for the straight line in the
graph.

CD6
 1. 4

UNIT
1. 4 [ Practical activity ]
UNIT

TEACHER Method
1 Clean the magnesium strip with the sandpaper.
DEMONSTRATION
2 Curl the magnesium strip and place in the crucible.
Prac 1 Reacting amounts
Unit 1.4 Place the lid on, and weigh it.
Aim To calculate the mass of the product that 3 Place the crucible on the pipe clay triangle over the
should be obtained from reacting magnesium in air Bunsen burner.
and compare with experimental data DO NOT LOOK AT THE BURNING MAGNESIUM
Equipment DIRECTLY OR ALLOW STUDENTS TO VIEW
DIRECTLY.
5 cm magnesium strip, crucible with lid, tripod, Bunsen
burner, pipe clay triangle, electronic balance, heat-proof mat, 4 Heat it until combustion starts. If necessary, lift the lid
tongs, sandpaper, gloves, safety glasses, lab coat slightly from time to time to keep the combustion going.
5 When the combustion is complete, let the crucible cool,
then reweigh it.

crucible, Questions
with lid,
containing 1 Constuct a balanced equation for the reaction of
magnesium magnesium with oxygen, O2, producing magnesium
pipe-clay
oxide, MgO.
triangle
2 Record the mass of magnesium that reacted, and the
Bunsen mass of magnesium oxide produced.
burner tripod
3 Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that you
should have obtained from this amount of magnesium.
heat mat 4 Compare the theoretical mass with the actual mass.
5 Propose reasons why the theoretical and actual mass
are probably close, but not exactly the same.

Fig 1.4.6

CD7

Chapter review
[ Summary questions ]
1 Clarify what the Law of Conservation of Mass means
with regard to reactants and products.
2 Explain the purpose of using a chemical equation.
3 List the possible states in which chemicals may
exist and list the symbols used for them in an
equation.
4 Write a chemical equation demonstrating the following
features: reactants and products, states of each
substance, correctly written formulas, and numbers
balancing the equation.
5 Define the term ‘SLC’.
6 State one thing that could make a reaction go faster,
besides using a catalyst.
7 State the percentage yield obtained in the manufacture
of sulfuric acid.
8 Summarise the four steps in the production of sulfuric
acid.
9 Using equations, outline how the yield and rate are
controlled in the contact process.
10 List three properties and uses of sulfuric acid.
11 Use an example to help define the term ‘homologous
series’.
12 List five important uses for organic compounds.
[ Thinking questions ]
13 Assess whether a fast reaction rate guarantees a good
yield.
14 Evaluate the need to consider rate and yield in industrial
reactions.
15 Which of the following two formulas is a molecular
formula?
SO2 or Na2SO4
Justify your answer.
16 Modify the following chemical equations so that they
are balanced.
a Al(OH)3 + HNO3 → H2O + Al(NO3)3
b H2O + K → H2 + KOH
17 Describe organic chemistry.
22
>>>
18 Draw diagrams to demonstrate the molecular structure
of ethane, ethene and ethyne.
19 An organic molecule has five carbon atoms. State its
name if it is an alkane, alkene or alkyne.
20 Describe how a polymer is made from ethene.
[ Interpreting questions ]
21 Extrapolate in order to complete this word equation:
magnesium + hydrochloric acid →
22 Describe in words what these equations are showing:
a 2Na + 2H2O → H2 + 2NaOH
b CuO + 2HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + H2O
23 Solid lithium carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric
acid to produce a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
a Identify the likely salt produced.
b Construct a word equation for the reaction.
c Construct a balanced formula equation for it, with
subscripts indicating the states of each chemical.
24 For each of the reactions below, construct:
i the word equation
ii the balanced formula equation, including states
a Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with a lump of
potassium hydroxide to produce water containing
dissolved potassium chloride.
b Sulfur dioxide is added to oxygen, producing sulfur
trioxide gas.
c Solid magnesium combines with chlorine gas to
produce solid magnesium chloride.
d Silver nitrate solution is added to sodium chloride
solution, producing sodium nitrate solution and a
precipitate of silver chloride.
25 Contrast complete and incomplete combustion.
26 Write the word and formula equations for the complete
combustion of propane.
27 a Outline the process of fermentation.
b Discuss the importance of fermentation as a
chemical reaction.
Worksheet 1.6 Chemical reactions crossword
Worksheet 1.7 Sci-words
>>>

2 Materials
Key focus area
>>> The implications of science
for society and the environment

By the end of this chapter you should be

5.4, 5.7.3, 5.11.1, 5.11.2, 5.12

Outcomes
able to:
relate the properties of substances to
their structures
relate the uses of substances to their
properties
explain how materials such as metals
and plastics have changed our world
construct word equations for the
rusting of iron and the corrosion of
aluminium
balance formula equations for the
rusting of iron, the smelting of iron,
and the electrolysis of sodium chloride
explain how metals can be protected
from corrosion
discuss the impact of mining on
Australian society and the environment
explain why conservation and recycling
of materials are important to our
continued well-being.

1 Why is it that gold can be found as a

Pre quiz
nugget but sodium can’t?
2 What is slag and what has it got to do
with iron?
3 Why do plastic objects often have a
‘bump’ or seam?
4 Why do we feel wet and clammy on
hot days if we wear nylon but not if we
wear cotton?
5 How does Thorpie’s Speedo swimsuit
help him go faster?
UNIT
>>>

2.1
context

The metals gold and silver have been much

prized since primitive times. Copper, its alloy
bronze, and later iron and its alloy steel,
replaced the stone spearheads and axes of
primitive humans, improving their chances
when hunting and waging tribal fights. Each
newly extracted metal allowed technology to change.
And society changed with them.
Properties of metals
Most metals are very dense, because metal atoms pack
tightly together when they combine. Metal atoms also
have low electronegativity, meaning that they have
very little control over their outer-shell electrons.
These electrons move freely throughout the metal
without being bound to any one atom. This provides
Metal atoms lose control of their outer-shell
Fig 2.1.1 electrons, which are free to wander.
multidirectional bonding between the atoms and
accounts for the following properties of metals:
• They are malleable—the bonding allows them to
stay together and not break apart when hammered
or bent.
• They are ductile—this is the ability to be drawn or
stretched into wires.
• They are electrical conductors—the free outer-shell
electrons enable them to carry electrical currents.
• They are heat conductors—these same electrons
rapidly transfer heat, making metals excellent
thermal conductors.
Pure metals
Very few metals can be used as pure elements because
they are generally too soft to be made into anything
useful. Copper and aluminium are two of only a
handful of metals that can be used in their pure form.

free electrons, not bound multidirectional bonding Electrons can carry current.
to any single atom
+ + +
+ + + + + +

− + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + +
bonding will
not break
+ + + + + +
even if Electrons rapidly transfer heat.
layers
shift
+ + + + + + + + +

+ + +
+ + + + + +

+ + +
+ + + + + +

lattice (arrangement) of metal ions

24
 2.1

UNIT
Pure metal Element symbol Uses Properties that make it particularly suited to its use
Aluminium Al Overhead electricity cables, Excellent conductor of heat and electricity, extremely light, non-toxic
saucepans and cans, Alfoil
Copper Cu Electrical wiring Excellent electrical conductor
Easily drawn into wires
Sodium Na Nuclear reactor coolant Conducts heat well
Melts at 98°C, allowing molten sodium to flow along pipes in the reactor

Zinc Zn Coating for iron Protects iron from rusting

(galvanised iron)
Tin Sn Coating for steel cans for Stops steel from rusting, non-toxic, unreactive
food, liquid, etc.
Mercury Hg Thermometers Liquid at room temperature, expands rapidly when heated, leaves tubes
clean once it retreats, leaving no traces
Lead Pb Flashing around windows and Very soft and easily bent, resists corrosion
rooftops to stop water entry

Alloys
An alloy consists of a metal combined with one or is formed. This is strong but brittle and shatters easily
more other elements. An alloy has properties that are if hit or dropped. Stainless steel has chromium (20%)
different from those of its components. These new and nickel (10%) added to stop rusting.
properties are usually an improvement over those of
the main or base metal in the alloy. For example, brass
is more durable than its base metal, copper.
Pure iron is extremely soft, but if small amounts of
carbon are added, its strength increases dramatically.
The alloy formed is steel. Mild steel has 0.5% carbon,
while tool steel has about 1%. If the carbon content
increases to between 2.4% and 4.5%, cast iron

Jewellery used for body piercings is usually Fig 2.1.3

Fig 2.1.2 Cast iron lace … very beautiful, very hard, rust-resistant surgical-grade stainless steel
but very brittle but infection may still occur.

25
Pure metals and alloys
Pure gold jewellery would
break if it was used for normal
everyday wear. Instead, it is
alloyed with silver or copper to
increase its strength. The carat
scale measures the amount of
pure gold in jewellery, with
pure gold rated as 24 carat.
Jewellery is often 18 carat,
meaning that it is 18/24 (three-
quarters or 75%) gold.
thrusting the sword into the
Some alloys and their
composition and uses are
listed in the table.
Wanted: muscular
slave for short job!
Damascus steel was used
in the ancient world to
manufacture swords of
extreme strength. The
exact technology was
lost about 200 years ago
but one recipe calls for
‘normal’ steel to be heated,
then cooled in two stages.
The final cooling was
supposedly achieved by
body of a ‘muscular slave’.
The strength of the slave
apparently transferred on
his death into the metal!
>>>
Gold cheaper than iron!
When the Egyptian Pharaoh
Tutankhamen was buried 3400
years ago, two daggers were
buried with him. One dagger had
a blade of gold, the other iron.
Because of its rarity at that time,
the iron dagger was far more
valuable than the gold one!
Fig 2.1.4 Tutankhamen’s dagger, with an
iron blade and gold scabbard

Alloy Composition Uses Advantages

Brass 70% Cu, 30% Zn Household and nautical Appearance, limited corrosion,
fittings, musical instruments harder than pure copper Money, money, money!
Bronze 95% Cu, 5% Sn Statues, ornaments, bells Appearance, little corrosion, Australian ‘gold’ $1 and $2
harder than brass, sonorous coins contain 92% copper,
(rings well when struck) 6% aluminium, 2% nickel
and no gold. The ‘silver’
Duralumin 96% Al, 4% Cu, Aircraft frames Strong, light
coins are 25% nickel, 75%
traces of Mg and Mn
copper and no silver. Metal
Solder 60 to 70% Sn, Joining metals together, electrical Low melting point was first used as money in
40 to 30% Pb connections, low-friction bearings about 2000 BC, but ‘coins’
were not invented until
Cupronickel 75% Cu, 25% Ni ‘Silver’ coins Hard wearing, looks like silver, 600 BC in Lydia, Anatolia.
attractive They were crude beads
EPNS (electroplated Cu, Ni, Ag Plated onto cutlery, plates and Looks like silver, cheaper, resists of electrum, a naturally
nickel silver) bowls corrosion occurring alloy of silver
and gold.
Alnico Al, Ni, Co Magnets Aluminium is light, nickel and
cobalt can be magnetised
Dental amalgam Hg, Sn, Ag, Zn, Cu Tooth fillings Hardens slowly after being mixed

Prac 1

2.1
p. 28
Worksheet 2.1 Toothache!

[ Questions ] Worksheet 2.2 Media analysis: Fry me to the moon

UNIT

Checkpoint
Properties of metals 2 List the properties that all metals exhibit.
1 State whether the following are true or false. 3 Explain whether metal atoms have high or low
a Metal atoms pack tightly together, giving metals high electronegativity.
density. Pure metals
b Metal atoms have high electronegativity. 4 Outline a factor that limits the use of pure metals.
c Free electrons in metals make the metals good 5 List two metals that can be used in their pure form.
conductors.

26

Alloys
6 Define the term ‘alloy’.
7 Alloys have advantages over their parent metals.
Clarify this statement using an example.
Think
8 Explain whether metals would be good or poor
electrical conductors if they had a tight hold on their
outer-shell electrons.
9 Are coins pure metals or alloys? Justify your answer.
10 List two properties of metals that make them ideal
for electrical wiring.
11 Aluminium is used for overhead electrical cables,
while copper is used for home wiring. Propose a
reason why.
12 List three reasons why mercury is ideal for
thermometers.
Analyse
13 State the base metal in a ferrous alloy. (Use element
symbols to help you.)
14 List the different types of steel, in order from the
lowest carbon content to the highest.
15 Use the table on page 26 to state which metal(s):
a is most abundant in Australian ‘gold’ and ‘silver’
coins
b is the only metal that is a liquid at normal room
temperatures
c is the main component of steel
d is common to both the alloys brass and bronze
e is added to iron to make stainless steel
16 Use the information on page 26 to state what fraction
and percentage of pure gold is in:
a a 12-carat gold ring
b a 9-carat gold nose stud
c a 22-carat gold chain
Skills
17 The table below shows the stress that different
alloys of copper and zinc can take before breaking.
Construct a graph of stress (vertical axis) against the
percentage of copper (horizontal axis).
Analyse your graph to answer the following questions.
% Cu 0 10 20
Stress (N/m2 × 106 ) 19 16 12
2.1
UNIT
a State the breaking stress of:
i a 50/50 alloy of copper/zinc
ii an alloy of 20% Cu and 80% Zn
iii an alloy containing 60% zinc
iv pure copper
v pure zinc
b Identify the proportions of copper that make the
alloy stronger than pure copper.
c Identify the proportions of zinc that make it weaker
than pure zinc.
d Identify the strongest copper/zinc alloy.
e Identify the composition of three alloys that all
break at a strain of 25 x 106 N/m2.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Lead and mercury are described as cumulative poisons.
a Explain what this means.
b Describe how these metals get into the environment
and into the bodies of animals.
c Summarise the main effects of these metals on the
human body.
d Present your information as a newspaper article
explaining the dangers of these metals to society and
the environment.
2 Schools generally use red or green alcohol thermometers.
a Investigate which metal was used in thermometers
before alcohol.
b Explain why this metal is no longer used.
c Account for the use of alcohol thermometers.
3 Some dentists are concerned about using dental
amalgam as fillings in teeth.
a Justify their concerns.
b Outline some alternatives to using amalgam.
4 a Research the Bronze and Iron Ages.
b Propose ways in which the discovery of copper/
bronze and iron/steel would have changed the way of
life of people at that time.
c Present your information as a poster or a creative
story showing what life was like then.
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
8 5 32 58 40 23 21 33
27
Pure metals and alloys >>>

2.1 [ Practical activity ]

UNIT

How much is it worth?

Aim To calculate the value of metal in Australian 3 Convert any prices per tonne into prices per gram by
Prac 1 coins dividing by 1 000 000. For example, if aluminium is
Unit 2.1 A$2781.40 per tonne, the price per gram is 2781.40 ×
Equipment
1 000 000 = A$0.00278 or 0.278 cents per gram.
$2, $1, 50 cent, 20 cent, 10 cent and 5 cent coins, the
business section from a recent newspaper (not Monday), 4 Convert any prices per ounce into prices per gram by
access to an electronic scale dividing by 28.35
5 Write a complete list of the prices in Australian dollars
per gram.
Fig 2.1.5 6 Use an electronic balance to find the masses of a $1
and a $2 coin.
7 Copy and complete this calculation for each gold coin:
Mass of coin = _____ g
[put mass of coin here]

Mass of copper in coin = 92% of _____ = _____ g

Mass of aluminium in coin = 6% of _____ = _____ g
Mass of nickel in coin = 2% of _____ = _____ g
[put mass of [put price per
metals here] gram here]

Cost of copper = _____ × _____ = A$ _____

Cost of aluminium = _____ × _____ = A$ _____
Cost of nickel = _____ × _____ = A$ _____
8 Add the answers to find the total cost of the coin.
9 What percentage is this of its face value?
10 Use a similar method to calculate the value of the
silver coins.

Questions
1 Deduce whether any of the coins are worth more than
their face value.
2 Fifty-cent coins originally had silver in them, but now
Method don’t. Explain why.
1 Find the following values and copy them into your 3 Use the prices of gold and silver to calculate the cost
workbook: of each coin if they were really gold or silver.
• the US to Australian dollar exchange rate
• the prices of aluminium, copper and nickel
2 Convert any US dollar prices into Australian dollars
by dividing by the exchange rate. For example, if
A$1 = US$0.5064 and the price of aluminium was
US$1408.50 per tonne, then its price in Australian
dollars was 1408.50 × 0.5064 = A$2781.40 per tonne.

28
UNIT

2.2
context

Metals have been used for thousands of of efficient and inexpensive ways of doing this. At first
years, the first to be used being the native they used heat. The discovery of electricity, however,
metals such as gold. Unlike gold, most allowed for the extraction of
metals are not found as pure elements, but many more metals, particularly
as compounds of oxygen. They need to be aluminium. Imagine your life
‘released’ from their oxygen before they can without metals!
be used. Over the centuries, metallurgists (scientists Gold, gold, gold!
who specialise in metals) have developed a variety The earliest recorded
discovery of gold in
as either a nugget or a vein of Australia was in 1823
the metal trapped in another at Bathurst, New South
Metals in the crust rock such as quartz. They just Wales by James McBrien,
a Department of Lands
Metals make up only a quarter of the Earth’s crust. need a little cleaning or the surveyor. At the time
Oxygen and silicon make up the rest. The oxygen does surrounding rock removed. McBrien was surveying
Native elements are so stable a road along the Fish
not exist as a gas, but is chemically combined with
River, between Rydal and
metal atoms as solid oxides. and unreactive that they have Bathurst. The first gold
survived without reacting with rush had begun!
the chemicals of the air, dirt or
potassium 2.2%
water.
sodium 2.8% A vein of pure gold trapped in quartz Fig 2.2.2
magnesium 2.2% all the other
metals and
calcium 3.6%
non-metals
iron 5% 1.2%
aluminium
8.1%

silicon 27.8%
oxygen 46.7%

Fig 2.2.1 The percentage abundance of elements in

the Earth’s crust. Oxygen is by far the most
abundant, being combined with metals as
oxides or with silicon as silicon dioxide in
sand or silicates.

Metals ready to go: native

elements
Native elements can be either non-metals, like carbon
and sulphur, or metals, like silver, platinum, copper
and gold. The metals can be found as pure elements,

29
Mining and metals >>>
Metals that need work: minerals Ore Chemical composition Metal extracted
and ores Bauxite Aluminium oxide, Al2O3 Aluminium, Al
All other metals are found combined with other Chalcopyrite Copper iron sulfide, CuFeS2 Copper, Cu
elements as compounds. Galena Lead sulfide, PbS Lead, Pb
Minerals are rocks containing large amounts of a
Haematite Iron oxide, Fe2O3 Iron, Fe
particular metal. If there is sufficient metal to make it
Pitchblende Uranium oxide, U3O8 Uranium, U
worth mining, it is called an ore.
Rutile Titanium oxide, TiO2 Titanium, Ti
Is it worth mining? Sphalerite Zinc sulfide, ZnS Zinc, Zn
Mining produces valuable metals and creates jobs.
Sometimes, however, mining is not worth its expense
or the negative effects on society and the environment.
Major ore deposits in Australia Fig 2.2.3

Legend Able Horn Island

Echo Island
Aluminium (bauxite) Wenlock River
Darwin BaroteNabarlek Nabalco
Copper (chalcopyrite) Woodcutters Jabiluka Weipa
Ranger Pera Head
Gold Browns Koongarra Aurukun
Union Reefs Coronation Hill
Iron (haematite) Mitchell Plateau Mt Todd Bulman
Lead (galena) Sorby HillsSandy Creek McArthur River Palmer River
Uranium (pitchblende)
Wollogorang (Redbank)
Silver Westmoreland Cairns
Pandanus Creek Red Dome
Titanium (rutile) Blendevale Constance Range
Goongewa NORTHERN TERRITORY Century Kidston Balcooma
Zinc (sphalerite) Cadjebut Tanami Orlando Gecko Lady Loretta
Admiral Bay Ben Lomond
Callie White Devil Gunpowder Woolgar Charters Towers Area
Yarrie Peko
The Granites Hilton Thalanga
Marble Bar Bamboo Creek Mt Isa
Selwyn Wirralie
Nifty Bigrlyi Tick Hill
Nullagine Telfer Mt Coolon
Plenty River Cannington
Robe River-Deepdale
Mt Tom Price Kintyre Osborne Lucky Break
Manyingee Angela Arltunga
Rhodes Ridge Gladstone
Paraburdoo Channar Jimblebar QUEENSLAND
Newman WESTERN AUSTRALIA Cracow
Abra Marymia Mt Rawdon
Dawson Valley
Fortnum
Plutonic
Peak Hill Gympie
Reedys Bronzewing SOUTH AUSTRALIA
Weld Range Brisbane
Cue Yeelirrie
Mt Magnet Agnew-Lawlers Group
Mt Morgans
Geraldton Youanmi Drake
Scuddles Olympic Dam Beverly
Mulga Rock Tarcoola NEW SOUTH WALES Bingara
Mt Gibson
Koolyanobbing Kalgoorlie Group Beltana Honeymoon Elura
Mt Gunson Comet Valley
Copperhead Kambalda-St Ives CSA Hillgrove
Coolgardie Higginsville Menninnie Dam Nillinghoo Radium Hill
Mt Grainger Mineral Hill
Perth Jarrahdale
Pinjarra Bounty Norseman Whyalla Port Pirie Broken Hill Northparkes Tomago
Del Park Burra Lake Cowal
Kurri Kurri Newcastle
Wagerup West Wyalong Temora
Worsley Adelaide Sydney
VICTORIA Woodlawn Port Kembla
Kangaroo Island Wedderburn Canberra
Bendigo
Stawell Benambra
N Ballarat
Woods Point
Portland
Geelong Melbourne

Bell Bay
Port Latta
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 Rosebery
Beaconsfield
Savage River
Kilometres TASMANIA
Hellyer
Henty
Hobart
Mt Lyell Risdon

30
 2.2

UNIT
The mining process
Underground mines are used for the mining of deep
ores but water penetration, possible collapse, venting
of poisonous and explosive gases and the provision
of fresh air for the miners are problems that must be
managed.
If the ore is close to the surface, open-cut
mining is easier. An overburden of soil is removed
and the ore is dredged out, creating benches, or
steps that spiral into the hole. These are also used
as access roads to haul the ore to the surface by
truck. Open-cut mines cause problems including
unsightliness, pollution of surrounding areas with
dust, pooling of water, destruction of land above
the ore, and the need to repair the land after mining
ceases.

Pollution and environmental degradation can be Fig 2.2.4

severe around mines and processing sites. This
photo shows the effect of the Ok Tedi mine in
Papua New Guinea. Structure of an underground mine Fig 2.2.5

Before mining begins, many mill and

head frame
important questions need to be asked: treatment
plant
• How much ore is there and how
winder house
concentrated is it?
ore conveyor
• How deep is the ore? What type of
mine is needed?
• Is the site close to existing ports
and rail lines?
• Is there a population centre two-compartment shaft cage or skip

nearby from which workers can be ladder

employed?
• Who owns or controls the land? If No. 1 level drive (along the
they live there, will they be happy ore body)
pump line
to shift? What compensation is compressor
overhead stope
appropriate? No. 2 level
• What water and air pollution will
it cause? ORE
BODY
• What damage will be done to the
environment and how can it be No. 3 level
minimised?
• What will be the cost of building underhand stope
the mine and the processing
plants, and repairing the No. 4 level
environmental damage? well
• What is the current and expected cross-cut

future price of the metal?

• What profit is expected?

31
Mining and metals >>>
An open-cut mine showing benches and
Fig 2.2.6 environmental degradation The activity series
When metals react, they lose electrons to form positive
ions. Some metals lose their electrons more easily
than others. These metals are reactive and are harder
to extract. Different extraction techniques are required,
depending on the metal’s position in the activity
series.
As we move up the activity series:
• the chance of metals reacting with chemicals
becomes greater
• the metals become less stable
• there is less chance of finding the metals in their
natural state
• the compounds of the metals become more stable
and more difficult to break down
• the extraction process becomes more difficult and
more expensive.

Concentration of the ore Extraction by electrolysis

Impurities and waste called gangue are mined with Electrolysis is such a powerful method that it could be
the ore. The mined material is crushed by rollers used to extract any metal from its ore. It uses a huge
or by large steel balls that fill a large rotating drum amount of electricity, however, and is used only when
called a ball mill. Gravity and sieves separate some there is no cheaper method available.
of the gangue, with the remainder then separated A voltage is applied to a molten sample or solution
by froth-flotation. This is a technique pioneered in of the ore and the positive metal ions move to the
Broken Hill, New South Wales, in which the crushed negative electrode. When it gets there, the ion is
ore floats away on a frothy emulsion of oil and water, forced to take back its outer-shell electrons to form
leaving the gangue behind. The ore is now ready for metal atoms that then plate the electrode.
extraction.

Metal Extraction method

K Electrolysis
Na
Method of extraction needs to be more powerful
Metals more likely to be found as native metals

Ca
Compounds of the metal are more stable

Ores more difficult to decompose

Mg
Metals become more reactive
Electronegativity increases

More expensive extraction

Al

Zn Heating with C or CO
Fe
Ni
Sn
Pb

Cu Roasting in air
Ag Occurs naturally
Au

32
 2.2

UNIT
The extraction of sodium from molten rock salt
Fig 2.2.7 by electrolysis

iron ore
limestone
Na+ ions
coke
take back
electrons
chlorine exhaust gas
Cl- to form
iron forms
gas Na metal
Cl2 e- and trickles
down (400°C)
Na+
e-
carbon
monoxide
forms and
rises (800°C)

e- carbon dioxide
e- forms and
rises (1400°C)

hot air blast

Molten Na+Cl- molten slag
molten iron

Sodium is made by electrolysis of sea water or,

more commonly, rock salt. The salt is melted to break
the salt crystals into its ions, then converted into pure
elements by electrolysis.
water-cooled
At the negative electrode: molten steel
mould
Na+ + e– → Na
and at the positive electrode: metal solidifies
as it is drawn
2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e – out by the
Overall, Prac 1 rollers
2NaCl(l) → 2Na(l) + Cl2(g) p. 37
continuous
sheet is cut
into slabs
Extraction by heat water
Heat is sometimes sufficient sprayed
on hot
to extract the pure metal. metal
Aluminium, more This is called smelting. The
valuable than gold more reactive metals such
is
Aluminium cookware as lead, iron and zinc need Smelting iron in a blast furnace and rolling it Fig 2.2.8
ate d
reported to have origin into shape
nch Em per or carbon or carbon monoxide
when the Fre
leo n III ser ved the
Na po (CO) to help the conversion
-day
King of Siam (modern along. Smelting of iron occurs as a series of chemical
qu et
Thailand) at a state ban
in 1867. Th e pla tes and To extract iron, coke (a reactions.
ler y use d we re ma de source of carbon), limestone First the coke reacts to form carbon dioxide:
cut
s
of aluminium, with les (CaCO3) and iron ore
important guests eating
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
from plates of pu re go ld. (Fe2O3) are heated in a
har d to Limestone then decomposes, forming calcium
Alu mi niu m wa s so blast furnace.
y, very oxide and more carbon dioxide:
extract that it was ver
expensive at the time. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

33
Mining and metals >>>
Carbon dioxide reacts with more coke, forming Luckily, iron is relatively common, since iron
carbon monoxide: consumption is currently nine times that of all the
CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g) other metals put together.
Metals are non-renewable resources and all will
This reacts with the iron ore to form molten iron,
eventually run out.
which then runs to the bottom of the furnace:
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
Waste calcium oxide reacts with sand in the iron
ore, forming calcium silicate:
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
Calcium silicate is called slag and floats on the
molten iron.

Steel-making in action Fig 2.2.9

Fig 2.2.10 More than 50% of all aluminium cans in

Australia are collected and reprocessed.

Metal Element Amount used Estimated year

symbol per year at which known
More stable metals only need roasting in air. Most (millions of reserves of the
tonnes) metal will run out
copper is extracted by roasting copper(I) sulfide,
found in an ore called copper pyrites: Iron Fe 800 2110

Cu2S(s) + O2(g) → 2Cu(l) + SO2(g) Aluminium Al 12 2350

Copper Cu 8 2040
Recycling versus Zinc Zn 4.5 2060

mining Lead Pb 4 2020

Metals that make up less
than 0.1% of the Earth’s
crust are considered to be
scarce. Silver (abundance
0.000 01%) and gold
(0.000 000 5%) are scarce
and therefore expensive, but
some of our most commonly
used metals are considered
scarce too: copper (0.007%),
mercury (0.000 05%), zinc
(0.013%), lead (0.0016%)
and tin (0.004%).
Tin Sn 0.25 2015
Eating gold
In many cultures, it has been
traditional to decorate food with
pieces of gold leaf (fine layers
Recycling of aluminium is common, because the
of hammered gold). Many of production cost of new aluminium is twenty times
Australia’s top restaurants are more than the cost of recycling it. Recycling of many
now using it too, on top of
metals is often too expensive to make it worthwhile.
dishes such as risotto and even
in cocktails. The gold leaf is The difficulty of separating the iron from tin in food
eaten but has no taste, smell or cans makes it far too expensive to recycle iron at the
texture. Injections of gold have moment, despite millions of cans being thrown out
been used for many years as
every year.
relief from arthritis, so maybe
this will help justify the cost of
eating it! Worksheet 2.3 Extraction of metals

34
 2.2

UNIT
2.2 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint 16 State a disadvantage of using electrolysis for

Metals ready to go: native elements
1 Clarify what is meant by a ‘native element’.
2 List four examples of native elements.
3 State two forms in which native elements may be found.
Metals that need work: minerals and ores
4 Modify the following statements to make them correct.
a Metals that are not native elements are found as
alloys.
b Rocks containing large amounts of ores are known as
minerals.
c A mineral contains sufficient metal to mine.
5 Use the table on page 30 to list three ores and the main
metal they contain.
Is it worth mining?
6 A mining company decides not to mine a particular
metal. State three factors that might have led to this
decision.
7 State two features of a commercially successful mine.
The mining process
8 List the problems of an underground mine.
9 Construct a diagram showing the structure of an
underground mine.
Concentration of the ore
10 From the following list of words, identify the correct
terms to fill in the spaces below.
extraction, froth flotation, ball mill, gangue, crushed
Mined material is _________ by rollers or steel balls
within a _________. Impurities known as _________ are
separated by __________. The remaining ore is now
ready for _________.
The activity series
11 Define the term ‘activity series’.
12 State the reason why some metals are more reactive
than others.
13 Metals are extracted from their ores depending on
their position in the activity series. List the extraction
methods needed, in order from the least to the most
active metals.
Extraction by electrolysis
14 List three metals that can only be extracted by
electrolysis.
15 Use a diagram to explain how sodium is extracted from
sodium chloride by electrolysis.
extraction of metals.
Extraction by heat
17 List three metals that can be extracted by heat.
18 Construct a diagram of a blast furnace and label the
important parts.
19 State the chemical formula for slag.
20 Construct the chemical equations for the smelting of
iron ore.
Recycling versus mining
21 State whether the following statements are true or
false.
a Metals are known as renewable resources.
b Iron is the most common metal in the Earth’s crust.
c Metals that make up less than 0.1% of the Earth’s
crust are scarce.
22 State one disadvantage and one advantage of
recycling metals.
Think
23 Explain why a reactive metal atom like sodium (Na)
has a very stable metal ion, Na+.
24 State which metal(s):
a are extracted by electrolysis
b are extracted in a blast furnace
c are extracted by roasting in air
d are native
25 Contrast the following:
a slag and gangue
b mineral and ore
c overburden and ore
d electrolysis and smelting
e stable and reactive
26 Explain why metals higher up the activity series
are more likely to be found as ores than as native
elements.
27 Platinum is a native element. Explain where it should
appear in the activity series.
28 Mining companies regularly take out mining leases
on any land that may contain valuable mineral ores.
This may even include the land on which you live. If
the mining company holds the lease, it has the legal
right to buy the land. Do you consider this acceptable?
Justify your answer.
29 Contrast a shaft, a drive and a stope.
>>

35
Mining and metals >>>

Analyse 32 Use the activity series to predict whether these metal

30 List three sites where each of the major ores listed in ions and metal atoms would swap electrons:
the table on page 30 are mined. a Na and Au+
31 Use the words below to complete the flow chart in b Na+ and Au
Figure 2.2.11 summarising the process of mining an ore c Mg and Cu2+
and extracting the metal it contains. d Pb2+ and Al
exploration, electrolysis, gangue, froth flotation, e Ca2+ and Cu
crushing, native-metal, roasting slag, blast furnace,
open-cut, underground Skills
Fig 2.2.11 33 Construct a bar graph showing the elemental
composition of the Earth’s crust.
34 The years for the
first successful
Aluminium 1890 AD
extraction of
different metals Zinc 1500 AD
are shown in the Iron 1400 BC
table.
Lead 2000 BC
over-
burden Copper 8000 BC

a Construct a time line showing these discoveries.

b Use the activity series to explain why different

metals were discovered at different times in history.
extraction

b Use a map to summarise where it is processed

and extracted.
c Describe the transport facilities that probably
had to be built to mine and shift the ore, giving
consideration to whether it is near a large town.
Al Fe Cu Au 4 Underground miners used to carry canaries
with them. Research why and use a cartoon to
summarise your research.
5 The mobile phone revolution has brought with it a
problem of recycling unwanted phones and batteries.
[ Extension ] Research what metals are used in making mobile
phone batteries and the difficulties they produce if
not recycled responsibly. Construct a brochure that
Investigate could be used to inform the public.
1 Research how car bodies can be recycled for their
metals. Construct a poster aimed at convincing the Action
public that recycling car bodies is a useful idea. 6 a Record the number of cans and types of cans
2 Research how to pan for gold and design an your household throws out in a week.
instruction sheet. b Estimate how many cans are thrown out per year.
3 Locate a current mining town in Australia. 7 a Construct a bar chart of current prices of metals
a Describe the ore mined there. listed in the commodity prices of the newspapers.

36

b Compare the current buy-back price of
aluminium cans with the price for new
aluminium from commodity prices in
newspapers.
Surf
8 Complete the activity called
‘Start a Mine’ by connecting to
the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 2 and clicking on the
destinations button. Construct a poster
showing how your mine progressed from
start to finish.
2.2 [ Practical activity ]
UNIT
Electrolysis of copper
Aim To extract solid copper from a solution
Prac 1
Unit 2.2
Equipment
1 M sulfuric acid, black copper oxide, spatula,
50 mL beaker, glass stirring rod, Bunsen burner,
tripod, gauze mat, bench mat and matches,
12 V power pack, globe, electrodes and
connecting leads, filter paper/paper towel
Method
1 Pour approximately 20 mL of 1M sulfuric acid into the
beaker.
Fig 2.2.12
2.2
UNIT
Creative writing
Gold rush!
A rich gold deposit has been discovered 100 metres under Richville,
a very wealthy suburb in your area. A multinational mining company
is deciding whether it should mine there. Prepare two letters to a
newspaper, one supporting a mine and one against.
Imagine that the gold had been discovered instead in a remote
area of the outback inhabited by its traditional indigenous owners.
What will you do now? Are your reasons for and against the same as
before? Prepare another two new letters, one in favour of a mine and
one against.
2 Add a small spatula of black copper oxide.
3 Carefully warm over a yellow Bunsen burner flame. Stir
with the glass rod until all the copper oxide is dissolved
and the solution is blue. Do not boil.
4 Remove the beaker from the tripod and place on the
bench mat.
5 Connect up the circuit as shown in Figure 2.2.12. Set
the power pack on 6 V DC and allow it to run for a
couple of minutes.
6 Draw a diagram of the set-up. Mark the electrode being
copper plated. What is happening at the other electrode
and to the colour of the solution?
7 Turn off the power and remove the electrodes. Carefully
remove any pure copper onto filter paper/paper towel.
Questions
1 Explain whether copper formed at the positive or
negative electrode.
2 Explain what happened to the blue colour of the
solution.
3 In this experiment, copper ions in the solution are taking
back electrons to form copper atoms. Describe the
evidence for this.
4 Construct a balanced chemical equation for what is
happening to the copper ions.
5 Propose a reason why electrolysis is never used
commercially to produce copper.
6 Aluminium can only be extracted by electrolysis.
Propose a reason why copper and not aluminium was
used in this experiment.
37
UNIT
>>>

2. 3
context

The steel body of a car eventually bubbles
and rusts away, but aluminium cans and
gold jewellery stay ‘good’ forever. Why? They
are all metals aren’t they? Some metals are
more reactive than others. Reactive metals
corrode when exposed to water, air or
other chemicals, usually forming metallic oxides.
Pure sodium and potassium react with just about
Corrosion of iron and steel
Iron is common and cheap. Its alloy, steel, is
extremely strong, making it the most commonly
used metal on Earth—car bodies, skyscraper frames,
concrete reinforcing, pins and needles are all made
from various grades of steel. Unfortunately, most
steels rust—they react with air and water to form a
red coating of iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3. Rust is flaky
and easy to dislodge, allowing the rusting process to
continue into the next layer.
The iron or steel gets thinner, loses its strength
and gradually returns to the compound that it was
extracted from. Although an extremely complex
reaction, it can be summarised as:
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)
anything—their corrosion is very quick and often
explosive! In contrast, iron corrodes very slowly, while
gold is extremely stable and corrosion is rare.
Rust is flaky and allows the rest of the iron
Fig 2.3.2 to rust away too.
Breaks between the rust flakes
allow water and oxygen to enter
into deeper layers.
Rusting causes iron(III) oxide (rust)
iron to thin.
For rusting of iron to take place, both oxygen and
water must be present as either liquid or vapour. The
rusting process can be accelerated by salts or heat.
Corrosion protection
Stainless steel is an alloy that resists rusting and
is used for surgical apparatus, body piercings and
equipment in conditions of high heat and salt, such
as in kitchens and on boats. Other types of steel can
A stainless steel toaster Fig 2.3.3

Fig 2.3.1 Rusted corrugated iron—a common sight

around Australia

38
 2.3

UNIT
Method of protection Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Painting Car bodies, cast iron lace Cheap, easy, attractive Chips and scratches easily
Layer of grease or oil Tools, machine parts Cheap, easy, lubricates parts Messy, needs to be reapplied regularly
Plastic coating Dishracks, outdoor furniture Cheap, attractive Cracks allow water to enter, plastic
deteriorates with age
Tin plating Food cans Does not react with food, non-toxic, Needs electrolysis to plate steel,
less reactive than iron/steel expensive, scratches will rust
Chromium plating Car parts Attractive Needs electrolysis to plate steel,
expensive, scratches will rust

be protected by coatings that stop air and water from protective treatment. Anodising is a technique where
reaching the surface. A scratch or crack in the coating, the layer of aluminium oxide is deliberately built up
however, allows rusting to start again. using electrolysis. Colours may be added
Another method is to coat the surface or attach as the layers are deposited. Saucepans
another more reactive metal. Galvanised iron is iron and window frames are often made from
dipped in molten zinc. Zinc is more reactive than iron anodised aluminium. Prac 2
p. 42
and will react instead of it. This is called sacrificial
protection. Scratches and chips will not rust, as long Worksheet 2.4 Metal experiments
as some zinc is close by. Nails and roofing materials
are commonly made from galvanised iron.
Reactive magnesium blocks are often bolted
oxygen water
onto steel structures such as piers and
deepwater gas rigs and oil rigs at sea. aluminium
Prac 1 oxide layer
The magnesium sacrifices itself to protect p. 41
the structure.

Zinc sacrifices itself to protect

Fig 2.3.4 the iron it plates.
Aluminium oxide tightly Aluminium oxide
binds to the metal. does not flake.
Water and oxygen
corrode zinc instead
of iron.
Fig 2.3.5 Aluminium oxide acts like the perfect paint
layer—hard to scratch and non-flaky.
Zn Zn

2.3
Fe Fe Fe

scratch [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint
Aluminium: reactive but it doesn’t Corrosion of iron and steel
1 List three substances required for iron to rust.
corrode! 2 State two things that speed up the rate at which iron
Aluminium is a very reactive metal and the surface rusts.
reacts almost immediately with the air to form a fine 3 Construct the equation for the conversion of iron
layer of dull grey aluminium oxide, Al2O3. Unlike into rust.
rust, this layer does not flake and acts like a tightly >>
bound layer of paint. Aluminium needs no further

39
Corrosion of metals
Corrosion protection
4 List three ways in which iron and steel can be protected
from corrosion.
5 Describe what is meant by ‘sacrificial protection’.
Aluminium: reactive but it doesn’t corrode!
6 State the name of the corrosion-resistant coating
formed on aluminium.
7 Clarify what is meant by the term ‘anodising’.
Think
8 Use the equation from Question 3 to help you construct
a balanced equation for the corrosion of aluminium (Al)
in oxygen (O2) to form aluminium oxide (Al2O3).
9 Use the activity series to predict which metals would
show little or no corrosion.
10 Zinc doesn’t rust but it does corrode. Explain.
11 The paint around a scratch on a car door will
eventually bubble. Use your knowledge of the flaky
nature of rust to explain why.
12 a Explain why the insides of cans of food are coated in
tin or a thin layer of plastic.
b You should never buy cans of food that are dented or
scratched. Explain why.
13 Use the activity series to identify metals that would
provide sacrificial protection to iron.
14 Galvanising gives better protection than painting an iron
surface. Explain why.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research the following information and write a report,
using illustrations where appropriate.
a Explain why roof decking is corrugated or ‘ribbed’.
b Outline what is meant by ‘Colorbond roofing’.
c Outline the advantages and disadvantages of various
metal roofing materials.
Action
2 Rust is red-orange. Red-orange rocks often have high
iron content. Find photos of rocks or landscapes that
are ‘rusty’. Construct a collage showing the pictures
collected.
40
>>>
15 Explain why iron rusts and crumbles, but aluminium
just dulls.
16 Describe how you can tell whether an aluminium
window frame has been anodised.
17 The magnesium blocks attached to piers dissolve away
over time. Outline what needs to happen when they
dissolve.
Analyse
18 You need to protect a zinc structure from corrosion.
Predict which metals you could bolt onto the zinc to
protect it.
19 ‘Iron is the most valuable metal on Earth.’ Justify this
statement.
20 Three sheets of iron are each coated in a different
metal: copper, magnesium and tin. Predict what will
happen to each sheet if the coating is scratched.
21 Steel window frames would be a silly choice near the
sea. Explain why.
22 The jewellery used in body piercing is surgical-grade
stainless steel, platinum or gold. Explain why these
metals, and not cheaper ones, are used.
Project
Which metal is that?
Find which metals or alloys are used for these
purposes:
1 The filament in light bulbs
2 Hot and cold water pipes
3 Turns black when exposed to light and is used as
film coating
4 Used in fireworks and single-use flash bulbs to
give brilliant light
5 Part of haemoglobin, the part of our blood that
carries oxygen
6 Added to ‘super’ petrol to avoid ‘knocking’
7 Makes up the metal plates of a car battery
8 Is in the catalytic converters of car exhaust
systems to remove pollutants
9 Used in smoke alarms as a radioactive source
10 A radioactive element used in atomic bombs
11 The metal that is used in many street lamps,
giving an orange colouring
 2.3

UNIT
2.3 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT

Corrosion of iron
Aim To investigate factors affecting the corrosion
Prac 1 of iron
Unit 2.3
Equipment
5 iron nails (not galvanised), copper wire,
magnesium ribbon, distilled water, salt (sodium
chloride) solution, fine sandpaper or steel wool,
4 test tubes, test-tube rack, Bunsen burner, bench
mat and matches, 250 mL beaker, peg or tongs,
marking pen
Method
1 Polish each nail with sandpaper or steel wool.
2 Fill the 250 mL beaker with cold water.
3 Heat a nail in a blue Bunsen flame until red hot.
Use the peg to drop it into the water. Record what
happens.
4 Tightly wind the magnesium ribbon around a nail, and
the copper wire around another nail.
5 Put both into test tubes containing salt water.
6 Put another two nails in the other two test tubes,
marking which contains fresh water.
7 Leave for three or four days.
8 Draw each nail, showing the location of any reddish rust
and any white corrosion on the magnesium or
blue/green corrosion on the copper.
Questions
1 Deduce which factors encourage rusting.
2 Describe the effect of heat on the rate of rusting.
3 List all the metals used, in order from most to least
reactive.
4 Which test demonstrated sacrificial protection? Justify
your answer.
5 Explain why one metal sacrificed itself and not the
other.

Fig 2.3.6

peg copper magnesium

1 2 3 4

red-hot nail

250 ml
beaker

cold water

water salt solution

41
Corrosion of metals >>>

Anodised aluminium
Aim To anodise a piece of aluminium
Prac 2 Equipment
Unit 2.3
Piece of aluminium, aluminium foil, 2 M sulfuric
acid, detergent, fabric dye solution, safety glasses,
2 x 250 mL beakers, tongs, tissues, 12 V power
pack with wires and alligator clips, retort stand,
bosshead and clamp, Bunsen burner, tripod,
gauze mat, bench mat and matches or hot plate
Method
1 Line one beaker with aluminium foil, then three-quarters
fill it with sulfuric acid.
2 Scrub the piece of aluminium in warm water and
detergent and dry well. Do not touch the aluminium
with bare hands—use tongs.
3 Place as shown in the diagram and connect to the
power pack.
4 Set on the lowest voltage, then gradually increase until
it reaches 12 V. Leave for 15 minutes, then wash the
piece of aluminium in water.
5 In the other beaker, heat the prepared solution of fabric
dye, then place the aluminium piece in it. Leave for
10 minutes.
6 Rinse in fresh water and cool.
7 To seal the anodised surface, boil the piece in fresh
water for a further 10 minutes.
Questions
1 Explain why the aluminium piece must be handled only
with tongs after cleaning.
2 Aluminium is highly reactive but doesn’t seem to
corrode as badly as iron. Explain why.
3 Describe what anodising produced.
4 Explain why anodising would not work with iron.

power pack

aluminium

dilute
sulfuric
acid
aluminium foil

Fig 2.3.7

42
UNIT

2.4
context

Nowadays we take plastics for granted, but

H
before 1950 plastics were almost unheard of.
H
Think of all the things that you wouldn’t have H C H methane
if plastics had not been invented. Like metals H C H
H
before them, plastics changed technology and C C
the way we build and use our world. H H
ethanol C C
(the alcohol
H C C O H in beer, wine, H C H
spirits, etc.)
Plastic: H H H
benzene
carbon-based Elephants on the H H H O
billiard table! H
compounds By 1868 elephants had been H C C C C
methyl butanoate
slaughtered in such huge O C H (artificial rum
Carbon is a Group IV H H H
numbers that the supply of flavouring)
element and each carbon ivory could not meet demand. H
atom can bond with up The Phelan and Collender
to four other atoms. This Company offered a US$10 000
award to anyone who could Fig 2.4.2 Some organic molecules made of carbon
gives carbon the ability to find a replacement for the
form continuous lattices ivory used in their production
of billiard balls. In response, The properties of plastics make them extremely
(e.g. diamond and graphite)
brothers John and Isaiah Hyatt useful for a wide variety of applications.
and an amazing variety of developed a natural polymer, Plastics:
molecules. Most molecules celluloid nitrate or celluloid.
Although used for billiard
• are good thermal and electrical insulators, having
found in living organisms,
balls, it found more use as no free electrons to conduct electricity or heat
fossil fuels, drugs, plastics
photographic film. It was also • are strong and light and can be moulded into
and fibres contain atoms of used for dolls and false teeth, a different shapes
carbon. This puts them into worrying fact since celluloid is
highly flammable! • do not react with water or oxygen, making them
the same category—they are
weather- and rot-resistant. This is both a good and
all organic compounds.
a bad property—outdoor furniture will not rot, but
plastic packaging won’t decompose when thrown
out; plastics are not biodegradable.
• become brittle over time if exposed to sunlight.
Chemicals can be added, however, to make them
more resistant.
• can have other chemicals added to colour and
reinforce them (e.g. glass fibres are added to a
plastic resin to make fibreglass)
• sometimes react with or dissolve in other organic
substances (e.g. turpentine, methylated spirits,
petrol)
• can sometimes burn very easily, producing noxious
fumes when they do—PVC produces hydrochloric
Plastics are everywhere. Most packaging and Fig 2.4.1 acid fumes when it burns!
many fibres are plastic.

43
Plastics and fibres >>>
Plastic Other names Uses
Polythene Polyethene Milk crates, rubbish bins, buckets, plastic bags, cling wrap, soft squeeze bottles
Acrylic Safety glasses, plastic screens
PVC Polyvinyl chloride, Waterproof clothing, guttering, pipes
polychloroethene
Nylon Brush bristles, fabrics, rope, carpets
Polystyrene Without bubbles (unexpanded): yoghurt and margarine containers; with bubbles (expanded):
insulation, Eskies, cups, packaging
Melamine Unbreakable dishes
Urea formaldehyde Electric switches and plugs
Phenol formaldehyde Door handles, saucepan handles

Monomers and polymers Thermoplastic and thermosetting

Plastics start with small molecules derived from
the oil industry. A process called polymerisation
plastic
When lightly heated, many plastics soften and can be
combines them into larger molecules that make up
remoulded into new shapes. When cool, they reset.
plastic. The small molecules are called monomers
These materials are called thermoplastic, examples
and the big ones polymers. Poly is a Greek word that
being PVC, polythene and acrylic.
means ‘many’. Polyurethane
These polymers arrange themselves
is made from many urethane
into long parallel chains, which
molecules, and polyethene
slide over each other, allowing
is ‘many ethenes’. Imagine a
flexibility and stretch. If heated they It’s only natural!
monomer as a single ‘paperclip’.
Noxious aircraft! retain their basic structure but can Many natural polymers
The polymer exist, too. Wood is made
Plastics and synthetic slip over each other to fill whatever
fibres are used in the ‘polypaperclip’ from the organic polymers
e
moulds they are poured into. cellulose, lignin and resin.
interiors of aircraft becaus would be a string of
they are light and can be Thermoplastics are manufactured Natural rubber, amber,
connected paperclips. Prac 1 gum, asphalt and pitch
moulded into the shapes p. 51 as powder, pellets or granules for
required. The toxic fumes are all natural organic
shipping to other factories to be polymers. Asbestos is an
and smoke they produce
on burning have been the
heated and moulded. example of an inorganic
primary cause of death (no carbon) polymer.
in otherwise survivable Worksheet 2.5 Shape-shifter of modern medical science
accidents. A fire started in
a luggage compartment of
a Saudi Arabian Airlines H H H H H
H H H H
Lockheed Tristar soon after
polymerisation
take-off from Riyadh in C C C C C C C C C
1980, filling the cabin with
toxic smoke. The plane H H H H H H H H H
returned to the airport and ethene monomers polyethene polymer
landed safely. Instead of
evacuating as quickly as
possible, the captain taxied Cl Cl Cl H Cl H Cl
H H
and then ran the engines polymerisation
for a total of 6 minutes. C C C C C C C C C
All 301 people on board
died, including the captain. H H H H H H H H H
chloroethene monomers polychloroethene (PVC) polymer

Many identical monomers join to make a polymer. Fig 2.4.3

44
 2. 4

UNIT
Resin has been added to the hooked end of this
Fig 2.4.4 spear thrower and is being heated to make it sticky.

The first use of thermoplastics?

Australian Aborigines have been using resins for thousands of
years. Resins from certain plants become soft when heated and
very hard when cooled—that is, they are thermoplastic. Resins
are obtained from both Porcupine Grass (Triodia species) and
Grass Trees (Xanthorrhea species). If a fire goes through an area
of grass trees, the resin oozes out and forms bubbles in the sand
around the base of the tree. The resin is collected and crushed
to a powder. The end of a spear is dabbed in the crushed resin,
and heated until the resin becomes sticky. This is repeated many
times until there is enough resin to adhere a spearhead. The soft
resin is also used to attach stone blades to the wooden handles
of tools or weapons using a process called ‘hafting’.

Thermoplastics are recyclable as they can be heated, individual strands cannot move—
re-melted and re-moulded many times. Recycling is an thermosetting plastics will char (burn at the
important way of managing plastics as it keeps them edges) but will not soften. They therefore
out of the environment. Plastics are not biodegradable need to be manufactured and moulded at Prac 2
p. 52
so they stay in tips and the environment for hundreds, the same time. Bakelite is an example of a
even thousands, of years. Plastic bags are a major thermosetting plastic.
concern for birds, animals and sea life since these
creatures can become
Thermosetting and thermoplastic Fig 2.4.5
tangled in them or try to
feed on them, with the
bag subsequently blocking Thermoplastic
the animal’s digestive
add heat
tract. Because plastic bags
do not decay, they are
released once more into
the environment when the
animal’s carcass decays. long polymer chains Chains slip over
Thermosetting plastics each other and
Thermosetting the plastic melts.
cannot be remoulded.
The polymers have strong
cross-linking bonds locking
them into a giant molecular
structure. Individual add heat
strands cannot be shifted
without breaking part of
the structure. This makes
thermosetting plastics
hard (scratch resistant),
Bonds break and the plastic
brittle (will shatter if decomposes (chars).
dropped) and rigid (not
able to be bent). When

45
Plastics and fibres >>>
Injection Bugs inspire the first
Working with plastic moulding synthetic plastic!
Thermoplastics can be moulded into new shapes in Shellac is a common natural furniture
This is the most varnish and wax, and is made from the
a number of different ways.
common method of excretions of tiny Tachardia lacca bugs.
In 1907, Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland
Extrusion moulding production. A knob of was working in the United States to
Extrusion moulding is used to make many common plastic where the plastic make an artificial substitute for it. His
items such as pipes, hoses, plastic straws, curtain injection took place equipment became clogged when he
is left behind. Toys, mixed phenol and formaldehyde. The
tracks, rods and fibres. new material could not be dissolved
bottle caps and outdoor and was a superb thermal and electrical
Blow moulding furniture are commonly insulator. The plastic, bakelite, had
Bottles are commonly made by blow moulding. A sign made by injection been invented and found immediate and
widespread use as electrical fittings and
of blow moulding is the seam where the two halves of moulding. saucepan handles.
the mould met.

Fig 2.4.6 The nozzle creates the shape in extrusion moulding.

pellets of solid thermoplastic Ring-shaped die

produces a
continuous
pipe.
heaters plastic pipe

nozzle
motor screw molten plastic Slit die produces
a continuous strip.

softened Mould Plastic expands to fill

thermoplastic is closed. mould, leaving seam. Mould opens.

mould in open position metal tube

metal tube
compressed air

Fig 2.4.7 Molten plastic is expanded by compressed air to fill the mould in blow moulding.

46
 2. 4

UNIT
pellets of solid
thermoplastic
mould (two parts)

Injection site is left as a ‘bump’.

Are you stringing

me along?
Fibres were not just used as serious
ram tools in Aboriginal life, they were
used for fun! String games are
common in indigenous cultures
both in Australia and around the
world. In these games, string figure
heating cylinder molten plastic designs were made that resembled
objects used in everyday life, such
as dilly bags and baskets. Designs
also showed animals and people, or
Molten plastic is squeezed into a two-part mould to fill it. Fig 2.4.8
ideas such as the forces of nature.
String games were used for learning
and to help tell stories.
Natural and synthetic fibres
A fibre is any substance that can be woven or knitted
into a fabric. There are two main types—natural and
synthetic.

Natural fibres
Wool, mohair, silk, cotton, linen (flax), hair, fur and
coir (the hairy covering of a coconut) are all natural
fibres. They have had many uses for thousands of
years.
In many Aboriginal societies, making
objects from plant fibres was an important
activity. Items needed for hunting as well
as for carrying and collecting food were made along
with ritual objects for use in religious ceremonies.
The parts of many plants provide fibre to make Fig 2.4.9 An Aboriginal woman using natural fibre to
make a basket
string, bags, rope, baskets, fishing nets or baskets,
clothing and mats. On some trees, such as the paperbark, little
Fibres come from the following plant parts: preparation is needed. The bark is simply peeled from
• underground stems (rhizomes) of plants such as the trees and used to make water containers, mats and
the bulrush liners for babies’ baskets.
• leaves and stems of grass-like plants such as the
mat-rush Synthetic fibres
• bark of trees and shrubs such as some species of Synthetic fibres are made entirely from chemicals
Acacia and native hibiscus. and are usually stronger than natural fibres. Nylon,
After the plant parts have been collected, the Terylene, Lycra, Kevlar, Spandex, Elastane, polyesters
fibrous material is extracted and separated. and acrylics are all synthetic fibres.
Some materials are soaked in water until the non- Synthetic fibres are produced by the extrusion of a
fibrous tissue rots away. Chewing or scraping with polymer though a multi-holed head called a spinneret.
a sharp rock or shell then flattens and softens the Some use natural fibres as their building block. Wood
remaining fibres. and paper (a wood product) contain the natural

47
Plastics and fibres >>>
New, improved
Concorde
the greater its attraction to In 2000 an Air France
others that lie next to it, and the Concorde took off from
stronger it will be. The fibre can Charles De Gaulle Airport
in Paris. A tyre burst,
still tear, though, since the end of sending fragments into
each molecule represents a weak the wing, puncturing the
spot. fuel tanks. The spilled fuel
Monofilaments are made ignited and spelt the end
for the plane. Concordes
from molecules that are the same once again took to the
length as the fibre. There are no sky in 2001, this time
ends and therefore no weak spots. with fuel tanks lined with
Kevlar. However, they never
Fishing lines are monofilaments regained the patronage of
of nylon. Monofilament materials before the catastrophe and
are extremely strong and flexible, were finally removed from
service in 2003.
making them ideal for uses
where a tear or puncture would
be catastrophic: Kevlar is a monofilament that is
five times stronger than steel, but half the density
of fibreglass. It is used in bulletproof vests, the sails
Softened thermoplastic is squeezed out of a Fig 2.4.10
multi-holed nozzle called a spinneret.
of ocean-going yachts and the fuel tanks (actually
A synthetic fibre is formed. fuel-bags) of Formula 1 racing cars. Ropes,
fibre-optic cables, automotive hoses, belts
polymer cellulose. If wood pulp is soaked in solutions and gaskets are often made of Kevlar. Goalie
of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide, NaOH), a sticky masks in hockey use a fibreglass/Kevlar mix.
Prac 4
cellulose gum forms. When extruded, the gum p. 53
forms a new fibre—viscose, acetate, tri-acetate Other properties
and rayon all come from wood pulp. The rough surfaces of natural fibres give them a large
Prac 3
surface area that can absorb and hold water and
Length and strength p. 53
dirt. In contrast, the surfaces of synthetic fibres are
The molecules in a synthetic fibre are aligned along smooth, making them stain-resistant, water-repellent
the thread, making them stronger than the plastics and ideal for clothing. Drip-dry or wash-and-wear
they came from. The fibre will be particularly strong fabrics are synthetic. Synthetics are uncomfortable in
if its molecules are long—the longer the molecule, hot weather, however, as they do not absorb sweat.
Instead, it stays on our skin, making us wet and
Longer molecules produce stronger fibres than clammy. Natural fibres
Fig 2.4.11 shorter ones. The strongest are monofilaments. absorb sweat and keep
our skin dry.
a pair of molecules Synthetic fibres
a monofilament
are thermoplastic and
will melt if heated:
ironing must be done
with care and tumble-
As molecules get longer the force of drying is usually not
attraction between them increases. Each recommended.
molecule
is the
same length
Force Molecules as the
separate at monofilament.
their ends.
Length Prac 5
DYO p. 53

48
 2. 4

UNIT
Other fibres Swimming in shoes!
If synthetic fibres are heated Australians have always loved the beach but
ht.
until 1900 it was illegal to bathe in daylig
strongly with no air present, From 1902 bathi ng was allow ed, altho ugh
they do not burn but char men and women had to swim separately
until all that is left is a fibre and fully clothed—men wore neck-to-knee
woollen bathers and women wore huge
of pure carbon. Carbon !
bathing dresses, caps, stockings and shoes
fibre is extremely strong very heavy , makin g
Wool holds water and gets
diffic ult and drow ning easy. In the
and when mixed with resins swim ming
can be used for making 1930s Jantzen’s ‘Topper’ swimwear allowed
es,
men to zip off their top at secluded beach
lightweight and flexible and in 1938 men were allow ed to go tople ss
structures ideal for bike on the beaches of Perth. The bikini was
frames and tennis racquets. launched in 1952, but the newly developed
ers
‘lastex’ fabric needed bone or metal stiffen
Glass fibre is produced by to prevent it slipping off! Mode rn swim wear is
running molten glass into a only made from nylon , Elasta ne or Lycra
comm
perforated steel bowl (like the blends. Swimmers once again are wearing
neck-to-knee bathers, to protect children Shark skin has scales or Fig 2.4.12
barrel of a washing machine).
from UV radiation and to allow competitive ‘dermal teeth’ that reduce
a
When spun fast, glass threads swimmers to reduce drag. Adidas makes drag as the shark swims.
competitive full body swim suit made from
fly out and then cool in the
suits
air. When mixed with resins, Teflon-coated Lycra, while Speedo makes
has a textur e mode lled
from ‘Fastskin’, which
fibreglass is produced. on shark skin.

Worksheet 2.6 Recycling

2. 4 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint
Plastic: carbon-based compounds
1 State what is meant by an ‘organic compound’.
2 List three examples of organic compounds.
3 List these facts about carbon (C):
a its group number
b its period
c the number of electrons in its outer shell Speedo’s Fastskin material directs water Fig 2.4.13
d the maximum number of bonds it can form flow in a similar way to that over a
shark’s skin.
e two continuous lattices that it forms
Monomers and polymers
4 Identify the correct terms in the following list to fill in the
6 List three forms in which thermoplastics are
spaces below.
manufactured.
polymer, polymerisation, monomer, plastics
7 Define the term ‘thermosetting’.
A small molecule capable of joining together in a long
8 List three properties of plastics made by thermosetting.
chain is called a ________. When small molecules join
together they form a ________. Small molecules join Working with plastic
together in a process known as _______ and result in 9 Use a diagram to demonstrate how extrusion moulding
the production of ________. is achieved.
Thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic 10 State the type of moulding used to make bottles.
5 Define the term ‘thermoplastic’. 11 List three plastic items made by injection moulding. >>

49
Plastics and fibres >>>
Natural and synthetic fibres 24 Explain how the length of a molecule affects the
12 State whether the following are true or false: strength of a fibre.
a A fibre is any substance that can be woven or knitted 25 Where do fibres tend to break?
into a fabric. 26 Explain why care must be taken when drying and
b Nylon, cotton and linen are all examples of natural pressing synthetic fibres.
fibres. 27 Explain how cross-links stop thermosetting plastics
c Natural fibres are produced using a spinneret. from melting.
13 a State the name of the method used to produce 28 Use Figure 2.4.3 to construct a general equation for the
fibres. polymerisation reaction.
b State the name of the ‘nozzle’ used to produce 29 Evaluate the use of plastics in terms of their effect on
fibres. society and the environment.
Length and strength
14 Use Figure 2.4.11 to outline what is meant by a
monofilament.
15 Use an example to demonstrate the usefulness of a
monofilament.
[ Extension ]
Other properties Investigate
16 Outline three desirable and three undesirable properties 1 Materials such as polystyrene are called foams.
of plastics. Research how plastic foams are made. In your
17 Explain why natural fibres are able to absorb and hold answer, include the chemical equations involved.
water.
Action
Other fibres
18 List three examples each of natural fibres, synthetic 2 Use a paperclip to represent a monomer. Link
fibres made from plastics and synthetic fibres made them together to construct models of a polymer, a
from wood products. thermoplastic and a thermosetting plastic.
3 Inspect ten plastic items around your home for seams
Think or ‘bumps’. List the items as made by extrusion, blow
or injection moulding. Present your findings in a table.
19 Contrast:
a the surface of a natural fibre with that of a synthetic 4 Inspect the washing/drying/ironing instructions on six
fibre different pieces of clothing. Present the information
in a table showing the fibre composition of each.
b a monomer with a polymer
List any recommended washing instructions, noting
c thermoplastic with thermosetting plastics whether ‘no heat’ is stated.
d injection moulding with blow moulding
5 Gather information by counting how many plastic
20 List examples of: bags are collected in one week in your home from
a five synthetic polymers shopping. Discuss your results and include comments
b three natural polymers on whether alternatives could have been used.
c one inorganic polymer
d three thermoplastic polymers Surf
e one thermosetting polymer 6 Find out more about how plastics are
f one monofilament recycled by connecting to the Science
21 A train could be considered a polymer. State what the Focus 4 Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.
monomer would be. au/schools, selecting chapter 2 and clicking on the
destinations button.
22 Explain how thermoplastics can melt and then reset on
a Construct a graph showing the amount of plastic
cooling.
used in Australia in each State.
Analyse b Produce a report which outlines how plastics are
recycled.
23 Would the production of thermosetting plastic powder c Justify the need to recycle plastics.
be a good idea? Justify your answer.

50
 2. 4

UNIT
2. 4 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT

Identifying plastics 2 Describe the appearance—is it transparent, translucent or

opaque?
Aim To identify properties of some common
plastics 3 Describe its flexibility—does it bend or is it stiff?
Prac 1
Unit 2.4 4 Does it feel ‘waxy’?
Equipment
Labelled pieces (each about 2 x 1 cm) of polythene, 5 Does your fingernail or the scissors scratch it?
polystyrene, PVC, perspex, nylon, ‘mystery’ plastics, 6 How hard is it to cut with scissors?
dissection board/bench mat, scissors, turpentine, nail polish 7 Are the cut edges smooth or jagged? Does the cut show
remover, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl), detergent, bubbles or cells?
250 mL beaker, tongs, access to meths burner
8 Add two drops of detergent to a 250 mL beaker of cold
set-up in fume hood
water. Add a plastic—does it float or sink?
Fig 2.4.14
9 Place a drop each of turpentine, HCl and nail polish
remover onto three small squares of each plastic. Leave
for five minutes and record whether each piece dissolved,
went soft or remained hard.
turpentine 10 Break each plastic into smaller pieces and use tongs to
hold a piece in a meths burner flame.
HCl
WARNING: The meths burner must be in a fume hood.
nail polish
remover If no fume hood is available, do not do any burning tests.
2 drops of Do not smell any fumes or smoke.
detergent
11 Did the burning produce smoke? If so, what colour was
This must be in the smoke? What colour was the flame? Did molten plastic
a fume hood
drop from it? Did the drops burn as they fell?
250 mL
beaker meths burner 12 Run tests to determine what each of the mystery plastics is.

Questions
1 Identify each plastic as either thermoplastic or
thermosetting.
Method 2 Identify the mystery plastics.
1 Copy the table below into your workbook. 3 Explain why the burning must be done in the fume hood
Your teacher may split you into groups to run all tests on and not in the lab.
one plastic only or to run one test on all the plastics.
4 Explain what is
produced from
Polythene Polystyrene foam PVC Perspex Nylon PVC when it is
Appearance burnt.
Flexibility 5 Deduce whether
any plastics sink
Feel
in, or react with,
Ease of scratching water.
Ease of cutting 6 A sample of plastic
Description of cut kept burning once
it was lit. Its flame
Does it float? was blue with a
Effect of flame yellow tip. Identify
the plastic.
What dissolves it?

51
Plastics and fibres >>>

Making casein plastic

Aim To make a polymer called casein from milk. 8 After a couple of days, remove the mould and polish
Prac 2 Casein was an early plastic that is still used for with the sandpaper.
Unit 2.4 buttons and some wood glues. It is hardened 9 Use tongs to hold a small amount of the dry casein in
industrially with formalin. a Bunsen flame. Does it melt, burn or char?
Equipment Extension
Full cream milk, vinegar, Bunsen burner, bench mat, tripod, 10 Chip off a piece of casein and find its mass.
gauze mat and matches, 100 mL measuring cylinder,
11 For every 50 g of casein you chip off, measure out
2 x 250 mL beakers, thermometer, glass stirring rod, elastic
20 g of borax and 40 mL of water.
band, coarse cloth for straining, paper towel/filter paper,
assorted moulds (bottle caps, moulded chocolate trays etc.), 12 Add the borax and water to a conical flask and swirl
fine sandpaper, tongs until dissolved.
13 Crumble the casein into the borax solution and shake
Method until creamy glue is formed.
1 Set up the Bunsen burner and tripod.
14 Use it to glue two chips of wood together. Use the
2 Place 100 mL of milk in one of the 250 mL beakers. clamp or elastic bands to hold the pieces together.
Warm gently until it reaches 50°C. Do not overheat. Leave it overnight to ‘cure’, then try to separate the
3 Add 10 mL vinegar and stir with the stirring rod. pieces of wood.
4 The milk should curdle to form white lumps of curds
(casein) and yellowish liquid called whey. Questions
5 Use the elastic band to secure the piece of cloth tightly 1 Deduce whether the casein plastic produced was
over the other 250 mL beaker. Strain through the curds thermosetting or thermoplastic.
and whey. 2 State the purpose of the final test.
6 Carefully remove the cloth and squeeze to remove as 3 Identify a use of the casein.
much liquid as you can. 4 Outline how casein is hardened industrially.
7 Empty onto the paper towel/filter paper. Pat dry, then 5 Little Miss Muffet ate her curds and whey. Explain
firmly press into moulds. Leave the casein to dry in whether you would.
the sun.

Fig 2.4.15

thermometer
110
100

10 mL vinegar
90

250 mL beaker curds

80

50°C elastic band

70
60
50
40
30

100 mL milk
20
10
0

curds cloth

whey

curds
mould

filter paper

52
 2. 4

UNIT
TEACHER DEMONSTRATION
Making nylon
Prac 3
Unit 2.4 4 Use tweezers to lift part of the layer of nylon formed
This demonstration must be done in a fume hood.
between the solutions. Drape it over the glass stirring
Aim To make a sample of nylon rod and wind the fibre out.
Equipment
Fume hood, 1,6-diaminohexane, anhydrous sodium
Questions
carbonate, sebacoyl chloride or adipoyl chloride, 1 Construct a three-frame cartoon or diagram to show
cyclohexane, 2 x 250 mL beakers, tweezers, glass stirring rod how the nylon was made.
Method 2 Predict what would have formed if the two solutions
had been allowed to mix.
1 Dissolve 2.2 g of 1,6-diaminohexane and 5 g of
anhydrous sodium carbonate in 50 mL of water. 3 The nylon fibre formed is not very useful. Explain why.
2 In another beaker, mix 2 mL of sebacoyl chloride or
adipoyl chloride in 50 mL of cyclohexane.
3 Gently pour the 1,6-diaminohexane solution down 3 Explain why synthetic
the side of the beaker and onto the top of the fibres have smoother
cyclohexane solution. The two solutions must not mix surfaces than natural ones. wool
but must form layers.
4 List the fabrics in order
from the safest near
silk
a flame to the most
dangerous.
Identifying fibres cotton
5 Clothing fires are more
Aim To compare and contrast natural and common among children
Prac 4 synthetic fibres than adults and more
Unit 2.4 linen
Equipment common among girls than
Labelled samples of fabrics (wool, cotton, linen, rayon, nylon, boys. Propose reasons
polyester), microscope, microscope slide and coverslip, pins why. nylon
or tweezers, metal tongs, matches, bench mat 6 Recommend which
fibres should be used for Fig 2.4.16 Fibres
Method clothing for babies and under the
1 Remove an individual thread, about 2 cm long, from young children. microscope
each fabric sample.
2 Place it on the microscope slide and use the tweezers or
pins to tease the fibres apart.
3 Place a coverslip on top and inspect the fibres under the Natural versus
microscope. synthetic
4 In your workbook, sketch and label each fibre, taking Prac 5 Plan and run an experiment to determine the
note of its surface. Unit 2.4
amount of water different fabrics can hold.
5 Cut/tear a strip about 2 × 1 cm from each fabric.
6 Use tongs to hold a strip over the bench mat. Hold a Questions
lit match under the strip. Record your observations for 1 Construct a flow chart showing how you
each fabric. Did it catch fire, melt or char? What colour DYO
conducted your experiment.
were the flame and smoke? What was left? 2 List the fibres tested in order from those
that held the least water to those that held
Questions
the most.
1 Match your samples with the diagrams in Figure 2.4.16. 3 Identify which of the fibres were synthetic.
2 Deduce which fibres were natural and which were
synthetic.

53
 Science focus: Nanotechnology
Prescribed focus area: The implications of science
for society and the environment
Michael Crichton’s novel Prey tells the story of How small is a nanometre?
research going horribly wrong. In this future world,
Nanotechnology involves making and manipulating
self-replicating nanoscale robots take on their own
incredibly tiny objects. The size of the objects dealt
existence and start to cooperate with each other.
with in nanotechnology is in the order of 10’s to
They prey on living creatures, including the research
100’s of nanometres. One nanometre is equal to just
scientists who created them, to gain the building
one thousand millionth (one billionth) of a metre.
blocks they require to reproduce themselves. This
A single atom has a diameter of about 0.10 to
book caused a very strong response in some people
0.3 nanometres, which gives you an idea of just
who saw nanotechnology as being far too dangerous
how tiny the nanometre is.
and thought that the book predicted the future.
At present, however, nanotechnology is still A different approach
evolving and there is little risk. There is also very
strong support within the scientific and medical Multidisciplined
communities for the development of nanotechnologies Working with incredibly small objects requires
because of the huge benefits that might be gained. In cooperation between scientists from various
the future it is unlikely that nanoscale robots could disciplines. Nanotechnology draws on chemistry,
gain such independence, but they will certainly be physics, electrical engineering, molecular biology,
developed and become highly useful to society for quantum physics and materials science. It offers a
many reasons.
How small is a nanometre? As you move from left to right across the diagram, each step is ten times smaller. Fig SF 2.1

Domain of nanotechnology The future?

Limit of human vision Limit of light
microscope
Rhinovirus
(common
cold)
~30 nm

Small fly Human hair Human Mitochondrion Nanowire Width Carbon Diameter
5.0 mm ~0.05 to red blood cell from chemical of nanotubes of atoms
0.10 mm ~6.0 µm human cell detector DNA ~1 nm ~0.10 to
= 50 to ~500 to wires are molecule 0.30 nm
100 µm 700 nm ~10 nm ~2 nm
nm m =
nm =
=

10 µ =

nm =
m =

µm =
m
= 0.0 m

m
m

= 0 m

00 m
00 m

m
µm0 m

10
5

8
4

9
3

6
m
m

10 –

0 m

10 –
10 –

10 –

10 –
10 –

10 –

10 –
nm
m

10 1

.0
10

00

10
1

10
0.

0.

1.
1.

1.
=

0.

Note:
There are 1000 millimetres (mm) in 1.0 metre (m).
There are 1000 micrometres (µm) in 1.0 millimetre (mm).
There are 1000 nanometres (nm) in 1.0 micrometre (µm).

54
huge range of possibilities, with applications already
being explored in medicine, computing, electronics,
engineering and lithography.
Top down
Until recently the manufacture of the smallest of
objects was a ‘top down’ approach. This means the
substance would be engineered to reduce it down to
the desired size, like sculpting a small statue from
a large block of stone. This approach is suitable for
micro-sized objects such as silicon chips and micro
machines, which often use an etching process to make
small components out of a larger piece of substance.
brick by brick. With STEM it is possible to manipulate
single atoms on the surface of a material and to lay
down incredibly thin surface layers on a substrate.
Figure SF2.3 shows how a STEM operates. The
STEM and sample are contained in a region which
has had the air evacuated using a vacuum pump.
The STEM piezotube probe is then moved over the
surface of the sample, maintaining a fixed distance by
ensuring the tunnelling current between the probe and
sample does not change. Through computer analysis
of the data collected, an image of the surface features
of the sample can be produced. Using a STEM,
individual atoms can be identified. With a secondary
voltage applied between the tip of the probe and the
surface, the chemical bonds holding a surface atom
in position can be broken and the single surface atom
moved. This ability to manipulate individual atoms
has made bottom-up engineering of nanoscale objects
a reality—it is now becoming possible to assemble
something by moving individual atoms into position.
Figure SF2.4 shows a STEM image of a surface that
uses single atoms to represent data. The individual
atoms hold data just like pits on a CD. Such data can
be written and read using a STEM. Data storage at this
scale means that 300 copies of a 300-page book could
be stored on the cross section of a human hair.

Fig SF 2.2 These micromechanics components The basic features of a scanning tunnelling
were created using a top-down electron microscope (STEM) Fig SF 2.3
approach to etch them out
of silicon. For scale,
a fly’s leg can be seen. Applied control voltage Piezotube generates
for piezotube containing a flow of electrons
Bottom up Distance control for electrodes that is focused at
piezotube to sample the sample
The development of the scanning and scanning unit
tunnelling electron microscope
(STM or STEM) finally made it
possible to produce images of an Sample
atom. It was quickly realised that being
studied
with some modifications the STEM
would be the perfect tool to directly
Tunnelling
manipulate the surface of a material current
on the atomic scale. This provided amplifier
the opportunity to try and create Data processing Tunnelling
and display of images Tunnelling voltage
structures from the bottom up. electron
This means assembling a structure current
atom by atom, like building a house

55
 Red gold
With the nanoscale so
incredibly small, objects do
not behave in the way expected
at larger scales. ‘Quantum’
effects begin to act at the
atomic level and this produces
some very interesting results.
For example, the metal gold is
gold in colour when we look
at a sample large enough to
see with the human eye. But
when gold atoms are arranged
to produce tiny crystals of gold
on the nanoscale, the gold
appears red. These curious
Fig SF 2.4 Individual silicon
results show that we have a lot
atoms (yellow) sit
to learn about how substances
on this surface and
behave at the nanoscale.
represent data, like
pits on a CD. A scanning beam interference lithography Fig SF 2.5
machine creates nanoscale grids and grates
for space technology.
The future of nanotechnology
A large amount of investment is going into Medical
nanotechnology research and development to An application of nanotechnology being explored
produce innovative new products for the future. is the creation of nanobots (nanoscale robots) to
The possibilities are endless. be placed in humans. Nanobots could monitor the
Below are described some of the most promising internal conditions of the body, such as blood sugar
areas where nanotechnology will be applied in levels, temperature, nervous activity or production
the future. of hormones by endocrine glands. Nanobots could be
designed to seek out and destroy viruses and bacteria
Surfaces
in the bloodstream. They could also be engineered
The ability to lay down incredibly thin layers of
a substance onto the surface of other material can
improve the properties of a substance and offers
many advantages in chemistry and engineering. For
example, laying down an incredibly thin protective
coat on solar cells could improve transmission of light
into the cells, and thereby improve their efficiency.
Also, surfaces could be made self-cleaning by
applying a coating that repels dirt. Manipulating the
surface of materials can also make it possible to store
vast amounts of information in very small spaces.
A scanning beam interference lithography machine
can be used to create gratings or grids with structures
on the scale of a few nanometres. The structures
created are used in astronomical devices such as space
telescopes and satellites. A laser is used to create
the pattern on the target surface. In the future this
machine could be used to produce nanotechnology Fig SF 2.6 This nanobot is injecting a drug to kill
cancerous cells in a human body. Could this be
components for computers and machines. how we treat disease in the future?

56
to target certain cells in the body, identifying the cell
and delivering a product to it. For example, a nanobot
could be designed to detect cancerous cells. Drugs
could be packaged inside the nanobots to be injected
directly into the cancer cells with no damage to the
normal cells of the patient.
Computing
Nanotechnology offers the potential to manufacture
new, smaller, faster and more efficient integrated
circuits for computing. It has made quantum computing
possible, with incredible processing speeds far beyond
the ability of present silicon-based microprocessors.
Quantum computers would store and process
information at an atomic level. A solid-state quantum
computer element can be made by positioning
phosphorus atoms 20 nanometres apart in very
pure silicon. The phosphorus atoms behave as an
incredibly tiny and extremely fast microprocessor.
Promising research into quantum computing is being
conducted at the University of New South Wales.
[ Student activities ]
1 Development of a quantum computer is being pursued
energetically in a number of countries. The University
of New South Wales (UNSW) has purchased a very
expensive STEM to assist in its research.
a Research the work being done on quantum
computers at UNSW.
b Summarise the work being done and any progress
made to this point.
c Compare this research with that being done in
another location.
2 As a molecular biologist and nanoengineer, you have
been given the task of designing a nanobot to help solve
an important medical problem.
a Identify a medical problem you would like to
solve using nanobots, e.g. diabetes, cancer, HIV,
haemophilia or another of your choice.
b Construct a poster or model of a nanobot that could
help solve this medical problem. Include labels or
a key to show the features of your nanobot, and
an explanation of how the nanobot will tackle the
medical problem.
3 Tests on carbon nanotubes show that they have
extraordinary, unexpected properties.
This image of carbon nanotubes was created
using a STEM. Carbon nanotubes have the
potential to be used in electrical devices and
have unusual properties. Much research is
being done with carbon nanotubes, and their
applications are likely to be diverse. Fig SF 2.7
a Research carbon nanotubes to find out:
i what they are
ii what special properties they have
iii their possible applications and uses
iv why it would be important to conduct
further research into carbon nanotubes
b You are a research scientist and you want to work
with carbon nanotubes but you need funding for
your project. There is $1 000 000 in funding for
nanotechnology available, but you have to appear
to be at the forefront of research to get this. Using
the information you have about carbon nanotubes,
construct an application that will get the funding
you need for your research. Include the possible
outcomes and products you will create, and how
they will benefit society.
4 Produce a poster, display or other presentation to
teach the general public about nanotechnology, and
what it may offer society in the future. You will need to
conduct research to include information about:
a examples of current and future research and
products
b public safety and any social issues
c the importance of continuing to invest in this area
of research
57
 UNIT
>>>

2.5
context

We always seem to be getting dirty or getting methylated spirits or nail-polish remover, dry-cleaners
covered in oils and grease. Dirt, oils and use similar organic solvents to dissolve and remove
grease are made from organic compounds grease from clothes. At home you need to use soap
that normally dissolve only in other organic and water to get clean, but how does this work?
substances. Although there are obvious
problems in washing ourselves in turpentine,
Making grease soluble
Surfactants are molecules that assist water in
dissolving dirt and grease.
Water
At home, water is our main Australians are Detergents, shampoos and soaps are surfactants. Fig 2.5.2
washing liquid. It is a polar too clean!
molecule, having small Many babies suffer
from eczema, or skin
electrical charges on each of hypersensitivity. It seems
its atoms. Water will dissolve that we are all using too
other polar molecules, like much soap, bubble bath
and shampoo, since all
sugar, and ionic substances
remove essential oils
such as salt or sodium from the skin. This causes
chloride (Na+Cl–), which have dryness and makes us
positive and negative ions. susceptible to eczema.
Dermatologists recommend
Water by itself will not using soap-free cleansers
dissolve grease. instead. For babies all
that is generally needed
Water is a polar is some bath oil or
molecule and moisturiser.
can use its slight
charges to dissolve
Fig 2.5.1 ionic substances.

δ+

δ–

δ+

– – Water Soap, shampoos and detergents are surfactants

H

a water molecule
weakens
+ – + the forces and have both organic and ionic parts. Surfactant
holding
δ+
H

δ+
H

– + – H

δ+
salt molecules are similar to those of plastics in that they
chemicals
O
O

H H

H
O
together. are long and have an organic carbon backbone. This
δ–

will dissolve grease nicely. Unlike most molecules,

δ–

δ–

δ+ δ+

δ+

H
H
however, they have a charged or ionic end. This is
δ+

then joined to a metal ion (usually the sodium ion,

δ+

means slight O

negative charge Na+). This end will dissolve in water nicely. We now
δ–

means slight – + have the perfect molecule for dissolving grease—one

positive charge δ+
H
H

δ+

end dissolves the grease, while the other end dissolves

O

δ– Once separated, in water. Once the grease is dislodged, surfactant

they are unlikely
to rejoin. molecules surround it and keep it from re-depositing
back onto the surface. These tiny dissolved liquid

CD8
 2.5

UNIT
grease patches and the water form and magnesium precipitates.
a mixture called an emulsion. These are left behind as a
The water can now wash away dirty grey substance called
the grease. scum, which deposits as a
What gorgeous Scum-free and
hair! Hot water and agitation dirty ring around basins and
bubbles galore!
The molecules of most (vigorous movement) also baths, or as scale in pipes
Many New South Wales
hair conditioners tend to help loosen the grease from and kettles. Soft water has cities have excellent soft
have positively charged the surface and keep it from less dissolved salts and soap water: it lathers well and
ends that are attracted to leaves very little scum. In
the weak negative charge
re-depositing on it. Lather produces less scum. Soap
other areas, ‘water softener’
of the hair. They stay there (bubbles) will also assist in lathers better, feels smoother systems are attached to
even when the hair dries. keeping grease from dropping and more slippery each home’s water supply.
(Fabric softeners work in back and is particularly useful in soft water, and Beads of zeolite replace
the same way.) Shampoos the offending calcium
and conditioners are in situations where little water less of it is required and magnesium ions with
normally sold in separate is used (e.g. shaving, washing to get clean. sodium. Soap doesn’t react
Prac 3
bottles because their cars, hair shampoo). Many fibres p. CD12 with sodium.
opposite charges interfere
with each other if they (including hair) take on a weak
are mixed. In combined negative charge when wet.
shampoo-conditioners, Once dissolved and carrying
the conditioner molecules
are trapped in crystalline
their load of grease, the soap or
shells. When lathering shampoo molecules also carry
hair, the shampoo works, a negative charge and are thus
but there is insufficient less likely to
water to break down the
conditioner crystals. re-deposit the
These only break down on grease back
rinsing, when more water onto the fibre.
is present. Prac 1 Prac 2
p. CD11 p. CD11

water

hydrophilic hydrophobic
head (ionic tail (organic
end dissolves end dissolves
in water) in grease)

surfactant
molecule

grease
Fig 2.5.4 Lather (bubbles) keeps
the dirt and grease from
re-depositing on the hair.

Soap is made when natural

Surfactant (soap, detergent) molecules have a Fig 2.5.3 fatty acids found in materials
hydrophobic end that hates water but loves grease. Skin soap
like vegetable oils and animal soda
The other end is hydrophilic—it loves water. Bases such as caustic
fats react with an alkaline (sodium hyd rox ide ) and
s are
(basic) solution such as sodium their alkaline solution
ou s if they
extremely danger
Hard and soft water hydroxide. The process is called
come in con tac t wit h ski n. The
saponification and is summarised slip per y as its
Tap water contains many impurities. If it has a lot of skin becomes
der go sap on ific ation
calcium and magnesium salts dissolved in it, then it is by the reaction: fats un
and form soap!
hard. Soap reacts with these salts to produce calcium fat + alkaline solution → soap + glycerol
CD9
 Soaps
Detergents are produced from chemicals in crude
oil. The big advantage of detergents is that they don’t
produce scum.
2 .5
[ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
Water
1 Modify the following statements to make them
correct:
a Water is a non-polar molecule.
b Sodium chloride is a polar molecule.
c Water is able to dissolve grease.
2 State the types of substances that normally dissolve
in water.
Making grease soluble
3 Identify the type of compound that grease is
made of.
4 Some liquids are able to dissolve grease. List three
such liquids.
5 List three ways in which grease is prevented from
re-depositing on a surface.
6 State the reactants in saponification.
Hard and soft water
7 Lathering results in ‘scum’ forming when water is hard.
List the chemicals that cause water to be hard.
8 Clarify what is meant by ‘soft water’.
9 State the advantages of soft water.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 a Use a dictionary to define the term ‘phobia’ and
include some examples.
b One end of a surfactant molecule is hydrophobic
and the other end is hydrophilic. Clarify the
meaning of these terms and identify which end
is which.
2 Conduct research on the Internet to answer the
following questions:
a List what is in a soap-free cleanser like Dove.
b Scotch, 3M and ENJO all make cloths that clean
without the use of chemicals. Describe how they
do this.
CD10
>>>
Whale soap?
In the past, whale blubber was commonly
the fat from
which soap was made. Whales are now prote
cted,
however, and the fat used in soap manufactur
e comes
mostly from cows slaughtered for their meat.
Just about
any fat or oil can be used and many soaps
are now
made with vegetable or plant oils. Palmolive
named because it is made with palm oil and
soap is
olive oil.
Think
10 Explain how soap is able to dissolve both in water and
in grease.
11 Identify as many factors as you can that will affect the
cleaning of a piece of fabric.
12 If lather doesn’t help to dissolve grease, explain how it
helps to remove grease from a fabric.
13 If shaving cream did not lather, state where the cut
whiskers would end up.
14 Identify three vegetable oils that could be used for the
production of soap.
15 If animal fat is needed to produce soap, propose some
sources of the fat.
Skills
16 Contrast detergent with soap.
17 Compare soap molecules with:
a plastics
b ionic compounds
18 Construct a word equation for the production of soap.
19 Construct a diagram showing how soap helps grease
to dissolve in water.
Create
20 Construct a three- to four-frame cartoon/diagram
showing how shampoo-conditioners work.
c Research the dry-cleaning process. Describe how
it cleans clothes, making reference to the chemistry
involved. If necessary, use diagrams to assist your
explanation.
d Explain why soap films are often coloured.
e Describe the machine that can make three-storey-
high soap bubbles.
Action
3 Design a survey of soaps. Record your results in a
table showing the first six ingredients of at least three
different brands of soap, hair shampoos and shower
gels. Identify and discuss any trends you find.
 2.5

UNIT
2 .5 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT

Fig 2.5.5
Make soap!
WARNING: The soap made here uses and contains very 250 mL test tube
Prac 1 corrosive sodium hydroxide. Do not get any sodium beaker
Unit 2.5
hydroxide on your skin or in your eyes. Do not use the 5 mL oil
soap produced. water
10 mL
sodium
Aim To produce a sample of soap hydroxide
Equipment solution
yellow
Olive oil or coconut oil, 1 M sodium hydroxide solution, flame
saturated solution of sodium chloride, kerosene, 3 test tubes,
rubber stopper, 400 mL beaker, 100 mL beaker, 250 mL
beaker, hot plate (preferably) or a Bunsen burner, bench mat,
tripod, gauze mat, matches, filter paper or paper towel
Method bench
1 Pour about 5 mL of oil into a test tube. mat
2 Carefully add 10 mL of sodium hydroxide solution.
3 Place the test tube in a boiling water bath for
30 minutes. Shake the tube every few minutes to
mix the contents. 9 Fill a fresh test tube with water, then add 3 or 4 drops of
4 Place 50 mL of the sodium chloride solution in the kerosene. This will be our ‘grease’. Stopper and shake.
100 mL beaker, then pour the hot oil mix in. The soap 10 Add some soap, then shake again. Compare with what
formed should float to the top. you saw before.
5 Scoop up the soap and place it in the 250 mL beaker.
Questions
Rinse a few times with a little water.
6 Let the soap dry on filter paper/paper towel. 1 Draw a cartoon explaining how soap was made here.
7 Two-thirds fill the other test tube with water and add a 2 Describe what happens to the kerosene in water alone.
little soap. 3 Describe the effect that the soap had on it.
8 Stopper and shake. Does it lather? 4 Construct a word equation for the reaction.

How good is it?

Aim To design and run an experiment that 3 Design and run an experiment that would test it.
Prac 2 compares liquid and powder laundry detergents 4 Write a report on the effect of the variable you chose
Unit 2.5
Equipment and why you think you obtained the result you did.
Powder and liquid laundry detergents
Questions
Method 1 Draw a conclusion about the variable you tested.
DYO 1 Identify all the variables or factors that would
2 Gather conclusions from other groups who tested
influence the effectiveness of laundry detergent
different variables. Assess which variables had an
in removing grease.
effect and which didn’t.
2 Choose one factor that you think would have a big
effect.

CD11
 Soaps >>>
How hard is it?
Aim To test water hardness 5 Record your results in order from the solution that
Prac 2 Equipment produced the most lather (the softest) to the one that
Unit 5.2 produced the least lather (the hardest).
Distilled water, dilute magnesium sulfate solution,
solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate, 6 Repeat the experiment but use a few drops of shampoo.
suspension of calcium carbonate in water, small 7 Repeat again with a few drops of detergent.
chips of bath soap, shampoo, detergent, 5 test
tubes, rubber stoppers to fit test tubes Questions
Method 1 Describe what soap does in hard water.
1 Put about 2 cm of distilled water and 2 cm of tap water 2 Identify the solution that was the hardest. Justify your
into two separate test tubes. answer.
2 Put about 2 cm of each solution into the other test 3 Deduce whether the water showed any hardness when
tubes. it contained shampoo or detergent.
3 Add a small chip of soap to all five tubes and stopper 4 Outline the advantage of detergent over soap.
lightly. 5 Design a test to see if temperature has an effect on
4 Shake the tubes vigorously and watch for any lather that water hardness.
forms.

stopper

Look for
lather.

Hold stopper
solution of and shake.
different salts

small chip
of soap

Fig 2.5.6 Is the water hard or soft?

CD12
 >>>
Chapter review
17 Explain why stainless steel is ideal for use as
[ Summary questions ] replacement bone (hips, tooth implants, knees).
18 Corrugated iron (steel) is galvanised and is commonly
1 State an example of an alloy and its base metal. used for roofing.
2 State whether the additives in alloys are usually metals a Explain what will happen after all the zinc coating has
or non-metals. corroded away.
3 List the carbon content of: b Explain whether the zinc can be replaced.
a cast iron b tool steel c mild steel 19 If car bodies are galvanised, propose reasons why they
4 State how many carats are in pure gold. are also painted.
5 If gold is 18-carat, state the percentage of gold present. 20 Identify problems associated with using plastic
shopping bags.
6 State a use for each of these materials:
a aluminium d Duralumin g bauxite 21 An optic fibre is transparent fibre that carries light
unbroken from one end to the other. Explain whether an
b zinc e bronze h celluloid
optic fibre needs to be a monofilament.
c cast iron f haematite i Kevlar
22 Explain why natural fibres cannot drip-dry.
7 State one example each of:
a an alloy of copper h an ore
b an alloy of iron
c an impurity commonly
i
j
a native metal
a natural fibre
[ Interpreting questions ]
added to iron k a synthetic fibre 23 Use a diagram to describe the bonding in metals that
d a commonly used pure made from wood allows:
metal products a conduction of electricity
e a non-metal abundant in l a monofilament fibre b conduction of heat
the Earth’s crust m a surfactant 24 Use the data in the table on page 34 to construct
f a scarce metal n an organic solvent the following graphs:
g a metal that is cheaper to a a pie chart showing the amount of metals used each
recycle than to produce year
8 Identify a metal that is extracted by: b a bar graph showing when each metal is estimated to
run out
a electrolysis b smelting c roasting
25 Construct a diagram showing what happens in the
9 List the ingredients for a blast furnace.
electrolysis of copper chloride. Label the diagram and
10 State the special name given to the corrosion of iron. use chemical equations to show the chemical reactions
11 Outline what is meant by ‘anodised aluminium’. at each electrode.
12 List four properties of a thermosetting plastic. 26 Aluminium metal is high on the activity series, yet is a
commonly used metal. Use Figure 2.3.5 to explain why
it does not rust.
[ Thinking questions ] 27 Phenylethene is an ethene molecule with one hydrogen
replaced by benzene, C6H6.
13 Rose-gold is a pink-gold colour. Propose a metal that a Construct a diagram of a phenylethene molecule.
could be added to the base metal to create this colour. b Polystyrene foam uses phenylethene as its monomer.
14 It is thought that iron simply oozed out of the rocks Construct a diagram showing ten phenylethene
used to surround the cooking pits of ancient hunters. monomers joined to form the polymer polystyrene.
Compare these conditions with those of a blast furnace.
15 Primitive prospectors found gold and silver before any Worksheet 2.7 Materials crossword
other metal. Explain why.
16 Salt is often used in Europe and North America to help Worksheet 2.8 Sci-words
melt ice on roads. Their cars also rust more quickly
than ours. Explain why.

58
>>>
Electricity and
3 communications
technology
Key focus area:
>>> The applications and uses of science

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

5.3, 5.6.1, 5.6.3, 5.12

Outcomes
use an analogy to describe voltage, current and
resistance
compare series and parallel circuits and
describe everyday applications of each
describe the relationship between voltage,
resistance and current, and use Ohm’s law to
calculate values of each
contrast AC with DC electricity
describe how some electromagnetic devices
operate
describe the main components needed for
efficient transmission of electricity
explain how waves transmit energy
list and describe the different forms of
electromagnetic radiation
contrast analogue with digital signals and their
use in communication
explain how communication signals can be
transmitted

1 What do AM and FM on the radio dial stand for?

Pre quiz

2 What are the voltage and frequency of the AC

electricity that comes from our power points?
3 How do mobile phones find each other?
4 Describe an appliance that uses
electromagnetism.
5 Who invented the telephone?
6 What is a digital message made up of?
UNIT
>>>

3.1
context

We live in an ‘electrical’ society. Every day

you use a wide variety of appliances that
need electrical energy to run. Discmans,
iPods, toasters, televisions, microwave
ovens, computers and even the family car
all need electricity.
You might not appreciate
how much you rely on
electricity until you have
to go without. A major blackout
On 14 August 2003 an electrical
failure suddenly hit the United
States and Canada. About 50
million people in cities from New
A simple circuit York to Toronto had no power.
A circuit is a path from People were trapped in subway
trains and elevators for hours.
one side of a power source The loss related to the blackout
(e.g. a cell, battery or was estimated at $6 billion. One
power pack) to the other. month later, Italy’s 57 million
people also were affected by a
The four basic parts of a
blackout. Luckily it occurred on
simple circuit are: a weekend so its initial impact
• an energy source, such was less dramatic and caused
as a cell or battery. A less economic damage. Some
developing countries have regular
cell or battery can be ‘brownouts’ because their need for Fig 3.1.2 Imagine this scene without electricity.
thought of as a charge electricity exceeds their ability to What problems would it cause?
pump. generate it. Electricity supply must
be ‘rationed’, and so suburbs and
• a conducting path towns have times each day when
• an energy user or load, such as a globe, motor,
(wires) for the electricity no electricity is available. buzzer, heating element or resistor
to flow through • a switch to turn the current on and off.

Fig 3.1.1 A simple circuit and its equivalent circuit diagram

cell
circuit 1.5 V
circuit diagram
1.5 V cell

+
–
switch

connecting
wire globe

60
 3 .1

UNIT
The water pump and electrical circuits Fig 3.1.4
Conductor/lead Cell
CURRENT)
SWITCH
Globe Battery
RESISTANCE
HIGHVOLTAGE
Closed switch Fixed resistor
BATTERY
LOWVOLTAGEn
Open switch Variable resistor
GROUND

A Ammeter Leads connected

VALVE
V Voltmeter Leads crossing
HIGH
PRESSURE
WATER
Common components in simple circuits Fig 3.1.3 WHEEL
PUMP

Inside a circuit LOWPRESSURE

There are three very important values in circuits that WATERRESERVOIR

we can measure and calculate.
• Whenever charge moves, we have a current. In
most circuits the moving charges are electrons
and current is defined as the rate of flow of those
electrons. Current is measured in amperes (A) or
amps for short. Sometimes in a circuit there will be
more than one path that the current can take. More restricts the flow, slowing down the water, using
current will flow down the easier path and less up its energy. The valve turns the flow of water on
down the harder one. In mathematical formulas, and off.
current is given the symbol I. In an electrical circuit, the energy or voltage (V)
• Depending on what part of the circuit we are talking supplied by the battery drives the electrons around the
about, voltage is a measure of how much energy: circuit, causing an electric current (I). The resistance
– is available from the battery or power pack (R) slows the electrons, using up their energy. A
to push current through the circuit. It may be switch turns the flow of electricity on and off.
thought of as the size of the ‘push’.
– is used when current passes through a load. Water in pipe Units Electricity in wire Units
Voltage is measured in volts (V) and is sometimes
referred to as potential difference. Voltage is given Pressure (P) Pascals Voltage (V) Volts
the symbol V in mathematical formulas. Flow rate (F) Litres/second Current (I) Amps
• Resistance is a measure of how much a load (e.g. Resistance to flow (W) Newtons Resistance (R) Ohms
globe, motor, resistor) restricts and reduces the flow
of current. Resistance is measured in ohms, or Ω for
short. In mathematical formulas, resistance is given
the symbol R. Voltage
To help you understand these terms we will use the A battery or power pack is the ‘pump’ of an electrical
analogy of a water pump circuit. circuit. A water pump takes in water at low pressure,
In a water circuit, the pressure supplied by the supplies energy to it and ejects it at high pressure. A
pump (P) drives the water around the closed loop of battery or power pack takes in charge at low voltage,
a pipe at a certain flow rate (F). The waterwheel (W) adds energy to it and ejects it at a higher voltage.

61
 Electricity >>>
Resistance
high high pressure A waterwheel restricts the flow of water, slowing the
voltage water down and taking away its energy. Light globes,
+
buzzers, motors, heating elements and resistors are
low –
voltage
loads that restrict the flow of current and remove
energy from the electrons. These loads change the
electrical energy into other forms such as sound, light,
heat and kinetic (moving) energy.
The filament of a light globe is a very thin wire.
As the current tries to squeeze through, it encounters
low pressure
resistance and uses up some of its energy. In a thick
wire, electrons move more freely and with little
resistance. Little energy is lost.
valve Increasing the resistance of the circuit will cause
a decrease in the current, and results in more energy
being used up by the load.

A switch has Resistance in a circuit can be

voltage behind it, If closed, pressure is
but no current if
compared to a water wheel. Fig 3.1.7
behind valve but no
not switched on. flow of water.

Fig 3.1.5 Voltage can be compared to the

pressure of water in a pipe.

Current
When current flows through a wire
it moves freely, losing almost no
Fatal currents energy. This is just like water in a
A current as small as 0.1 to pipe where there is little resistance
0.2 amps can kill! Most deaths
associated with electric shock
to slow the water down. A higher
happen because the electr icity current means more electrons flow A resistor acts as a load, A water wheel is like a load
interrupts the heartbeat, which past a point in a circuit every converting electrical in the circuit. It converts
is controlled by small electrical energy to heat and light. kinetic energy of water to
second.
currents in your body. High movement of the wheel.
voltages are more dang erous A current of 1 ampere means
than low ones because they can that 1 coulomb of charge passes
drive a higher current through by a point in the circuit each
your body. The 240 volts in our
home power supp lies is easily second. A coulomb is an amazing
enough to drive a deadly current 6 250 000 000 000 000 000 electron-
through your body. sized charges!

Current can be compared to the rate

of flow of water through a pipe. Fig 3.1.6

Thick wire offers little A large pipe offers little

resistance to flow of electrons. resistance to flow of water.
Heat energy being released in a glowing Fig 3.1.8
resistor of an electric bar heater
62
 3 .1

UNIT
Types of circuits Ohm’s law
There are two basic types of circuits—series and Ohm’s law describes the relationship between the
parallel. current, voltage and resistance in a circuit.
Typical results from this experiment may be:
Series circuits
If you arrange two globes one after the other in a line
with the battery, the globes are said to be in series. Voltage, Current, V
The voltage supplied is split between the two globes, V (volts) I (amps) Resistor
but the current passing through each is the same. The A 0 0 E Variable
two globes glow more dimly than a circuit with only D resistor
B 3 1
C to alter
one globe. C 6 2 B current
If a globe in this circuit is removed or ‘blows’, the A A
D 9 3
circuit is broken, so the other globe will not work
either. E 12 4
Ohm’s law can be Fig 3.1.11
A series circuit with two globes Fig 3.1.9 found using a circuit
where the resistance
is changed.

6V 6V no current Graphing these results shows that the electric

1A
current is directly proportional to the voltage (V α I).
This means if the voltage is doubled, so is the current.
bulb goes out
1A 1A A graph of Ohm’s law is therefore a straight line
3V 3V bulb removed passing through the origin.
The slope or gradient of the graph gives us the
resistance. It can also be calculated by dividing the
voltage by the current, R = V/I.

Parallel circuits
If you arrange the globes next to each other but on V
Ohm’s law R = = slope
I
separate branches you have built a parallel circuit. vertical rise
Slope =
The voltage used by each globe is the same, but the horizontal run
current is split between each branch. Each globe glows = 62 = 3
with equal brightness.
12 ∴R = 3Ω
If a globe in this circuit is
removed or blows, the other globe 10
will remain lit as there is still a 6
circuit through which current 8
Prac 1 Prac 2
Voltage (V)

may flow. p. 66 p. 66
6
2
4

4A 6V 2A 6V 2

6V 4A 2A
2A 2A 6V 1 2 3 4 5
Current (A)
2A 6V

current divides no current Ohm’s law is shown by this graph. Fig 3.1.12

Ohm’s law is stated as:

Voltage = Current × Resistance
Fig 3.1.10 A parallel circuit with two globes V =IR

63
Electricity >>>
Using Ohm’s law Fig 3.1.13

2ESISTANCE

6 #URRENT
! 2
)
) 2 !MMETER
6
6OLTAGE

4OUSETHETRIANGLESIMPLYUSEAFINGER 6OLTMETER
TOCOVERWHATYOUWISHTOFIND
4HEREAREONLYTHREECOMBINATIONS

  
&INDTHEVOLTAGEUSEDWHENARESISTOR &INDTHECURRENTFLOWINGTHROUGHA &INDTHERESISTANCEOFACIRCUITOFA
OF7HASACURRENTOF!FLOWING RESISTOROF7IFTHEVOLTAGESUPPLIED 6BATTERYTHATDRAWSACURRENTOF!
THROUGHIT IS6

6 6 6

) 2 ) 2 ) 2
6)2 6 6
) 2 )
s 2
VOLTS  

 
7
!

You may find the triangle in Figure 3.1.13 helpful (–) towards the positive (+) terminal. The flow of
when calculating V, I and R. electrons through a wire can be thought of as similar
to water in a hose: it only goes one way. Remember
Worksheet 3.1 Ohm’s law that conventional current flows in the opposite
Prac 3
direction to the flow of electrons. That is, current
p. 67 (I) flows from the positive (+) towards the negative
(–) terminal.
AC/DC In alternating current (AC) the electrons shuttle
The difference between AC and DC back and forth in the wires. This occurs because the
Animal electricity
The electric eel is in the way the electrons move in voltage at the power point or the AC power pack
(Electrophorus electricus) the wire. constantly changes from positive to negative to
is an unusual species In direct current (DC) the positive and so on. The back and forth voltage change
of fish that is capable
of generating powerful
electrons flow in one direction is measured in hertz, one change or cycle per second
electrical shocks. It can only. A battery or DC power pack being 1 Hz. In Australia the AC electricity that we use
grow up to 2.5 metres in provides a source of electrons and at home has a voltage of 240 V and moves back and
length and 20 kg in mass, the potential difference or voltage forth 50 times every second or 50 Hz. Imagine the
and can produce 500 volts
and 1 ampere of direct between the terminals causes water in a pipe constantly changing its direction
current. This is enough to them to move from the negative of flow.
kill a human!

64
 3 .1

UNIT
3 .1 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint Think
A simple circuit 15 Explain what an electrical appliance marked with
1 Clarify what is meant by a ‘circuit’. 240 V, 50 Hz means.
2 List the four parts of a simple circuit. 16 A series circuit and a parallel circuit each have two
globes in them. Describe what would happen in each if
Inside a circuit one of the globes was to blow.
3 Define the terms ‘voltage’, ‘current’ and ‘resistance’. 17 Propose reasons why the lights in a home are wired in
4 State the units for voltage, current and resistance. a parallel circuit.
5 Complete the following table to compare an electrical 18 Construct diagrams for the following circuits:
circuit with a water pump circuit. a two lights and a switch in series
b two lights in parallel and a switch to turn both lights
Electrical circuit Water pump circuit off at once
Battery c three lights in parallel, each of which can be turned
off individually
Pipe
d two lights in series, parallel to a single light. One
Voltage or energy switch should turn off all lights at once, and another
Switch switch should turn off the single light only.

Water flowing through pipe Skills

Water wheel
19 Use Ohm’s law to calculate the missing values in the
table.

6 Draw diagrams to demonstrate all of the components

in both the water pump and electric circuits. Label each Current (amps) Voltage (volts) Resistance (ohms)
component. 3 15
7 Describe how a waterwheel causes resistance.
5 6
8 List three examples of a load that could be included in
240 18
a circuit.
10 240
Types of circuits
9 Outline how components in a circuit are connected: 0.5 14

a in series 12 1.5
b in parallel
10 A series circuit and a parallel circuit were set up, each
with two globes. Compare the brightness of the globes 20 A circuit has a 12 volt battery connected to a 50 ohm
in each case. resistor. Calculate the current in the circuit.
Ohm’s law 21 Ming constructed a series circuit with a 75 ohm
resistor. He connected the circuit to an 8 volt battery.
11 State Ohm’s law in both words and symbols.
a Draw a diagram to demonstrate the circuit.
12 Sketch a graph to demonstrate the relationship of
b Calculate the current in the circuit.
voltage, current and resistance in Ohm’s law.
AC/DC
13 Contrast direct current with alternating current.
14 Identify the type of electricity used:
a in your home
b in a battery-operated appliance

65
Electricity >>>

[ Extension ] 2 Construct an electrical circuit for a simple appliance

Action
1 Use an interactive program such as ‘Crocodile Clips’
to construct circuits that can be used in different
situations, including:
a a doorbell that can make a buzzer operate
b a doorbell for the hearing impaired that has a light as
well as a buzzer
c a circuit for a light that can be switched on or off at
the top or bottom of stairs
d a circuit for a refrigerator door to turn the light on and
off
e light circuits for home
or game that runs on batteries. You could, for example,
build a model lighthouse, a bedside lamp or torch, a car
with motor and lights, or a game like ‘The Nervy’, where
you have to manoeuvre a loop of wire along a bent coat
hanger without the loop touching the wire and setting
off the buzzer and light.
Surf
3 Research Ohm’s law and complete
interactive tutorials about it by connecting
to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 3
and clicking on the destinations button.

3 .1 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT

Simple series and parallel circuits

Aim To compare the brightness of globes in Questions
Prac 1 series and parallel circuits
Unit 3.1 1 Draw circuit diagrams to demonstrate the three series
Equipment and parallel circuits.
Three globes, connecting wires, switch, power pack 2 Construct a table showing the number of globes and
Method brightness in each.
1 Connect a series circuit containing one globe and 3 Compare the brightness of globes in series with that of a
observe its brightness. single globe.
2 Modify the circuit by inserting a second globe and then a 4 Compare the brightness of globes in parallel with that of
third globe in series. Note the brightness of each globe. a single globe.
3 Investigate the effect of removing each globe one at a 5 State the effect of removing a globe when they are:
time, by gently unscrewing them a little. a in series
4 Repeat all the steps but use a parallel circuit instead. b in parallel

Measuring voltage and current in circuits

Aim To compare current and voltage in series Method
Prac 2 and parallel circuits
Unit 3.1 For each of the circuits listed below:
Equipment 1 Use an ammeter to measure the current on each side of
Three globes, connecting wires, switch, power pack, the battery, and in each branch of the circuit (or between
ammeter, voltmeter each globe in the series circuits).
2 Use a voltmeter to measure the potential difference
Warning: Before completing this activity you will need to know across each globe, and across the battery.
how to correctly connect a voltmeter and ammeter into a circuit.
Incorrect connection of meters can damage them. Check with your
teacher before starting.

66
 3 .1

UNIT
3 Draw each circuit and record your results on the circuit Questions
as you go.
1 Describe how the current changes in different parts of:
Circuit 1: a single globe in series
a a series circuit
Circuit 2: two globes in series b a parallel circuit
Circuit 3: three globes in series 2 Describe how the voltage is split between globes in a
Circuit 4: two globes in parallel series circuit.
Circuit 5: three globes in parallel 3 Compare the voltages of globes in a parallel circuit.

Ohm’s law
0 1
2
–1 0 0.2

Aim To investigate Ohm’s law –0

.2
A
0.4

voltmeter

3
0.6
Prac 3
Unit 3.1 Equipment 0
2
4

.4 .6 .8
6
8
10
.2
V 1.0

Two resistors of known

0

(but different) resistance value, switch ammeter

connecting wires, switch,
12 volt power pack, ammeter,
voltmeter
Method
1 Assemble the circuit shown in resistor
Figure 3.1.14. –
+
2 Set the power pack to 4 V, close
the switch and record the current power pack
displayed on the ammeter and
voltage on the voltmeter.
3 Repeat step 2 but increase the Fig 3.1.14
voltage by 2 V.
4 Continue to increase the voltage in 2 V steps up to 12 V. 9 Calculate the slope of the graph for each resistor. The
Record the current and voltage readings. slope of the graph is the resistance value. Compare this
5 Enter the results in a table like the one below and use to the known values of the resistors.
Ohm’s law to calculate the resistance at each voltage
setting.
Questions
6 Repeat steps 2 to 5 using the other resistor. 1 Compare the average resistance calculated using
Ohm’s law with the actual resistance from the slope of
7 Calculate the average resistance for each resistor.
the graph. Suggest reasons for any differences.
8 Construct a graph of voltage versus current for each
2 Describe the shape of the graphs and use it to predict
resistor on the same set of axes.
what would occur if:
a the voltage was doubled
b the resistance was doubled
Resistor 1 Resistor 2
Voltage Current Resistance Current Resistance
(V) (A) (ohm) (A) (ohm)
4
6
8
10
12

67
UNIT
3.2
context
You use electricity every day in many different
ways. Although magnets are less common,
you will also have used them. They are the
basis of all compasses and are used to hold
notes on our fridge and to keep cupboard
doors shut. There is an important connection
between electricity and magnets: electricity can
make magnetic fields and magnetic fields can make
An electric current causes a
magnetic field
In 1820, Danish physics professor Hans Oersted was
carrying out experiments with electric circuits when
he noticed that the needle of a compass on his desk
moved whenever an electric current flowed nearby.
Oersted was able to move a compass needle without
touching it, as if by magic.
The compass was doing what compasses do—it
was reacting to a magnetic field. In this case, the
current
current
compasses
card iron filings
The magnetic field around a straight, current-
carrying wire. The ‘right-hand grip rule’ can be
used to determine the direction of the field, which
is the way a small compass needle would point.
68
>>>
electricity! This connection is responsible for most of
the appliances you use—everything from speakers to
televisions, trains to vending machines.
magnetic field was produced by the electric current.
Oersted had discovered that electricity could cause
magnetism. Later in this unit we will see that the
reverse is also true—that magnetism can cause
electricity. This connection between two quite
different phenomena is known as electromagnetism.
The magnetic field produced around a straight,
current-carrying wire is circular. If the wire is looped,
several circular magnetic fields combine to produce
a stronger field down the centre of the loop. If a wire
is coiled so that several loops are placed together, the
magnetic field is stronger again and we have what
is called a solenoid. An electromagnet is
a solenoid with an iron core that further
concentrates the field down its centre.
Unlike permanent magnets, electro- Prac 1
magnets can easily be switched on and off. p. 74
a
<Fig.2.2.1>
N <Exploding
S
fire-
field works.>< new AW Corbis
CB066635>
b
N S
thumb points iron core
to N pole
N S
fingers indicate
Fig 3.2.1 current direction
Fig 3.2.2 The magnetic fields from several loops are
combined and concentrated in an electromagnet.
 3 .2

UNIT
Uses for electromagnets Electric bell
You hear it every day—the school bell. How does it
There are many applications for electromagnets that
work?
are essential to our everyday life. Many are not easily
noticed and range from large industrial electromagnets
to the tiny speakers in your mobile phone. switch
spring

Industrial electromagnet electromagnet

Industrial electromagnets are used extensively in
metal scrap yards and allow the movement of large contacts
amounts of steel.
electromagnet circuit
The ability to switch magnetism on and off is attracts striker breaks
extremely useful in industry. Fig 3.2.3 bell

Fig 3.2.5 An electric bell

When the switch is pressed, the electromagnet

effect begins and attracts the striker, causing it to
sound the bell and simultaneously break the circuit
by moving the contacts apart. With the contacts apart,
current no longer flows and the electromagnet is
turned off. This allows the striker to return to its ‘rest’
position where the contacts touch once more, causing
current to flow again, and the cycle repeats, resulting
in the familiar bell-ringing sound.

Relay
Electromagnetic relays are found in cars and industrial
machinery. The starter motor in a car allows a small
current within a thin wire to control a much larger
Door latch
current within a larger cable, thereby reducing the
Door latches are usually found in high-security areas.
cost of connecting wires and increasing safety.
To open a door a button is pressed, resulting in a
current flowing to a coil. The resulting magnetic field
attracts the latch out of the door recess, opening heavy duty cable
the door.
ignition switch
An electromagnetically operated door latch Fig 3.2.4 starter motor
light duty cable

electromagnet turning ignition

door latch coil key activates
electromagnet, which
spring attached attracts contacts and
(1) to latch closes the starter
(2) to recess motor circuit
contacts
battery

door recess A car relay Fig 3.2.6

door frame
Speakers
switch Loudspeakers are an essential part of a teenager’s
life, being part of nearly everything that makes
noise. Mobile phones, answering machines, stereos,

69
Electromagnetism >>>
televisions and surround-sound systems all have
speakers of some sort.
A speaker receives varying electrical current
that flows through a coil, causing it to become an
electromagnet. The speaker also contains a permanent Superconductors
are cooled to –270°C they lose
magnet which interacts with the electromagnet. The When metals like tin and lead with
ce, and so allow large currents to flow
two magnets attract when the current fed into the all electrical resistan —i t cos ts a lot to cool
e is a pro blem
little loss of energy. But ther so- call ed ‘hig h-
speaker flows one way and repel when the current development are the
metals this far. A more recent of cera mic mat eria l suc h as
s mad e
flows the other way, producing vibrations in the cone. temperature’ superconductor cooled to
Ceramics like this need to be
These vibrate molecules in the air to create sound yttrium barium copper oxide. d to prev ious sup erco nductors.
compare
‘only’ –200°C, a huge saving s incl ude maglev
waves. ture superconductor
Applications of high-tempera dete ct tiny mag neti c fields
that can
A typical loudspeaker Fig 3.2.7 trains (see below) and devices the brain.
such as those produced by

coil
Trains
Japan’s experimental maglev (short for magnetic
levitation) train uses superconducting electromagnets
cone to lift it 10 centimetres above the track, position
it correctly and propel it at speeds of over 500
kilometres per hour. Such high speeds are possible
permanent magnet because of the train’s streamlined shape, and the lack
of friction between the train and track.

The maglev train ‘floats’ due to the repulsion

Television between electromagnets, providing a
Electromagnets control which pixels (coloured spots frictionless track. Fig 3.2.9
or rectangles) are illuminated on a television screen.
Although the actual electron beams are not coloured,
they are shown coloured in Figure 3.2.8 to show that
there is one beam for each colour pixel in a section of
screen.

electromagnet for
deflecting electron beams

beam of electrons

electron beam sweeps

across screen

shadow mask keeps

electron beam aligned

Fig 3.2.8 How a television works Worksheet 3.2 Inside MLX01

70
 3 .2

UNIT
a magnet in and out of
A magnetic field causes an the coil in Faraday’s
electric current experiment. More than
In 1831, English scientist Michael Faraday a dynamo is needed to
demonstrated that if a magnet is moved into a coil power a city, however.
of wire, a current was produced in the coil. If the To generate sufficient
magnet stopped, so did the current. If the magnet electrical power, massive
was removed, a current was produced but in the turbines are spun by
opposite direction. By continually moving the magnet water or steam. The
in and out of the coil, he produced a continuous but principle is the same
alternating current (AC). Faraday though: the turbines are
had found that by changing the attached to magnets that
magnetic field inside a coil, he could then spin in a coil to A bicycle Fig 3.2.11
produce AC electricity. dynamo
generate an electric current. He had Prac 2 Prac 3
p. 74 p. 75
produced a simple generator.

A current is produced if the coil of wire moves

Fig 3.2.10 relative to the magnetic field.

magnet and coil

move closer together

S N

Fig 3.2.12 Compare the size of the person in this photo

with the steam-driven turbine used to generate
electricity.
moving wire
Microphone
A moving coil-type microphone contains a diaphragm
which vibrates a coil in response to sound waves,
S N generating a current which varies with the strength
and frequency of the vibrations. This current can be
V
fed into an amplifier and converted into a louder
induced current sound by attaching speakers.

A moving coil-type microphone Fig 3.2.13

coil magnet
Applications of generators
Apart from battery-powered devices, most of the
electricity we use is AC and comes from electrical
generators. These can be small (as on a bike) or huge, diaphragm
feeding the power grid of a city.
Bikes often have a small AC electric generator
called a dynamo attached to their wheel rim.
A rotating magnet inside the dynamo produces
alternating current similar to that produced by moving

71
Electromagnetism >>>
Traffic light magic
Vending machines How do traffic lights ‘know’ For efficiency reasons the best voltage for long-distance
there is a car waiting at them? transmission of electricity is between 220 000 and
It’s not just coils that have Pads under the road have
currents induced in them a coil in them that carries a 500 000 V, whereas the electricity is generated at a
by magnetic fields. A solid current. The electromagnetic much lower voltage. In all these cases a transformer is
field it produces induces needed. Transformers use solenoids and the magnetic
coin passing through an a current in the car, which
electromagnet in a vending fields they produce to either increase (step up) voltage
in turn interferes with the
machine creates swirling current in the road. When this or reduce (step down) voltage to the value required.
currents within it. These interference is detected, the
lights ‘know’ that they should Transformers use electromagnetism to step
currents in turn create change to let the car through. up or step down voltages. This is a step-up
magnetic fields, and interact transformer. Fig 3.2.15
with the electromagnet to
slow the coin down. Coins that are not the
correct weight or made from a non-metal are not
iron core
slowed the right amount, and are rejected.
primary coil
The operation of a vending machine Fig 3.2.14
secondary
coil
input voltage
output
voltage
Upper plate

Coins of the
wrong metal LU
R IBUS UNUM

Non-metallic
EP

slow down objects are not Power transmission

ICA

S
NI FI NT
ER

TE VE CE AM
U

D STATES OF

and fall into slowed down, hit

the reject
chute.
Coins of correct metal slow just enough to
pass over the reject chute into the vending machine.
Transformers
Sometimes the voltage provided is either too much or
too small for the intended use. For example, laptop
computers only need 16 V and mobile phones need
only 5.7 V to recharge. The 240 V available from the
power point would damage both if used directly.
Power stations use energy from burning coal, flowing
the upper plate
and fall into the water or other sources to spin turbines in large
reject chute. generators, and transmit power through an extensive
network of overhead and underground power lines.
Because high-voltage transmission is more
efficient, a transformer is needed close to the
power station. These high voltages would be far too
dangerous, however, if fed directly into your suburb
or home, and so a series of transformers are used to
reduce the voltage to the final (but still deadly) 240 V
we use.
How electricity reaches our homes from the
power station Fig 3.2.16

transmission lines
220 kV–500 kV
66 kV 11 kV consumer
step-down
transformer

240 V
power station step-up step-down step-down
16.5 kV transformer transformer transformer/sub-station underground cable to home
(or overhead lines)

72

3.2 [ Electromagnetism ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
An electric current causes a magnetic field
1 State the year when Oersted discovered that a current
produced a magnetic field.
2 Construct a diagram showing the shape of the
magnetic field around a straight wire.
3 Outline the difference between a solenoid and an
electromagnet.
4 State the key advantage of an electromagnet over a
conventional magnet.
Uses for electromagnets
5 a List three devices that use electromagnets.
b State the job done by the electromagnet in each case.
A magnetic field causes an electric current
6 Use Figure 3.2.10 to outline the result of:
a placing the magnet in the coil of wire
b removing the magnet from the coil of wire
c continually moving the magnet in and out of the coil
of wire
7 List two devices that contain a simple generator.
Transformers
8 State what a transformer is used for.
9 Use Figure 3.2.16 to state the main stages in electricity
transmission.
10 List the two main types of transformer.
11 State what type of transformer would be needed:
a for a laptop computer
b for long-distance transmission
c at a substation on the outskirts of a town
d to recharge a mobile phone
12 Count the number of primary and secondary coils in
Figure 3.2.15 and propose a way of deciding whether
the transformer is step-up or step-down.
Think
13 Use an example to explain how an electromagnetic
device operates.
14 Propose a way in which a soft drink machine might
‘know’ when an incorrect coin has been inserted.
15 From the following, identify those situations in which an
electric current is generated.
a A magnet enters a wire coil.
b A magnet sits still inside a wire coil.
c A magnet is removed from a wire coil.
d A wire coil moves towards a magnet.
3 .2
UNIT
e A wire coil moves away from a magnet.
f A current is turned on in a wire coil facing another
wire coil.
16 Compare the voltages of transmission lines with that
used at home.
17 Explain why power companies bother increasing the
voltage of power lines if it is only going to be reduced
again before reaching homes.
18 Propose a reason why high-voltage power lines are
always kept well above the ground by tall pylons.
Skills
19 Design and sketch a circuit that uses electromagnets
to release a trapdoor when a person steps on a certain
section of floor.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research how electromagnetism is used to record and erase
magnetic audio or video tapes. Use a diagram to explain your
information.
2 Research some of the discoveries made by Joseph Henry
(1797–1878) in the area of electromagnetism and give a
one-minute oral presentation on one discovery. Use props
to assist you in your explanation.
3 Use an example to explain how ‘Fleming’s left-hand rule’ gives
the direction of the force on a current in a magnetic field.
4 a Research whether it is dangerous to live near high-voltage
power lines.
b Write a letter to the government outlining the potential
dangers of electromagnetic radiation. Be sure to support
your ideas with evidence.
c In your letter, recommend what should be done to reduce
the risk of electromagnetic radiation to the community.
d Conduct a class debate on this issue.
Surf
5 Find out more about electromagnetics and
Japan’s maglev train by connecting to the Science Focus 4
Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 3 and clicking on the destinations
button. Select one example of a device that uses
electromagnetism and present your information in the
form of an advertisement.
73
Electromagnetism >>>

3.2 [ Practical activities ]

UNIT

Fig 3.2.18
Oersted’s experiment
and the electromagnet
2V
Prac 1 Aim To investigate the magnetic field around a +–0 power pack
Unit 3.2
current-carrying wire VOLTS

Equipment
Power supply, switch, insulated copper wire (1 m),
tape, switch, small compass, cardboard tube,
large iron nail switch
tape tape

compass just
2V inside tube
+– power pack
0

VOLTS 1 m section of
connecting wire
compass
switch
Fig 3.2.17
Method
1 Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.2.17.
Ensure the power supply is set to 2 volts.
2 Hold the switch down and note any effect on the
compass needle.
3 Investigate the effect of moving the compass further
away from the wire.
4 What happens if the voltage is turned down (and the
current reduces)?
5 Now wind the wire around the cardboard tube as
shown in Figure 3.2.18. Use tape to secure the coils
to the tube.
6 Compare the strength of the magnetic field inside the
tube with that produced in step 2.
7 Now wind the wire around the nail instead of the
cardboard tube. Use tape to secure the coils if required.
8 Hold the pointed end near the compass while holding
the switch down.
9 Hold the head of the nail (the non-pointy end) near the
compass while holding the switch down.
Questions
1 Explain what happens to the strength of a magnetic
field as you move further from a wire.
2 Explain whether a larger current produces a stronger or
weaker magnetic field.
3 Would several coils cancel each other’s magnetic fields
or reinforce them? Justify your answer.
4 Explain whether an electromagnet is stronger or weaker
with an iron core.
5 Describe how the magnetic fields differ at each end of
the nail.
A simple generator
Aim To investigate the correlation between
Prac 2 magnetism and current electricity
Unit 3.2
Equipment
Solenoid, bar magnet, connecting wires,
galvanometer or microammeter
Method
1 Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 3.2.19. Note:
A galvanometer is like a very sensitive ammeter, and
detects small currents. In each step below, observe the
reading on the galvanometer as you carry out the step.
2 Move the north end of the magnet into the solenoid.
3 Leave the magnet resting in the end of the solenoid for
several seconds.
4 Withdraw the magnet from the solenoid.

74
 3 .2

UNIT
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4, but move the magnet more quickly.
galvanometer 6 Repeat steps 1 to 5, but move the south end of the
magnet into the solenoid.

G Questions
1 Explain why a globe was not used to detect current.
2 Explain whether a magnet in a solenoid always
produces a current.
3 Describe the effect of varying the speed of the magnet.
N 4 Contrast the effect of the magnet when it is withdrawn

S
with its effect when it enters the solenoid.
solenoid 5 Describe whether changing the pole (north or south)
that approaches the solenoid has an effect.
Fig 3.2.19 6 Predict the effect a stronger magnet would have.

A simple electric motor

Aim To construct a simple electric motor 10 Give the loops a nudge (you may need to try spinning
Prac 3
Equipment the coil both ways) to start the motor. You may need to
Unit 3.2
experiment with the position of the magnet.
1.5 volt battery (‘D’ size), Blu-Tack, 2 rubber
bands, 2 paperclips, 1.5 metres of enamelled Questions
copper wire, a small but strong disc magnet or a
bar magnet, emery paper, pliers (optional) 1 Explain why several loops are better than a single one.
2 Predict what would happen if the entire wire (loops
Method
included) was not insulated.
1 Wind the enamelled copper wire around the battery to
make a solenoid. 3 Explain how scraping half the coating from the straight
ends of the wire helps. Predict what might happen if
2 Remove the wire from the battery and straighten 5 cm you didn’t do this.
or so at each end.
4 Identify possible improvements to your model motor.
3 Wind a centimetre or two of the ends around the loops
of wire to keep them together. 5 Take apart a small electric motor (e.g. from a broken toy)
and compare the parts with your model.
4 Using emery paper, scrape the underside of
each straight end to expose the copper
(see magnified view of straight ends in
Figure 3.2.20). View from above less than
5 Use fingers or pliers to shape the two coil enamelled 1 cm
paperclips as shown. copper wire less than
magnet 1 cm when
6 Use the rubber bands to attach the coil is
paperclips to the battery. Ensure part of coil is
directly above magnet vertical
7 Place the magnet so it sticks to the top of
the battery (see Figure 3.2.20). Alternatively, paper clip
hold a bar magnet near the coil. strong magnet battery
8 Stabilise the battery using Blu-Tack. rubber band (1.5 volts)

9 Add the loops to complete the motor and Blu-Tack

check that measurements and positioning
enamelled/insulated copper wire
match the figure. exposed copper

Fig 3.2.20

75
UNIT
>>>

3.3
to visualise ocean waves or ripples caused by a stone
context

Visible light is only one section of a wide

variety of waves known as the electromagnetic dropped in a pond, or even those in a slinky, but
spectrum. While visible light allows us to see, what exactly are the waves that make up light and the
other invisible forms such as X-rays enable us electromagnetic spectrum?
to see into the body without invasive surgery.
Other invisible forms give us the radiant heat
Rather than moving along with the waves, both simply
of sunlight and the basis of most communication,
bob up and down on the spot.
from radio to TV to mobile phones. It’s fairly easy
If the coils of a slinky or the particles of
water did move the full distance from A to B,
they would all end up at B, leaving nothing
Two kinds of waves at A—this clearly does not happen!
Prac 1
p. 83
There are several different types of waves, but the
main two are transverse and longitudinal (sometimes Properties of waves
called compression) waves. These are Imagine you are shaking a slinky back and forth to
illustrated in Figure 3.3.1 using a slinky. generate transverse waves at a steady rate. This rate
has another name: frequency. If you are producing two
Fig 3.3.1 Two kinds of waves waves every second, the wave frequency is 2 waves
per second, or 2 hertz (2 Hz for short). The unit ‘hertz’
4RANSVERSEWAVE PARTICLE WAVEDIRECTION is used to describe anything that has regular repetitive
MOVEMENT behaviour, and can be taken to mean ‘per second’. For
example, a wheel that rotates 10 times per second has
! a frequency of 10 hertz. Likewise, a sound wave that
" hits your eardrum with 200 compressions per second
,ONGITUDINALWAVE PARTICLE WAVEDIRECTION has a frequency of 200 hertz.
MOVEMENT
"
!
COMPRESSION RAREFACTION
Transverse wave
wavelength
amplitude
‘middle’
position
One of the special wavelength
characteristics of waves is their wavelength
ability to transfer energy from A Longitudinal wave
to B without particles actually
Breaking waves
moving along the full route. When
When an ocean wave reaches
shallower water, friction from a transverse wave travels from A to
the sea bed slows the bottom B, the actual particles in the wave
of the wave more than the top, merely vibrate up and down. In particle’s
wavelength
with the result that the top may maximum middle
break away, allowing some a longitudinal wave the particles wavelength movement position
particles of water, possibly vibrate back and forth. amplitude
carrying a surfer, to move with Think of a surfer on a board
the remains of the wave.
or a boat floating in the ocean. Amplitude and wavelength for two kinds of waves Fig 3.3.2

76
 3 .3

The distance between successive crests or
successive troughs in a series of transverse waves is
called the wavelength. The height of crests above their
normal, middle position is called the amplitude of the
wave. In a longitudinal wave, the wavelength is the
distance between compressions or rarefactions, and
the amplitude is the distance that particles vibrate
from their normal, middle position.
UNIT
cause a changing electric field, which causes another
magnetic field, which causes another electric field
and so on and so on. For this reason, we say that light
consists of electromagnetic waves that travel at an
incredible speed of 300 000 kilometres per second.
electric field

Light waves
When sound or light travels from A to B, energy is
transferred but no particles actually move from A to B.
This suggests that these phenomena behave just like
the water and slinky waves described above.
magnetic field
As discussed in Science Focus 1, sound waves
are longitudinal waves requiring particles to pass
vibrations from one layer to the next. Hence sound
Fig 3.3.3 The magnetic and electric fields of light
can travel through gases, liquids and solids but cannot waves are perpendicular to each other.
travel through a vacuum. But
how can light be a wave? Nothing The range of colours we are able to see is called
seems to be vibrating back and the visible spectrum. White light is really a mixture
forth when we shine a torch, of all the colours of the visible spectrum, and consists
though we can see where its beam of waves of different wavelengths and frequencies all
strikes an object. Also, light can travelling at the same speed.
travel through the vacuum of
Spirit warning space. The human eye is more sensitive to some
Aboriginal tribes used We saw in Unit 3.2 that an Fig 3.3.4
colours than to others.
a device called a bull
roarer, or kooladoo,
electric current causes a magnetic
to comm unica te using field and that a changing
sound waves. The bull magnetic field causes a current.
roarer is used by tribes to
Sensitivity of the eye

A mass will only fall if there is a

warn women and young
children away from men’s
ceremonies, particularly
during initiation. It is made
from a flat piece of wood,
about 30 centim etres in
length and fastened at
one end to a string. When
swung around in the air
it produces a whirring or
howling sound likened to
those of animals or spirits.
The sound was regarded
as the voice of a spirit
that comes to take the
young boys away. In some
cases bull roarers were
associated with various
objects known as churinga
which wome n or unini tiated
men were forbidden to see.
Penalties were severe—
blinding by fire-stick or
even death .
gravitational field, and likewise
an electric current only flows
when there is an electric field.
What all this means is that a
magnetic field can cause an
electric field and vice versa. 400 500 600 7400
Both magnetic fields and electric Wavelength (nanometres)
fields are invisible, but can
1
be detected by the effect they 1 nanometre = 1 000 000 000 of a metre
have—for example, the electric
field around a Van de Graaf
generator can make your hair
stand on end and the magnetic Other types of electromagnetic
field of a magnet will move iron
filings around. waves
Light can be considered a The visible spectrum is only a small part of a wide
series of changing magnetic group of electromagnetic waves. In order from
and electric fields where the smallest to largest wavelength, these are: gamma rays,
changes in a magnetic field X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infra-red rays,

77
Waves in communication >>>
7AVELENGTHINMETRESM
n n n n n n n n n n nn
PICO NANO MICRO MILLIMETRE METRE KILOMETRE
METREPM METRENM METRE±M MM M KM
GAMMARAYS 8 RAYS ULTRAVIOLETRAYS VISIBLELIGHT INFRAREDRAYS MICROWAVES RADIOWAVES

!-RADIO
&-RADIO
SHORT WAVE LONG WAVE
RADIO RADIO
               
&REQUENCYINHERTZ(Z GIGAHERTZ MEGAHERTZ
'(Z -(Z

Fig 3.3.5 The electromagnetic spectrum. Although wavelengths and frequency vary, speed is the same (300 000 000 metres per second)
for all types of electromagnetic waves.

microwaves and radio waves. These make up the they are a form of nuclear energy. Substances that
electromagnetic spectrum. Though we cannot see release nuclear energy such as gamma rays are said
these other types of waves, they can be detected and to be radioactive. Gamma rays can be detected using
are used in a variety of applications. photographic film or a Geiger counter, and can be
used to destroy cancer cells, which are more sensitive
Gamma rays to radiation than normal cells. Some normal cells are
Gamma rays are extremely high-energy still killed, however, resulting in the unpleasant side
waves released in bursts from the nucleus of certain effects of radiotherapy.
atoms including uranium and plutonium—hence
X-rays
X-rays are produced when fast-moving electrons lose
energy suddenly, for example when smashing into a
metal target. Short-wavelength X-rays can penetrate
dense metals such as lead, while long-wavelength
X-rays penetrate flesh but not bone, and so may be
used to ‘photograph’ inside the body. The term
‘X-ray’ is also used to refer to the actual photograph
produced.
An X-ray machine Fig 3.3.7

electron gun electron beam target

X-rays

Fig 3.3.6 Gamma rays are used to produce scans like this one of a human skeleton. A radioactive isotope is injected into the blood
vessels supplying the region, and tends to concentrate in tumours and cancerous bone. Variations in emitted gamma ray
intensity result in different areas showing up in the image.

78
 3 .3

UNIT
electric field vibrating
in one direction

Polarisation
Sunlight consists of waves
in all sorts of orientations.
Polarising materials
electric field vibrating allow only waves whose
in several directions electric fields vibrate
in a certain direction to
pass, absorbing all other
Fig 3.3.9 Polarisation
waves. This reduces
glare dramatically. Hence
polarising materials are
often used in the lenses of
sunglasses.
Prac 2
p. 83
Infra-red rays
‘Infra’ is Latin for ‘below’ and infra-red (or IR) rays
have a frequency below that of red light. They are
often associated with heat and are released from
A coloured X-ray photograph of a woman’s foot Fig 3.3.8
in high-heeled shoe vibrating atoms or molecules. All objects contain
vibrating atoms and molecules, so all objects emit
infra-red radiation. The hotter the object, the more
Ultraviolet radiation the vibration, and so the more the energy released as
Whenever the Sun shines on infra-red radiation.
A handy discovery us, we receive both visible When high-energy waves are emitted they become
In 1895, Wilhelm Konrad light and invisible ultraviolet visible as red light—hence the expression ‘red hot’.
Roentgen was passing Remote control devices emit infra-red waves which
electrons through a gas in (‘ultra’ means ‘beyond’) or UV
a device called a disch arge radiation. A small amount are detected by special components within televisions
tube when he noticed that a of UV radiation is vital as it and sound systems. They are then converted to
card coated with a barium salt electrical energy to control functions such as volume
nearby began to glow.
helps produce vitamin D. Too
even much, however, causes damage and channels.
He noticed that the card
glowe d when he place d objec ts to the skin in the form of a An infra-red image of a
between it and the tube. When suntan, sunburn or various person using a mobile phone Fig 3.3.10
he placed his hand in the
way he was amazed to see a skin cancers. Some washing
‘shad ow’ of his hand bone s powders contain special
on the card! Roentgen had chemicals which absorb
discovered X-rays.
ultraviolet light and then re-
emit it as visible light to give
the impression of ‘whiter-
than-white’ clothes. Ultraviolet light can be used to
kill bacteria, and is used in hairdressing salons and
air-conditioning systems.

Visible light
Visible light includes the colours of the rainbow
(ROYGBIV) and various combinations, including
white. Though we can see an amazing range of
colours, these colours are a very small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

79
Waves in communication >>>
Microwaves The behaviour of different types of radio waves Fig 3.3.12
Sometimes called short-wave radio waves,
microwaves are generated by vibrating electrons in
electrical devices, and typically have a wavelength space satellite

of a few centimetres. They are easy to direct, can

pass through the Earth’s ionosphere and are used
in satellite communication, radar and mobile short radio waves
(microwaves) ionosphere
phones. Water molecules in food vibrate at the same pass through reflects
frequency as microwaves. Hence food strongly absorbs the ionosphere medium
radio waves
microwaves, converting their energy into heat energy microwaves
in a microwave oven. used for
line-of-sight
links
long radio
waves
diffract round
the Earth

(bending around objects like this is called diffraction).

Short waves may also travel around the Earth, by
reflecting from the ionosphere.

Fig 3.3.11 This dish receives microwave and satellite
signals and relays them to Earth-based parts
of the communications network.
Radio waves
Radio waves are also generated by
vibrating or oscillating electrons
(e.g. in a transmitting aerial), and
Marconi
Italian engineer
are used in radio and television
Guglielmo Marcon i is broadcasting. Radio waves have
generally credited with wavelengths of hundreds of
inventing radio. In 1895 metres to tens of centimetres
he transmitted a signal
2.4 kilometres in the and are classified into several
gro und s of his fath er’s categories. Long radio waves
property. He patented the are useful for communicating
first ‘wireless telegraphy’
system in 189 6. around the Earth, as they bend
to follow the Earth’s surface
AM and FM
You are probably aware of the terms AM and FM
when referring to radio stations, but what do they
really mean?
Electromagnetic waves such as radio waves can
carry information (e.g. sound or vision) as changes
or fluctuations in either frequency or amplitude.
Receivers detect these changes and convert them back
to sound or vision or some other form.
This information first must be converted into a
wave, in a process called modulation.
Amplitude modulation, or AM, is the process
in which information is carried as changes in wave
amplitude. Similarly, frequency modulation or FM is
the process in which information is carried as changes
in wave frequency.
Radio stations transmit sound using both AM
and FM, while television stations transmit sound
using FM, and vision using AM. Australia’s national
broadcaster, the ABC, transmits AM carrier waves of
frequency 774 kilohertz (1 kilohertz = 1000 hertz),
which will be detected by a radio tuned to this
frequency.
The higher frequencies of FM stations are less
affected by interference, and provide a better quality
sound than AM, though they have less range.

80
 3 .3

UNIT
Waves cause electrons
in radio antenna to vibrate.

Sound
Radio
wave
antenna
(pressure
wave)
Electrical Amplified
signal electrical FM (frequency
signal modulation)

Amplifier Receiver
Microphone

Oscillator Modulated
Electric Electrical signal
AM (amplitude waves
carrier created and amplified.
modulation) transmitted Speaker converts
wave Carrier wave removed
by radio mast electrical signal
added from electrical signal to sound waves.
(demodulation).

Modulation is one of many steps in the Fig 3.3.13

Worksheet 3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum transmission of sound via radio waves.

3.3 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint
Two kinds of waves
1 State the names of the two kinds of waves.
2 Outline the main differences between them.
Light waves
3 Copy and complete the following statement:
A light wave is made up of changing ________ and
________ fields that are ________ to each other, and
moves at ________ metres per second.
4 State whether the following statements are true or false.
a All electromagnetic waves move at the same speed.
b Each different colour of light has a different
wavelength.
c The visible spectrum contains the electromagnetic
spectrum.
d Waves transfer energy by moving particles along
with them.
Other types of electromagnetic waves
5 State one similarity and one difference between the
waves of the electromagnetic spectrum.
6 State the speed of light.
7 List the main types of waves in the electromagnetic
spectrum in order from shortest to longest
wavelength.
AM and FM
8 AM and FM radio have modulated wavelengths.
State the full name for ‘AM’ and ‘FM’.
9 Outline the purpose of modulating radio waves.
10 State an advantage of each type of carrier wave.
Think
11 Explain why it does not make sense to talk about the
wavelength of white light.
12 Identify which colour of light has the:
a greatest wavelength
b highest frequency
13 State which colours the human eye is most sensitive to.
14 Infra-red cameras can help find a lost bushwalker.
Outline how this is possible.
15 Identify the radio wave that can penetrate the Earth’s
atmosphere.
16 State the name of the harmful rays that are released in
a nuclear explosion.
17 Is UV radiation good, bad or both? Justify your
answer.
18 Explain how a Geiger counter and gamma radiation
can be used to measure the thickness of an object.
>>

81
Waves in communication >>>
Analyse Skills
19 State the wavelength of this wave. 24 Construct a diagram of a transverse wave that has:
a a wavelength of 3 cm and amplitude
of 2 cm
b a wavelength of 10 cm and amplitude
of 1 cm.
25 Convert:
a 600 nanometres to metres
b 0.000 000 850 metres to nanometres
26 Construct a table with the following
headings and enter information about each
Fig 3.3.14 type of electromagnetic wave.

20 A student shakes out

20 waves on a slinky in Type of Typical Source How it is Use/s
10 seconds. Calculate the electromagnetic wavelength detected
frequency of the waves. radiation (approx.)
21 The time between each wave Visible light 1 millionth The Sun, Cones in the eye, Sight,
passing is called the period. of a metre very hot objects photographic film photography
a Identify the period for the
waves in Question 20.
b If the wave frequency
increases, predict what
effect this will have on the period: 27 Construct a diagram of:
A The period will increase. a a frequency-modulated carrier wave
B The period will stay the same.
b an amplitude-modulated carrier wave
C The period will decrease.
D There is not enough information to answer the 28 Calculate the frequency of carrier waves transmitted
question. by:
22 Identify which type of electromagnetic wave has a a 107.5 ZZZ FM
wavelength of: b 1278 2AW (an AM station)
a 1m
b 1 km
c 0.5 mm
d 1 millionth of a millimetre [ Extension ]
23 Explain what you would expect to see if the following
polarising filters were placed in front of a light source Investigate
as shown. 1 Outline the contribution to science of one of the
following people by writing a brief biography of their
Fig 3.3.15 life.
a Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell and his
work on electromagnetic wave theory
b the development of radio communications by the
American engineer Edwin Armstrong
c the first transmission of radio waves by Guglielmo
Marconi
d John Logie Baird’s contribution to the development
of television

82
 3 .3

UNIT
2 Radio waves include LW, MW, SW, VHF and UHF. 4 Find a design for a simple radio or ‘crystal
a State what these stand for and why the waves are set’ (e.g. from an electronics shop or the
classified like this. Internet), then construct and test it. DYO
b Describe uses for each type of wave in
communications. Surf
5 Complete a tutorial on waves and the
Action electromagnetic spectrum and record the
3 Design an experiment to investigate how outcome of your tutorial in your notebook. You can find
ripples in a tank or pond are affected by a a link by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
change in water. Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
DYO
chapter 3 and clicking on the destinations button.

3.3 [ Practical activities ]

UNIT

Waves in a slinky
side to side movement
Aim Investigate the movement of waves in a 3 Describe what happens
Prac 1 slinky when waves meet:
Unit 3.3 direction
Equipment a on the same side of
in which
A slinky, masking tape, stopwatch, floor or corridor the slinky wave
space in which to generate waves between points b on opposite sides of travels
5 to 10 metres apart the slinky
4 If time permits,
Method investigate longitudinal
1 With a partner, stretch a slinky to a length of 5 metres or waves produced by
so without permanently deforming it. bunching up and
2 Use masking tape to mark points along the slinky every releasing the coils.
metre or two.
3 Generate a horizontal transverse wave as shown,
Fig 3.3.16
carefully observing the masking tape labels as the wave
passes them.
4 Generate a small wave and measure the time it takes to
get to the other end. Calculate the speed of the wave. Polarised!
5 Keeping the slinky stretched by the same amount, Aim To investigate the interaction of two
generate a bigger wave and calculate its speed. Prac 2 polarising filters
6 Generate waves at a high frequency and calculate their Unit 3.3
Equipment
speed.
Two polarising filters, window or other
7 Repeat but for waves of low frequency.
light source
8 Investigate what happens when waves are generated
simultaneously from both ends of the slinky: Method
a on the same side 1 Look through one of the filters at a nearby window or
b on opposite sides other light source.
2 Now hold a second filter in front of the first, and rotate
Questions it while keeping the first filter still.
1 Describe the direction in which the masking tape labels
move compared with the travelling wave.
Questions
2 Describe whether the wave speed is affected by: 1 Describe what you saw in each case.
a the size of the wave 2 Explain your observations.
b the frequency of the waves

83
UNIT
>>>

3. 4
context

The first Europeans who settled at Sydney methods might seem to be science fiction right now,
Cove received all their messages from but remember that email and the Internet were hardly
the outside world by sailing ship. Most known ten years ago! There are many possibilities for
communication was with England, messages how we will communicate that we do not even know
taking a year to get there and another for the about yet.
answer to return. Communication is obviously
very different now from what it was in 1788 and
will continue to develop in the future. Many of these 60 kilometres by telegraph. By opening and closing
a simple switch (telegraph key), dots or dashes were
sent along the telegraph and transferred to a
paper tape printout or converted to sounds for
Communications history translation by a telegraph operator.
The telegraph
Communication was once based on drums, smoke
signals, mirrors and flags (semaphore). Then the
invention of the telegraph (‘tele’ means ‘at a distance’)
changed communication forever. It was a system that
sent electrical pulses along a wire. The first telegraph
was demonstrated in 1835 by Professor Moncke of
Heidelberg, Germany. In 1837, Englishman William
Cooke demonstrated his own system (developed with
Charles Wheatstone), transmitting a signal a distance
of 1.6 kilometres. These early telegraphs used the
magnetic effect of a current to move small pointers.
In 1844, American Samuel Morse used a code
A telegraph receiver used to print Fig 3.4.2
involving dots and dashes to send a message Morse code messages

A J S 1 The first telegraph cable was laid across the English

B K T 2 Channel in 1851, and in 1858 the first cable across
3 the Atlantic Ocean was laid, although it failed after
C L U
4
a month—the tiniest hole in a cable’s insulation was
D M V
enough to provide an alternative path for the current and
E N W 5
so destroy the signal. In 1866 the transatlantic cable was
F O X 6
successfully re-laid. By 1869, a cable under Bass Straight
G P Y 7
connected Tasmania to mainland Australia. During
H Q Z 8
1872, the Overland telegraph line was completed from
I R 9 Adelaide to Darwin, where it was joined to an undersea
0 cable to Java. From Java, the line connected to Europe
FULL STOP
(zero)
COMMA
and England, allowing overseas communication within
hours instead of the customary two months by ship. The
Fig 3.4.1 In Morse code, the most commonly telegraph was the main form of telecommunication until
used letters have the shortest codes. the emergence of the telephone.

84
 3 .4

UNIT
The telephone were developed that were able to find free lines and
In 1874, Scottish inventor Patent problems connect callers automatically.
Italian inventor Antonio The first fully automatic exchange in Australia
Alexander Graham Bell came Meucci is credited in his
up with the idea of converting home town of Florence came into operation in Endeavour Hills, Victoria, in
sound (e.g. speech) into with inventing the first 1981. Nowadays all Australian exchanges are fully
telephone, but was unable automatic and switching is computerised, resulting
varying electrical impulses for to afford the US$250 to
transmission along a wire and patent his idea. in a system that is quick and very reliable, with calls
then converting the impulses able to be continually rerouted to make best use of
back to sound at the other available lines.
end. On 10 March 1876, in Boston USA, Bell spoke
to his assistant, Thomas Watson, in Cambridgeport, Today’s communications
3.2 kilometres away. This was the first ever telephone network—analogue and digital
call. Bell’s words were: ‘Mr Watson, please come here.
Our current global communication network must
I want to see you’.
handle a huge amount of ‘traffic’ including voice,
Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone Fig 3.4.3 image and computer data. It copes by transmitting
several signals at once in each line.
When you talk into a telephone,
the initial input is in the form of
smoothly varying sound waves. These
are converted into smoothly varying Digital codes
electrical signals, otherwise known Information can
as an analogue signal. Most homes be represented by
today are connected to the network combinations of the
digits 1 and 0. This
via copper wires designed for use makes it much easier to
with analogue signals. Different accurately transmit since
signals can be sent simultaneously short pulses of light or
electricity can represent
by using different frequencies. They the 1 and 0 combinations.
can then be separated or filtered at For example, any number
the receiving end. Hence, one way can be represented as
combinations of 1 and 0
of transmitting several calls at once
by imagining place value
is to use several carrier waves of columns as shown below.
different frequencies. This is known Starting from the right, we
as frequency division multiplexing, use 1 or 0 to build up the
number in digital form. For
or FDM. example 5 in digita l form
is 101 (or pulse, no pulse,
A telephone system The numbers 5 and 13 pulse). Numbers in this
requires the following Fig 3.4.4 in digital form form are also called binary
main features: transmitters, numbers. Each 1 and 0 is
5 called a bit, so the binary
receivers, exchanges and a
The call of the dead! number 101 is composed
network connecting users. 4 2 1 of three bits.
Almon B. Strowger was an
American funeral director who Early manual exchanges only 1 or 0 allowed 1 0 1
inven ted the first autom atic required an operator to use
telephone exchange. It is a switchboard to physically
a 3-bit binary number
rumoured that his incentive was
to stop the flow of busin ess connect a wire from the 13
going to his oppo sition . The caller’s telephone to one going 8 4 2 1
operator at his local manual to the telephone of the person
exchange was apparently only 1 or 0 allowed 1 1 0 1
directing all funeral queri es to being called. This was called
funer al busin ess! a line. As the number of a 4-bit binary number
her husb and’s
By establishing an automatic calls on a system increased,
exchange, his competitor’s wife mechanical exchanges
could no longer manipulate calls.

85
The communications network >>>
Digital signal is particularly these and protects the cable from damage. The inner
suited to transmission by optical core carries analogue or digital signals, while the outer
fibres. Each call is sampled 8000 copper layer protects the signal from interference
times per second and is converted between tubes in the same cable or from outside
Digital to analogue into a signal comprising bits (a bit sources. The outer layer also reduces attenuation, or
and back again
A modem converts
may be considered as a 1 or a 0, or a loss of signal strength. The first major coaxial cable in
digita l signa ls from a pulse or no pulse, or ‘on’ and ‘off’). Australia opened in 1962, linking Sydney, Canberra
computer into analogue Several different calls may be cut and Melbourne.
waves in a process called into chunks, interspersed, and sent
modulation. Most of the
telephone netwo rk is made in the one ‘data stream’ at a single
from copper wires that frequency, and sorted out again at
are only designed to carry the end of the transmission. This is insulation
analogue waves. Hence
the need for a modem. A called time division multiplexing or
modem can also convert TDM.
analogue signals received electrical signal
Frequency division multiplexing
into digital ones (called
demodulation) for
(FDM), in which streams of
processing by a computer. data are sent at different rates
This dual capability is or frequencies, may be used
where a modem gets combined with TDM to maximise
copper core
its name: modulator– copper wire tough plastic
demodulator. the bandwidth, or the amount of
braiding sheathing
information that can be carried.

Fig 3.4.6 Coaxial cable can carry both analogue and

Multiplexing Fig 3.4.5 digital electrical signals. Several of these may
be packed into one larger cable.

Time division multiplexing

Second signal/call First signal/call
frequency 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 00 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 01 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 11 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 10 10
frequency 2
Second signal/call First signal/call
While small-scale links in the network are through
copper wire, major links are provided by coaxial
cable, fibre-optic cable and radio waves (including
microwaves), sometimes via satellites. Signals are
converted from analogue to digital as required,
depending on the section of the network.
Coaxial cable
Most coaxial cables contain several tubes, each
consisting of an inner copper core and an outer
cylindrical copper mesh layer separated by an
insulating material. A tough outer sheath surrounds
Optical fibres
In the 1930s, the inventor of optical fibre patented
data stream 1 a method for manufacturing it ‘just in case anyone
ever finds a use for it’. Today, optical fibre forms the
backbone of the global communications network.
data stream 2 An optical fibre is a hair-thin tube or strand of glass
surrounded by a protective cladding which traps
and conducts light, thanks to a phenomenon known
as total internal reflection (see Chapter 4 in Science
Focus 3). To use optical fibres for communication of
voice, fax or computer data, the original signal first
must be converted into an electrical signal, which is
in turn converted into pulses of light, the light being
provided by a laser. Laser light is coherent—that is, all
its waves are of the same frequency and wavelength
and are ‘in step’, resulting in a powerful beam that
can carry vast amounts of information with little
dispersion or spreading out. Lasers can be switched
on/off many millions of times every second, making
them ideal for transmitting digital data. Sydney and
Melbourne are currently linked by over 1.5 million
kilometres of optical fibre.

86
 3 .4

UNIT
Fig 3.4.7 Many optical fibres can fit in a single cable.
Teacher demonstration
The laser
plastic
sheath outer
WARNING: Never look directly at the source of a laser
laser light protective covering beam, and never direct a laser beam towards anyone’s
optical layer eyes. Beware of possible reflections that may redirect a
fibre beam near people’s eyes.

Your teacher may demonstrate a laser beam by

directing a beam into some chalk dust scattered in
steel core
the air in a darkened room.

Microwaves
Microwave links can be used to
transmit digital signals through the
air from repeater station to repeater It’s that clear!
station. These stations transfer signals The glass used in optical
fibres is so clear that
from one area to another, and boost you would be able to see
signals as required. Microwaves travel through a 100 kilometre
in straight lines, so each repeater thick window made of it.
Incoherent light Coherent light
(many wavelengths, not in step) (one wavelength, waves in step) station must be in sight of the next
one in the network. Signals may be
Fig 3.4.8 A light bulb produces a mixture of light of modulated to carry pulses of two different frequencies
various wavelengths which we perceive as white within the wave—one representing 1 or ‘on’, the other
light. A laser produces coherent light of only
one wavelength. representing 0 or ‘off’.
Microwaves are used to link satellites for long-
distance communication, as well as within the mobile
phone network. The first microwave link in Australia
was established between Melbourne and Bendigo in
1959.
LASERS
s chromium atoms Fig 3.4.10
In a ruby laser, energy from a flash tube excite A microwave repeater station
emit light, which reflects between
in the ruby. These atoms then
of the ruby rod, stimu lating more atom s to emit light
the ends
partia lly reflec tive end allows some
of the same wavelength. The
escap e as a laser beam . The ruby also gives laser light its
light to
acronym that stands for
characteristic red colouring. LASER is an
Light Ampl ificati on by Stimu lated Emis sion of Radiation.

laser beam

fully reflective mirror partially reflective mirror

(allows some laser light to leave)

How a laser works Fig 3.4.9

87
The communications network >>>
Mobile phones
Mobile phones use microwaves to transmit digital
signals within a network of regions called cells.
Each cell uses a different set of frequencies, with
no adjacent cells using the same frequency. When
you turn on a mobile phone, it sends a signal to the
network, which registers your location. As you move
from place to place, base stations within the network
detect signals from your mobile phone, and the base
station receiving the strongest signal sends it to the
exchange. When a call is made to your mobile phone,
the exchange detects where you are and sends the call
to the base stations in the cell you are in.
A modern, and some Fig 3.4.11
would say essential,
All the above methods of Transmission Maximum number of communication
transmission require repeater method two-way conversations device—the mobile
phone
stations every 50 kilometres or Copper 600
so to boost weakened signals. Coaxial cable 2700
The table opposite shows the Worksheet 3.4 ADSL: Digital communication
Optical fibre 28 720
different capacities of each
Microwaves 1920
type. The global
communications
network Fig 3.4.12

/RDINARY /PTICALFIBRES #OMMUNICATIONSSATELLITE ,INE OF SIGHTMICROWAVELINK

PHONE TRANSMITTINGDIGITALINFORMATION
BYLIGHTPULSESENABLESMANY
CALLSTOBESENTDOWNONEFIBRE
SIMULTANEOUSLY
ORBITINGSATELLITESAREUSEDTOROUTECALLS DIGITISEDCALLSFROMLOCAL
3ATELLITEUPLINK BETWEENPLACESNOTLINKEDBYCABLE EXCHANGESAREROUTEDTOTHE
ENCRYPTEDDIGITAL MAINEXCHANGEVIATERRESTRIAL
INFORMATIONIS MICROWAVELINKS
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88
 3 .4

The future
It is likely that in the future our homes will be
connected to one cable which provides a broad
range of services including telephone, fax, Internet
connection, video on demand, video conferencing,
UNIT
pay TV, interactive video and games, and on-line
shopping, news and medical diagnosis. Known as
B-ISDN—short for Broadband Integrated Services
Digital Network—such a system is the ‘next step’ in
our ever-expanding global communications network.

3.4 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint 18 The world is sometimes referred to as a global village.

Explain why.
Communications history
19 Your behaviour would probably change if you were
1 List some older forms of communication.
having a video-phone conversation. Contrast your
2 Outline the origin of the term ‘Morse code’. behaviour on a video-phone with that on a normal
3 State the distance over which the first telephone call phone.
was made.
Analyse Strowger switch Fig 3.4.13
Today’s communications network—analogue
and digital 20 Explain why the return spring
4 State whether the telegraph used digital or analogue Strowger switch shown
signals. in Figure 3.4.13 is for
set connection to a
5 Many signals on the communications network are not in vertical-drive
telephone that has finger
digital form. Explain why not.
the number 33.
6 a List the two types of multiplexing.
21 Explain why repeater
b Describe how each type of multiplexing allows towers in the mobile
several calls on the one phone line. phone network are
The future contact
arranged in a zigzag arm rotary-
7 State the name of the network predicted for future use. pattern, as shown in drive
8 Outline the main advantage of this system. Figure 3.4.14. finger

contacts
Think
9 List some of the communication services/devices
available today that were not available 50 years ago. Fig 3.4.14
10 Propose a way of remembering the Morse code for the
digits 1, 2, 3, … 0.
11 State two advantages of digital signals over analogue
ones.
12 The word ‘signal’ is used a lot in this chapter, rather
than ‘call’. Explain why.
13 If several single-core copper wires were used instead of
coaxial cable to carry phone calls between two cities,
predict the effect.
14 Explain why laser light is ideal for use in fibre-optic
communication.
15 Mobile phones are sometimes called cell phones.
Skills
Explain why. 22 a Estimate the number of words per minute you could
16 Propose the main advantage of having several different send using a telegraph device and Morse code.
communication paths between two cities. b Estimate the number of words per minute you can
17 B-ISDN will provide many services in the future. List as say at normal conversation pace.
many as you can. 23 Construct your name in Morse code. >>

89
The communications network
24 Decode the following and record the message.
25 Construct a suitable graph showing the different call
capacities of the various cables and microwaves.
26 Although Sydney and Melbourne are only 1000 km
apart, there is about 1.5 million kilometres of optic fibre
between the two cities. Calculate the number of ‘lines’
or individual optic fibres this represents.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 There is concern about the effects of mobile phone
radiation on the user’s brain.
a Gather evidence supporting or denying this effect.
b Evaluate your evidence and decide whether it is a
concern.
c Propose ways in which users of mobile phones can
reduce the possible risk.
d Present your information as an advertisement
(radio, print or television) to pass on your findings
to others.
2 Research the lives of one of the early
telecommunications inventors and write an
autobiographical account of their achievements.
90
>>>
Fig 3.4.15
3 The original Overland telegraph line was a single strand
of wire that transmitted signals using pulses of electric
current. There must be a complete circuit for electricity
to travel. Explain how the Overland telegraph works
with just one wire connecting two places.
4 Research the development of the Internet/World Wide
Web. Explain the role of routers and servers in this
vast network.
Surf
5 Visit the ‘Telstra classroom’ to choose
and complete a tutorial kit in an area
of communication that interests you. Construct a
PowerPoint presentation on advances in the field
of your interest. You will find a link to the site by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 3 and clicking on the destinations button.
Create
6 Design a home that uses several futuristic
communications services and devices, and explain
how each is used.
 Science focus:
Microwaves cook from the inside
Prescribed focus area: The applications and uses
of science
By Karl S. Kruszelnicki 2004 who hit on the idea. He had been working long and
hard, testing a magnetron—and he needed a break.
Microwaves are very weird. They will make food hot,
Luckily, he had a stash of chocolate in his pocket—but
but they are not hot themselves! We humans started
not so luckily, the chocolate bar had melted, and had
using fire to heat our food about one million years
ruined his trousers, leaving him still hungry. But why
ago. And for most of that million years, we used
had the chocolate melted? After all, it wasn’t a hot
variations on that theme—such as baking, boiling,
day.
steaming, poaching, roasting, grilling, frying and so
He was an engineer with both an appetite, and a
on. There was no really new way to cook food until
good sense of curiosity. So he got a bag of popcorn
we started using microwaves, about half-a-century
kernels, and blasted then with microwaves out of
ago. Even today, most people don’t really understand
his magnetron. Soon, he had delicious popcorn all
microwaves. But whatever the reason, most people
over the laboratory floor. He also tried cooking raw
wrongly believe that microwaves cook the food from
eggs, but that experiment wasn’t so successful. The
the inside first.
pressure inside rose so rapidly that the eggs burst. So
The first real “use” of microwaves was in radar
the microwaves could cook food—but with varying
units during WW II. Radar gave the British the huge
degrees of success.
advantage of being able to detect the approaching
Raytheon took up his ideas and developed a
enemy planes at night, or through thick cloud.
commercial microwave oven, the Radar Range. It was
Wartime radar began in 1940, when Sir John
enormous (as big as a fridge and weighing 300 kg)
Randall and Dr. H. A. Boot invented the magnetron,
but with a very small cooking volume (roughly
a device to generate microwaves. The magnetron
the same as a modern microwave oven). The sales,
squirted out the microwaves for only a brief instant,
unsurprisingly, were quite modest.
and then stopped transmitting. A different part of the
radar unit then listened for the echo bouncing back.
There would be an echo only if the transmitted radar
beam happened to land on a target. Some of the radar
beam energy would be bounced off the target back to
the radar unit. If the radar unit had to wait for a long
time, the incoming planes were far away—but if there
was only a short time before the echo arrived, then the
planes were very close.
During WW II, the British government got the
American government to help with the development
of radar. The Raytheon Corporation in the USA
became involved. Dr. Percy L. Spencer, an engineer
with Raytheon, redesigned the radar units, and
worked out how to boost the production from 17 units
per week, to 13,000!
The idea of using microwaves to cook food came Blasting popcorn with microwaves led to the Fig SF 3.1
accidentally, around 1946. It was the same Dr. Spencer development of the microwave oven.

91
 So how did the microwaves cook?
The Raytheon engineers soon found out that
microwaves pass right through glass, paper, pastry,
fats and most china. On the other hand, water absorbs
microwaves very well indeed. The microwaves
“shake” the water molecules directly. The molecules
of water vibrate about 2.45 billion times each
second, and as they rub against each other, this
friction produces the heat for cooking. This is how
microwaves cook.
This X-ray of a microwave oven shows the Fig SF 3.2
magnetron (purple, lower right). The magnetron
is the tube in which electrons are generated.
These electrons are affected by magnetic and
electric fields to produce microwaves that are
directed at the food.
So what about microwaves cooking from
the outside in?
Think of the food as being in spherical layers, like
an onion. Let’s assume that each layer is a centimetre
thick, and that it absorbs 10% of the incoming
microwave radiation. After the first centimetre, only
90% of the energy is left. After the second centimetre
only 81% is left—and so on. You can see that more
of the microwave energy is absorbed in the outside
layers, with hardly any getting to the very centre.
Food in a microwave oven cooks from the outside
to the inside. So how did this myth that microwaves
cook from the inside start?
There are two possible explanations.
First, pastry and other fatty crusts are low in water.
So if you heat a baked potato or a meat pie in your
92
microwave, the pastry crust won’t get very hot, but
the contents inside will. As you bite into the potato or
pie, you pass through the cool (low water) pastry crust
into the hotter innards—and you burn your mouth.
Second, in that original post-War experiment by
Spencer, the egg that he exploded did seem to cook
from the inside. But that was because it had a shell
that was low in water, and an inner core that was high
in water. So the egg looked “normal” until the water
on the inside turned into steam and exploded the egg
apart. In this case, the inside (the water) cooked, and
the outside (the shell) did not.
So while the invention of radar turned the Art of
War upside down, it did not turn the Art of Cooking
inside out…
[ Student activities ]
1 a Examine the use of microwaves further. This
could include one of the following applications:
ovens, satellite communications, mobile phones,
radar.
b Construct an advertisement to sell the microwave
technology you have investigated. Think about
who you are aiming the advertisement at—the
target audience. Include information about the
following:
i How can the technology be used?
ii What are the advantages of this
technology over alternatives?
2 Microwave ovens have recently been the target of
safety campaigns because a number of children
have been badly burnt while using these devices.
a Research how a microwave oven can be a risk to
children, and what types of injuries are commonly
caused by them.
b Propose a set of safety guidelines for microwave
use to keep children safe.
c Synthesise your information into a safety poster to
be placed above a microwave oven.
3 a Research the history of microwaves, their
discovery and early uses further. This could include
researching one of the people discussed in the
feature article above.
b Give a visual presentation of your information.
 UNIT
>>>

3.5
context

Mobile phones and the communications

network, security systems, televisions,
computers, supermarket barcode scanners,
microwave ovens, digital watches, CD and
DVD players all involve electronics—the
use of electric circuits containing miniature
components to control electric current and hence
perform a variety of useful tasks.
Resistors
Resistors are commonly made as small, banded,
cylindrical devices made of compressed carbon, or a
glass or ceramic tube coated with a thin film of metal.
They are used to control current and voltage in a
circuit, converting electrical energy into heat.
Compared to ‘normal’ electric circuits like that
in a torch or in a house, the miniature components
of electronic circuits are designed to work with very
small currents. The resistors used must therefore have
high resistances. The multiplier prefix ‘k’ is used to
indicated 1000 ohms (1000 Ω), while ‘M’ is used to
indicate 1 000 000 Ω.
For example, 8 kΩ = 8000 Ω, and 3 MΩ = 3 000 000 Ω.
Variable resistors may be used as volume controls
on radios, TVs and sound systems.
The resistor colour code
The coloured bands on resistors are not decoration—
they are a code representing the resistance in ohms.
The digits 0 to 9 are represented by colours as shown
in Figures 3.5.2 and 3.5.3.
Resistors resist the flow of current, and
can be used to control voltages. Fig 3.5.2

Fig 3.5.1 A circuit board containing several different

electronic components

CD14
 3 .5

UNIT
Fig 3.5.3 The resistor colour codes

tolerance (4th band)

first second number
Digit Colour digit digit of zeros gold 5%
silver 10%
0 black
4 band resistor no colour 20%
1 brown
2 red 5% tolerance
yellow violet red
3 orange 4 7 2 zeros (00)
4 yellow
= 4700 V
5 green
6 blue
7 violet 5 band resistor
8 grey 5% tolerance
9 white yellow violet black brown
4 7 0 1 zero (0)
= 4700 V Prac 1
p. CD20

Thermistors Capacitors
A thermistor is a device Capacitors store small amounts
whose resistance drops of charge, but not for very long
when it is warmed up. This as the charge eventually leaks Off, but still
property makes thermistors away. The charge is stored on dangerous!
useful in circuits that need two metal foil sheets separated Many electronic devices
to respond to changes in by an insulating material called such as the television
contain capacitors. Because
temperature (e.g. a fire a dielectric. Because the metal of the charge-storing ability
alarm). sheets are separated, charge can of capacitors, it is still
flow into a capacitor for only a possible to be given an
electric shock by meddling
short time (like the flow of people with circuitry after the
Fig 3.5.4 Heat decreases the resistance of a thermistor. This is getting onto an empty bus) before power is switched off.
the opposite of what happens with most conductors.
the plates fill. The larger the metal
sheets, the more the charge that
Light-dependent resistors can be stored, so the various layers are rolled up like
a Swiss roll to allow a larger surface area to fit into a
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photoresistor also
small volume. The charge-storing ability of a capacitor
has a variable resistance. Its resistance decreases when
is called capacitance, and is measured in farads (F) or,
the intensity of light falling on it increases. LDRs are
more usually, microfarads (µF). Capacitors are used in
ideal in circuits that need to respond to changing light
conditions (e.g. to control street lights).

More light decreases the resistance of an LDR. Fig 3.5.5

metal
foil

dielectric

A capacitor is like a Swiss roll—but don’t try to Fig 3.5.6

eat one!

CD15
 Electronics >>>

Fig 3.5.7 Capacitors The band indicates the negative side of a diode. Fig 3.5.9
store charge.

circuits to control the A diode may be considered a one-way

time taken for various valve for current. It conducts very well when
actions (e.g. lights The microphone connected one way (we say it is forward
flashing), and to block A condensor microphone contains biased), and very little when connected Prac 3
p. CD21
steady currents two plates acting as a capacitor. the other way around (we say it is reverse
The first of the plates vibrates back
but allow biased).
and forth as sound waves strike it,
changing ones causing the separation of the plates
to pass. Prac 2 (and hence their charge-storing Two very different results using the same diode Fig 3.5.10
p. CD20
ability or capacity) to change.
Changes in charge-storing ability
cause charge to flow on and off
sound wave the plates—in other words, an +
alternating current is produced. This
–
fixed plate signal may then be connected to an 9V
amplifier and converted into sound.
ammeter
0.4
current flows 0
0.2
0.6
0.8

AMPS
1.0

moveable –
electric 5A A
plate signal 1A
battery
processing diode ‘forward biased’
circuit

A condensor microphone Fig 3.5.8

+ –
Diodes 9V
no current flows
A substance that conducts electricity is called (or very small ammeter
a conductor, while one that doesn’t is called an current flows)
insulator. A pure semiconductor is an insulator 0
0.2 0.4
0.6
0.8

when it is cold, and a conductor (though a poor AMPS

1.0

one) at room temperature. The two most commonly –

5A A
1A
used semiconductors are silicon and germanium.
A semiconductor diode is made from two different
layers of specially treated semiconductor and has diode ‘reverse biased’
special properties that make it a very useful electronic
component.

CD16

Diodes may be used to protect
circuits from current going the ‘wrong
way’ and damaging sections of the
circuit, and for converting AC to DC. A
special kind of diode is the light-emitting
diode (LED), which is used in indicator
lights and digital displays.
Transistors
The transistor is the most famous
electronic component of all and was
invented in 1947 by a team from Bell
telephone laboratories led by William
Shockley. Like the diode, it is made
from treated silicon, and is a type of
semiconductor. The transistor, however,
contains three layers of treated silicon.
Transistors come in many shapes and sizes.
C B E
emitter
current
basic
current
Fig 3.5.12 Note the position
of each leg
in this diagram
of a transistor.
3 .5
UNIT
The legs or terminals of a transistor connect
to these layers and are known as the
emitter, base and collector or E, B and C
for short. When placed in a circuit with
LED the light shine
other components, a transistor can behave
LEDs are far more energy
efficient than light bulbs, amazingly.
but you need a lot of them A transistor may act as a switch (with
to produce the same light. no moving parts apart from electrons!) and
Traffic lights are gradually
being changed from single a current amplifier. When no current flows
bulbs to banks of LEDs. through the base, the transistor is ‘off’, and
The main advantage here is no current flows from collector to emitter
that LEDs don’t all ‘blow’ at
once … there are always
either, despite a voltage being applied.
some left to keep the traffic When a small current flows through the
light operating until its next base, the transmitter is ‘on’ and allows a
regular servicing.
larger current (an amplified copy of the base
current) to flow from collector to emitter.
Integrated circuits
Fig 3.5.11 Miniaturisation did not stop with the invention of the
transistor. Photographic processes are used to form
millions of connected semiconductor components on
thin wafers of treated silicon, sometimes called silicon
chips. The finished product is called an integrated
circuit (IC) or microchip. Microchips are now used in
most electrical products, such as burglar alarms, car
indicators and computers. Scientists are continually
finding ways to pack more components onto a single
chip—in fact, the number has roughly doubled each
year since 1965.
Modern printed circuit boards connect
integrated circuits and separate components
together in a compact way. Fig 3.5.13
integrated circuit
resistor
integrated circuits
capacitors
CD17
 Electronics >>>

ENIAC
tal
Prac 4 Prac 5 Prac 6 The first fully electronic digi
p. CD21 p. CD22 p. CD22
computer, called ENIAC, was
e year
completed in 1947—the sam
.
that transistors were invented
170 squ are met res of
It took up
to
floor space—compare this
pute rs, whi ch can fit
today’s com
in your hand!

ENIAC—Electronic Numerical Integrator and Fig 3.5.14

3.5
Calculator—was the first electronic computer.

[ Questions ]
UNIT

Integrated circuits
Checkpoint 15 A microchip is also called an integrated circuit or a
Resistors silicon chip. Explain how these terms are connected.
1 Outline the function of a resistor in a circuit. 16 Microchips are a major breakthrough in electronics.
2 Identify the feature that distinguishes different-sized List two uses of microchips.
resistors.
Think
Thermistors
17 Identify the type of component described in this unit
3 Define the term ‘thermistor’.
that may be a key part of:
4 State three potential uses for a thermistor. a the control of an air conditioner
Light-dependent resistors b automatic doors
5 Modify the following statements to make them correct. 18 Many bicycle lights involve one or more flashing LEDs.
a An LDR has a constant resistance. Outline the advantages of having the LEDs flash.
b More light increases the resistance of an LDR 19 a Evaluate whether ENIAC would fit in your bedroom.
c An LDR cannot be used in changing light conditions. b If not, calculate how many rooms of that size would
Capacitors be needed.
6 Outline the purpose of a capacitor. 20 Estimate how many components may be fitted on a
7 A dielectric assists in storing the charge in a capacitor. silicon chip next year compared to this year.
Use a diagram to demonstrate how this works.
Analyse
8 Identify the units used to describe capacitance.
21 Calculate the resistance of each
Diodes
of the following resistors:
9 State two uses for a diode. Fig 3.5.15
a blue, grey, brown
10 Two elements are often used to make semiconductors. b brown, green, orange
State their names. c red, violet, yellow
11 A diode is considered a one-way valve for current. d red, green, green
Outline how this is achieved. 22 For each of the following
Transistors resistors identify the
12 State the name of the members of the team that colours (in order) of the
developed the first transistor. first three bands:
13 Construct a diagram explaining how to identify the a 560 Ω
base, collector and emitter legs of a transistor. b 3300 Ω
14 Transistors were a major advance in electronics. Explain c 470 000 Ω
why. d 1 200 000 Ω

CD18
 3 .5

UNIT
Skills Component Sketch Use Symbol
23 Complete the table opposite, identifying words Resistor
from the text for the missing names of electronic
components.
24 Use several small rectangular light-emitting diodes
to demonstrate how the digits 0 to 9 on a digital
clock display may be constructed.
25 Construct a circuit diagram for the circuit shown
here.
Fig 3.5.16

Detects light
+ –

9V

330 μF

26 Calculate how many times smaller a transistor is

than an old-style valve.

Transistor

[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 3K8 is another way of labelling a 3800 Ω
resistor.
a Explain what 4K9 means.
b Explain what 2M5 means.
2 a Clarify what is meant by ‘p’ and ‘n’
type germanium.
b Describe how it is used to make diodes.
3 a Explain how diodes can be used to convert
alternating current to direct current.
b State the name given to such a circuit.
4 a Describe what is meant by ‘logic gates’.
b Use diagrams to demonstrate different types
of logic gates.
5 Describe what is meant by a ‘microprocessor’.
6 Justify the use of the term ‘Silicon Valley’.
7 Explain what is meant by ‘CSIRAC’.
Surf
8 Complete the tutorials on resistors and
resistor colour codes and record the
results in a table showing the coloured
bands on the resistors and the resistance
they correspond to. You will find a link by connecting
to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 3
and clicking on the destinations button.

CD19
 Electronics >>>

3.5 [ Practical activities ] Fig 3.5.17

UNIT

Note: Depending on experience and equipment, the

following circuits may be constructed using a variety of
methods, e.g. card/sticky tape, soldering, breadboard,
drawing pins/balsa wood, etc. The card/tape method is not
recommended for more complex circuits such as those in
Pracs 5 and 6. Resistor colours below are based on the
four-band system.

The resistor colour code

Aim To determine the values of resistors using
Prac 1 the colour code
Unit 3.5
Equipment
A selection of resistors mounted on small pieces of Method
cardboard (as in Figure 3.5.17) and labelled alphabetically. 1 Draw a larger version of the table shown below.

Resistor Colours (first 3 bands) Value

The capacitor A
Aim To investigate the properties of a capacitor B
Prac 2
Unit 3.5
Equipment C
A selection of capacitors (e.g. 100 µF, 470 µF,
100 µF) and above, resistor (about 470 kΩ or so),
9 volt battery, 1 LED
2 Complete a row of the table for each resistor.
Method
1 Charge a capacitor as shown, ensuring that the
positive terminal on the capacitor touches the positive
battery terminal for a couple of seconds.
Connecting the wrong way is dangerous and could 100μF
+ 470 Ω resistor
damage either object. Carry out step 2 as soon as
possible. –
Fig 3.5.18
– +
+

100␮F LED
9V
–

Fig 3.5.19
Questions
1 Predict the effect of using a larger capacitor in
step 2.
2 Explain why it was important not to wait too long after
step 1 before performing step 2.
2 Connect the capacitor to an LED and resistor as shown.
3 a Predict the effect of placing another capacitor side
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 for different capacitors, noting any
by side with the original one.
differences in your results.
b You may wish to combine with another group to
investigate this effect.

CD20
 3 .5

UNIT
A diode/resistor circuit
Aim To investigate a circuit of a capacitor, diode 2 Notice that one of the legs of the LED is longer than
Prac 3 and resistor the other. Try placing the LED in the circuit both ways
Unit 3.5 around. Note whether the longer leg must be as close
Equipment
to or as far away as possible from the positive terminal
A light-emitting diode (LED), 330 Ω resistor (orange, orange,
of the battery.
brown), 470 Ω resistor (yellow, violet, brown), 1 kΩ resistor
(brown, black, red), 9 volt battery, battery snap, connecting 3 Try different resistors in the circuit, both ways around.
wire (2 pieces, each 10 cm), a piece of card on which to lay
out the circuit, sticky tape or Blu-Tack Questions
1 When an LED lights up, the positive leg is the one that
Method
goes closest to the battery. Identify which leg (long or
1 Assemble the circuit exactly as shown in Figure 3.5.20, short) is the positive one on an LED. Justify your answer.
otherwise you could damage the components.
2 Predict the effect of a larger resistance on the LED.
Fig 3.5.20 3 Discuss whether it matters which way around a resistor
goes.
Blu-Tack or tape
4 Explain why a resistor is used in this prac.
5 Construct a circuit diagram for this prac.
9V

Blu-Tack or tape

9V

long leg

The transistor B

Aim To investigate the properties of a C short leg

E
Prac 4 transistor
Unit 3.5
Equipment
A transistor (type BC548), 1 light-emitting diode (LED), 470 Ω
resistor (yellow, violet, brown), 1.5 kΩ resistor (brown, green,
red), 9 volt battery, battery snap, connecting wire (2 pieces, Fig 3.5.22
each 10 cm), piece of card on which to lay out the circuit, Fig 3.5.23
sticky tape or Blu-Tack
Method Blu-Tack or tape
Fig 3.5.21
1 Connect and observe
the circuit shown in
9V

Figure 3.5.22. Note that

the transistor terminals long
can be identified as BC548 leg
shown here.
2 Add a 1.5 kΩ resistor B
and extra LED in series C short
E leg
between the transistor
base and the positive collector emitter
base
battery terminal, as
shown in Figure 3.5.23.

>>

CD21
 Electronics >>>
Questions 3 Explain why a transistor is sometimes referred to as an
electronic switch.
1 Explain how you can tell when current is flowing
(or not flowing) in the circuits on page CD21. 4 Construct a circuit diagram for step 2 of this prac.
2 Compare the size of the current going into the base
of the transistor with that going into the collector in
the second circuit.

short +
leg –
A moisture detector 9V
Aim To construct a circuit that detects
Prac 5 moisture
Unit 3.5 long
Equipment leg
470Ω
A transistor (type BC548), 1 light-emitting diode (LED),
E
470 Ω resistor (yellow, violet, brown), 100 kΩ resistor (brown,
black, yellow), 9 volt battery, battery snap, connecting wire B
(2 pieces, each 10 cm), piece of card on which to lay out the C
BC548
circuit, sticky tape or Blu-Tack transistor probe

Method probe
1 Assemble the circuit as shown.
2 Touch the probes together to test the circuit. The LED Fig 3.5.24
should glow brightly.
3 Keeping the probes apart by a few millimetres, touch 3 Lie detectors work by using circuits similar to but
them to a dry object, then a damp one (e.g. lick a finger more sensitive than the one in this prac. Explain how
if it’s clean). such a circuit could detect when a person supposedly
tells a lie.
Questions
1 Discuss how this circuit could be used as:
a a water detector b a soil moisture content detector
2 Predict the resistance of:
a a dry finger b a wet finger 470 Ω 10 KΩ 10 KΩ 470 Ω

100 μF 100 μF
9 volt LED
battery + + LED
Flasher – + – – + –
BC548
Aim To construct a circuit containing flashing BC548

Prac 6 lights
Unit 3.5
Equipment
A circuit ‘breadboard’, 2 transistors (type BC548), 2 100 µF
capacitors, 2 light-emitting diodes (LED), 2 470 Ω resistors
(yellow, violet, brown), 2 10 kΩ resistors (brown, black, Fig 3.5.25
yellow), 9 volt battery, battery snap, connecting wire (8 pieces, Questions
each 10 cm), other capacitors (e.g. 470 µF, 330 µF, 220 µF)
1 Deduce what effect the size of a capacitor has on the circuit.
Method 2 Explain your answer to Question 1 in terms of charge movement.
1 Use the circuit diagram in Figure 3.5.25 as a guide to 3 Predict what else you might change (besides a capacitor) to alter
construct a flasher circuit. the flashing rate. If you have permission, the time to do so and
2 Once the circuit is working, try exchanging one of the the equipment, design an experiment to test your prediction.
capacitors with a different one and note the effect on 4 Construct a circuit diagram for this circuit.
the circuit.

CD22
Chapter review
[ Summary questions ] [ Thinking questions ]
1 State the units used for the following measurements, 12 Construct diagrams of the following circuits:
giving the full name and short version in each case. a a series circuit with two lights and a switch
a voltage b a circuit with three lights in parallel, and switches to
b resistance turn all lights off separately
c current c a circuit with three lights in parallel, and a single
2 Distinguish between a series circuit and a parallel switch to turn all lights off
circuit. 13 Complete the following table comparing a water circuit
3 Match the following terms to their definitions. to an electrical circuit.

Term Definition Electrical circuit Water pump circuit

load Uses up electrical energy
voltage The ability of a substance to reduce switch
the flow of current battery
current Wires for the electricity to flow resistor
through
voltage or energy
conducting path The flow of charge, usually electrons
resistance Turns the current on and off current
switch The energy available to push current wire
through a circuit

4 Distinguish between AC and DC. 14 a Construct a graph of Ohm’s law using the
5 Copy the following and modify any incorrect statements experimental results listed below.
to make them true. b Identify what the slope of the graph represents.
a A magnetic field is produced by a coil or coils of wire, c Calculate the slope of the graph.
not by a straight wire.
b Electricity can cause magnetism and magnetism can
cause electricity. Voltage, V (volts) Current, I (amps)
c Electromagnets can be turned on and off. 0 0
d A relay is an electromagnetic switch. 2.5 2
e A generator produces current when a magnet sits
5 4
inside or near its coils.
f More energy is lost in power transmission lines when 7.5 6
the voltage is higher. 10 8
6 List two types of wave that are possible in a slinky.
7 Explain why not all power is transmitted at 240 volts.
8 List five modern electronic devices.
15 Use Ohm’s law to complete the following table:
9 List four categories of electromagnetic waves and state
a use for each type.
10 Outline how early telegraphs used electromagnetism. Current Voltage Resistance
11 State what each of the following people are famous for. 3 amps 15 V
a Samuel Morse 10 amps 6kΩ
b Alexander Bell 240 kV 32 Ω
c Almon Strowger
d William Shockley

93
 >>>

16 Correct the following statements by identifying the

correct word in brackets: [ Interpreting questions ]
Series circuits: 24 The following wave was produced in 10 seconds.
a The voltage is shared (unequally/equally) between each
resistor.
b The current is (the same/different) for each resistor.
c If any component is removed, the circuit (will/will not)
work.
Parallel circuits:
d The voltage is (the same/different) for each resistor.
e The current (divides into/is the same in) each branch of
the circuit.
f If one branch of the circuit is broken the other Calculate the:
branches (will/will not) still work. a frequency
17 State which type of transformer is used close to homes, b wavelength
and explain why. c amplitude
18 Contrast the visible spectrum with the electromagnetic 25 The following signal consists of two messages sent using
spectrum. time division multiplexing in groups of four characters:
19 State what happens to the wavelength of electromagnetic MYHO THEP VERC RICE RAFT OFEG ISFU GSHA
waves as the frequency increases. LLOF SGON EELS EUP!
20 Contrast laser light with light from the Sun. Analyse the signal and record its two messages.
21 State three ways in which messages are sent within 26 Propose how 0s and 1s could be used to send a digital
today’s global communications network and outline message originally written in words.
an advantage of each method.
22 Predict what might happen if the same frequency was
used for two different calls in a mobile phone cell.
Worksheet 3.5 Electricity and communications technology crossword
23 Explain why radios were so large and heavy before
transistors were invented. Worksheet 3.6 Sci-words

94
>>>

4 Genetics
Key focus area
>>> Current issues, research and
development in science

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

5.5, 5.8.2, 5.12

Outcomes
explain the terms ‘gene’, ‘chromosomes’ and ‘DNA’
identify how genetic information is passed to
offspring
explain how recessive and dominant genetic
characteristics are inherited
predict the probability of a person being affected
by a particular characteristic
recall that sex cells have half the chromosomes
of body cells
explain two different ways in which cells
reproduce
identify the likely inheritance of genes from a
pedigree.

1 Blue-eyed parents can produce

Pre quiz
brown-eyed children. True or false?
2 Why are approximately the same number of boys
and girls born?
3 Why is colour blindness rare in girls
but common in boys?
4 Why can one ear of corn produce kernels of many
different colours, as in the picture on the left?
5 What is a clone?
6 What is GM food?
7 Could a dinosaur fossil be used to ‘create’ a
live dinosaur?
8 List techniques that forensic scientists use to
prove guilt.
9 Jeans for Genes Day is held each August to raise
money for gene research. Why is gene research
important?
UNIT
>>>

4.1
context

Have you ever been told that you have your
father’s nose, your mother’s eyes or perhaps
your grandfather’s ears? Although each of us
is unique, we all resemble our parents and
grandparents in some way. Two influences
make you what you are at this moment:
heredity and environment. Heredity is those
characteristics you inherited from your parents.
Mendel: the father of genetics
The story of genetics begins in a monastery in Austria
in 1856. Here a monk, Gregor Mendel, taught science,
carrying out experiments in his spare time to study
how characteristics are inherited. He was not the first
to try this, but he was the most successful, and so is
known as the father of genetics.
Mendel grew garden peas and studied their charac-
teristics, which occurred in two specific forms, called
traits. The traits that Mendel examined included:
• seeds that were round or wrinkled
• seeds that were yellow or green
Parental cross
• pods that were smooth or constricted
• pods that were green or yellow
× 5474 round
• stems that were long or short.
round
Gregor Mendel—the father of genetics Fig 4.1.1
yellow
Environment is all the factors that have acted on you
throughout your life. Where do hereditary influences
end and environmental influences begin? Genetics is
the study of heredity and attempts to provide some
answers to this question.
True-breeding plants are those that consistently
produce offspring the same as the parents for a
particular trait. Yellow-pod plants that always produce
more yellow-pod plants would be considered true-
breeding. Mendel cross-pollinated true-breeding
plants with contrasting traits. For example, he took
the pollen from a plant with round seeds and placed
it on the flower of a plant with wrinkled seeds. He
found that all the offspring (called the F1 generation)
were like one of their parents. When these offspring
were cross-pollinated among themselves, their
offspring (the F2 generation) showed both traits. Some
of Mendel’s results are shown in Figure 4.1.2.
Probability
F1 generation F2 generation
ratio
3:1
1850 wrinkled
wrinkled round
× 6022 yellow
3:1
2001 green
green yellow

× 882 smooth
3:1
299 constricted
smooth constricted smooth

× 428 green
3:1
152 yellow
green yellow green

× 787 long
3:1
277 short
long short long
stem stem stem

Results of Mendel’s cross-breeding experiments Fig 4.1.2

96
 4 .1

UNIT
Dominating genetics
Mendel studied 28 000 pea plants,
Bees or peas? chromosome
consistently obtaining similar results. He Before starting work with
nucleus
found two traits, which he called: peas, Mendel tried to
• the dominant trait—this is the trait that breed a hard-working but protein
easily managed honey
appeared in the first, F1, generation bee. He tried crossing an
• the recessive trait—this is the trait that industrious German bee
DNA
was ‘masked’ in the F1 generation and with a gentle Italian bee.
The result was a bee that
reappeared in the second, F2, generation.
was neither hard working
Based on his observations, Mendel nor gentle! He moved his
concluded that pea plants possess two attention to peas, which cell
hereditary factors for each characteristic. were much easier to
handle.
These factors separate from each other
genes
and pass into gametes. Gametes are the
reproductive cells, called ova (eggs) in
females and sperm in males, that combine to form
the first cell of a new organism. Each new organism
receives one hereditary factor from each parent. Chromosomes are made of protein and DNA. Fig 4.1.3
The factors do not blend with each other, but act as Each chromosome has many genes along
independent units. its length.
Mendel published his work in 1866, but it
was poorly understood and largely ignored by the
Organism Total number of Number of Number of
scientific world. It was not until 1900 that his work chromosomes homologous chromosomes
was ‘rediscovered’ and its importance appreciated. (diploid number) pairs from each sex
Three scientists (H. De Vries in Holland, C. Correns in cell or gamete
Germany and E. van Tschermak-Seysenegg in Austria) (haploid number)
working independently reached the same conclusions Human 46 23 23
that Mendel had 34 years earlier. Dog 78 39 39

Genes Chicken 78 39 39
Cow 60 30 30
We now call Mendel’s factors ‘genes’. A gene is a
hereditary unit that controls a particular characteristic. Potato 48 24 24

Many thousands of genes are located in each of Tomato 24 12 12

the cells of your body. Together, your genes can be
thought of as a set of instructions or genetic program
that determines your eye colour, body size, skin type
and the many other characteristics that make you
what you are. Each gene is made of a chemical called
deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA for short.
Chromosomes
Genes are located on structures called chromosomes.
These are found in the nucleus of your body cells.
Chromosomes are long, coiled, thread-like structures
made of DNA and protein. Each chromosome has
many thousands of genes along its length.
As shown in the table opposite, each species of
organism has a fixed number of chromosomes in the
cell nuclei.
Fruit fly 8 4 4
Pairing up
Chromosomes exist in pairs in each body cell, the
members of each pair being similar in size and
shape. One of the pair was inherited from the father,
the other from the mother, making what is called a
homologous pair. Most cells in your body therefore
contain two of each type of chromosome. They are
referred to as diploid cells. In contrast, gametes
contain only one of each type of chromosome. Hence,
half of the chromosomes in a diploid cell come from
dad, the other half from mum. Gametes are known as
haploid cells.

97
Inheritance >>>
Human chromosomes treated with stain, then
arranged and numbered Fig 4.1.4

The chromosomes in your cells right now are a

copy of those that were present in the single fertilised
egg cell from which you grew. How does this copying
process take place?
Cell reproduction
Mitosis
When cells such as those in your skin reproduce, they
duplicate their chromosomes. When each cell divides,
the resulting daughter cells each receive a copy of
Fig 4.1.6 Mitosis—chromosomes separate at opposite
ends of the cell.
the parent cell chromosomes. This type of
cell division is called mitosis. Mitosis is an
organised series of steps that ensures that
each daughter cell is an exact copy of the Prac 1
p. 104
parent cell. The major steps in mitosis are
shown in Figure 4.1.5.
Mitosis—cell division to produce new cells
identical to the parent cell Fig 4.1.5

a skin cell

two skin cells

Two pairs of Chromosomes are Chromosomes line Chromosomes separate

chromosomes doubled but attached up along the ‘equator’ and move to the ends
are visible. at a point called of the cell. of the cell.
the centromere. Membranes form to produce
two daughter cells.

98
 4 .1

UNIT
Meiosis your father’s characteristics and half
r me?
A different type of cell division, Will there ever be anothe your mother’s characteristics. A closer
randomly
Homologous chromosomes look at genes and how they interact is
called meiosis, occurs in the cells separate during the first divi sion of
in the ovaries and testes, which . Hen ce a cell with only two pairs needed to give you an understanding of
meiosis
pro duc e four different how this happens.
produce eggs and sperm. Each of chromosomes will
e gam ete type s (sho wn in Figure
gamete contains only one of each possibl
pair s of chro mos omes,
4.1.8). For three
type of chromosome. When a t gam ete type s are pos sibl e. This in Worksheet 4.1 Cell division
eigh
possible
sperm meets an egg, the resulting turn means that there are 64
etes join.
cell will have the correct number combinations when two gam
pair s of chro mosomes.
Humans have 23
of chromosomes. During meiosis num ber of pos sibl e com binations of
The
the same two
the chromosomes are duplicated, as chromosomes in offspring of
is 70 mill ion mill ion! It is therefore
for mitosis. This is followed by two parents
that ther e will ever be
extremely unlikely
divisions. another you!
• In the first division, the
individual chromosomes of each
homologous pair separate to form
two cells, each containing only one copy of each Four types of
Cell divides daughter cells
kind of chromosome. by meiosis. are possible
• In the second division, the duplicated due to the
random way in
chromosomes separate to produce a total which pairs
of four daughter cells. separate
during meiosis.
The major steps in meiosis are shown in Prac 2
Figure 4.1.7. p. 104
Homologous pair
Meiosis, and the subsequent joining of of chromosomes
—one inherited
gametes, allows for the passing of chromosomes from from each parent
two parents to an offspring. In this way you have
acquired chromosomes, and therefore genes, from
both your parents. But you do not simply have half

During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate Fig 4.1.8

Meiosis—cell division to produce randomly to produce different types of gametes.
gametes with half the chromosome
Fig 4.1.7 number of the parent cell

an ovary cell

four
egg
cells
(ova)

Two pairs of Chromosomes Homologous One of each

chromosomes are doubled but chromosomes pair of
Chromosomes Chromosomes
are visible. attached at a line up along chromosomes
line up along separate and
point called the the ‘equator’ moves to the
the ‘equator’ move to the Membranes form
centromere. of the cell. ends of the cell.
of each cell. ends of each to produce four
cell. daughter cells.

99
 Inheritance >>>
With these definitions we can explain
mother’s cell father’s cell Mendel’s observations in terms of genes. The
diagram shows the inheritance of pod colour
Prac 3
diploid cells in Mendel’s pea plants. p. 105
with two
pairs of
chromosomes Fig 4.1.10 Inheritance of pod colour in Mendel’s peas
Cells in Cells in the
ovary divide testes divide
by meiosis. First cross ×
by meiosis.
haploid cells
with two homozygous homozygous
chromosomes green pods (GG) yellow pods (gg)
egg cell
(ovum) sperm cell G G g g
parent cells
Gametes join.

Meiosis
G G g g
produces
gametes.

first cell of new organism

Fertilisation
G g
Meiosis and gamete fusion Fig 4.1.9 produces a
zygote.

Simple inheritance
The gene that controls pod colour in pea plants comes F1 generation
in two forms: one codes for green pods, the other for
Gg Gg Gg Gg
yellow pods. Different forms of the same gene are
(all heterozygous green pods)
called alleles. In his experiments, Mendel observed
that green pods were more numerous or dominant,
Second cross
suggesting that: ×
• the allele for green pods is a dominant gene. We
can represent the allele for green pods as G. A heterozygous heterozygous
green pods (Gg) green pods (Gg)
capital letter is used to indicate dominance.
• the allele for yellow pods is a recessive gene. The
g g
allele for yellow pods can be shown as g. A lower parent cells G G

case letter is used to indicate that it is recessive.

Each pea plant contains two genes for pod colour,
Meiosis
one received from the female, the other from the male. produces G g G g
The different combinations of the parents’ genes are gametes.
known as the genotype of the plant. For pea pods, the
possible genotypes are: Fertilisation
produces a G G G g g G g g
• GG (called homozygous as both alleles are the same) zygote (four
• Gg (called heterozygous as the two alleles are possibilities).
different)
• gg (also homozygous).
The appearance produced by a genotype is called F2 generation
the phenotype of the organism. The genotypes GG and
GG Gg gG gg
Gg would both be green since G is a dominant allele,
(homozygous (heterozygous (homozygous
while gg would be yellow. Hence there are two possible green pods) green pods) yellow pods)
phenotypes: green (GG and Gg) and yellow (gg).

100
 4 .1

UNIT
Punnett squares • 75% of offspring can be expected to be black
A much simpler way to represent the inheritance shown (either BB or Bb)
in Figure 4.1.10 is to use a Punnett square. Figure • 25% can be expected to be brown (bb).
4.1.11 shows the Punnet squares for Mendel’s pea pods. These results show the typical 3:1 (75%:25%) ratio
seen in Mendel’s experiments.

parents 1 and 2 Worksheet 4.2 Heterozygous or homozygous?

P1 First cross
G G
P2
Squares show possible Other types of inheritance
zygotes formed by
g Gg Gg union of gametes
Some characteristics are inherited in a simple way
during fertilisation with dominant and recessive alleles. In other cases
g (all heterozygous the effects of the two genes may blend in some way.
Gg Gg
green pods).
possible gametes from parent 2 Codominance
(homozygous yellow pods)
In codominance the phenotype of the heterozygous
P1 Second cross organism is a combination of the phenotypes of
P2 G g
GG, gG, Gg—green pods the homozygous organisms. Consider the case
Probability of 3/4 (75%) of shorthorn cattle. Three genotypes and three
G GG gG
gg—yellow pods phenotypes occur, as shown in Figure 4.1.13.
Probability of 1/4 (25%)
g Gg gg

Fig 4.1.11 Punnett squares show the inheritance of pod

colour in Mendel’s peas. pure red pure white
(RR) (WW)

Punnett squares can be used to predict the

results of reproduction (crossing) between different
organisms. In rats, the gene that codes for coat colour
occurs as two alleles. The gene for black coat (B) is
dominant over the gene for brown coat (b). Using
a Punnett square we can predict the coat colours
of potential offspring. Consider the cross of two roan
(RW)
heterozygous black rats (Bb) shown in Figure 4.1.12:

Bb
heterozygous black

Bb
Phenotypes and genotypes in shorthorn cattle. Fig 4.1.13
heterozygous black Inheritance of coat colour in shorthorn cattle is
P1
P2 B b an example of codominance.

B BB
b Bb
Punnett squares to show inheritance of
coat colour in rats from a cross of two
heterozygous black rats
bB
Using Punnett squares we can predict the results
of crosses between these three types of cattle. Crossing
bb
two homozygous cows, a red one and a white one,
will produce all heterozygous, roan offspring. Crossing
two roan cows will produce heterozygous roan
Fig 4.1.12
offspring (50%), homozygous red offspring (25%) and
homozygous white offspring (25%).

101
 Inheritance >>>
Punnett squares to show inheritance of colour Incomplete dominance
in shorthorn cattle Fig 4.1.14
Sometimes the heterozygous offspring may have
a phenotype between the phenotypes of the two
homozygous organisms. In snapdragons, allele R
homozygous
white (WW) produces red flowers and allele W produces white
homozygous flowers. The genotype RW produces pink flowers. This
red (RR)
P1
W W blending of colours is sometimes called incomplete
P2
dominance, but many geneticists consider it to be
R WR WR
another case of codominance.
R RW RW heterozygous
roan (RW)
Simple? I think not!
The study of inheritance would be relatively simple if
the ‘one gene for one characteristic’ model studied so
P1
far worked for all characteristics. But rarely do single
P2 R W
heterozygous
genes control a characteristic. Many characteristics are
roan (RW) R RR WR controlled by a number of gene pairs, producing even
W RW WW
more variation in the characteristic. Examples include
your height and skin colour.

4 .1 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint Pairing up
11 Define the term ‘homologous’.
Mendel: The father of genetics
12 With the aid of an example, contrast diploid with
1 a Define the term ‘genetics’. haploid cells.
b Explain why Mendel is known as the father of
Cell reproduction
genetics.
2 Mendel’s findings were based on experiments using 13 a Define the terms ‘mitosis’ and ‘meiosis’.
garden peas. List the traits that he observed. b Identify where each occurs.
3 Explain what is meant by a ‘true-breeding plant’. 14 Construct a table to compare mitosis and meiosis.
Include comparisons of the number and type of
4 In the study of genetics state what is meant by the F1
daughter cells produced, and the type of cells where
and F2 generations.
each process occurs.
5 Define the terms ‘dominant trait’ and ‘recessive trait’.
Simple inheritance
6 State the conclusion Mendel drew from his pea plant
observations. 15 Identify the correct description for each term.

Genes
Term Description
7 Define the term ‘gene’.
Alleles The physical appearance of an organism
8 State the name of the chemical from which genes are for a particular characteristic
made. Phenotype
Genotype An organism with different genes for a
Chromosomes particular characteristic
Homozygous
9 a Clarify what is meant by a ‘chromosome’. Alternative forms of the same gene
b Describe the relationship between genes and Heterozygous
The genes for a particular characteristic
chromosomes.
present in an organism
10 State how many chromosomes are contained in a human:
An organism with the same genes for a
a body cell particular characteristic
b sperm cell

102
 4 .1

UNIT
Other types of inheritance For each of the following examples predict:
16 Use an example to clarify the meaning of the term a the eye colour of parent 1
‘codominance’. b the eye colour of parent 2
17 Use an example to clarify the meaning of the term c which parent is homozygous for eye colour
‘incomplete dominance’. d the percentage of offspring expected to have white
eyes
Think e the percentage of offspring expected to be
18 Use an example to explain how two organisms can heterozygous for eye colour
have the same phenotype but different genotypes. 23 In Andalusian fowls, black plumage (B) is codominant
19 State whether the following are examples of complete with white plumage (W). Heterozygous fowls have
dominance or codominance. blue plumage.
a In snapdragons, red flowers crossed with white a State the genotypes of black, white and blue
flowers produce pink flowers. Andalusian fowls.
b In fruit flies, when red-eyed males are crossed with b Predict the chances of each phenotype occurring
white-eyed females, all the offspring are red-eyed. in the offspring when two blue fowls are crossed.
c When a green watermelon is crossed with a striped c A poultry farmer wishes to establish a true-
watermelon, half the offspring are green, and the breeding strain of blue Andalusian fowl. Explain
other half are striped. why this is not possible.
20 Calculate how many different types of gametes could
Skills
be produced by an individual with the genotype XxYyZz.
(Possible gametes include XyZ, xyZ, etc.) 24 In cats, short hair (H) is dominant over long hair (h).
21 Identify which of the options V to Z shown in the list Two cats heterozygous for hair length are crossed.
below represents: Use a Punnett square to predict the:
a genotype of the heterozygous cats
b possible genotypes of the offspring
a a dominant allele V gg
c possible phenotypes of the offspring
b a recessive allele W green pea pods
d probable percentages of each phenotype
c the genotype of a X G
heterozygous organism Y Gg 25 In hogs, the gene that produces a white belt around
d the genotype of a the animal (W) is dominant over the gene for uniform
Z g
homozygous organism colour (w). A hog heterozygous for colour is crossed
with a hog homozygous for uniform colour. Use a
e a phenotype
Punnett square to predict the:
a possible genotypes of the offspring
b percentage expected of each genotype
Analyse
c percentage of offspring that would be expected to
22 In fruit flies, there are two alleles that control eye colour, have a uniform colour
the allele for red eyes (R) being dominant over the allele 26 Assume that the genotypes of Mendel’s pure-
for white eyes (r). The following questions refer to the breeding long-and short-stem plants are LL and ll
cross of two fruit flies as shown in the Punnett square. respectively. Long stem is dominant over short stem.
Punnett square to show inheritance of
a Using a Punnett square, predict the ratio of long-
eye colour in fruit fly Fig 4.1.15 and short-stem offspring in the F2 generation.
b Does your prediction agree with Mendel’s
observations shown in Figure 4.1.2? Justify your
P1 answer.
P2 R r

r Rr rr

r rR rr

103
 Inheritance >>>

[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research the contribution of each of the following
scientists to our understanding of genetics. Summarise
the contribution of each:
T.H. Morgan, H. de Vries, W.L. Johannsen, W.S. Sutton
2 Different species have different numbers of
chromosomes. Cross-breeding between species is
unusual, but it does occur. For example, a mule is the
result of crossing a horse and a donkey. Research such
unusual ‘hybrid’ organisms and write a report outlining
your findings.
Surf
3 Find out more about Mendel and his work by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 4
and clicking on the destinations button.

4 .1 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT

Observing mitosis
Aim To observe mitosis in a series of prepared 3 Move to high power. Re-focus if necessary.
Prac 1 slides 4 Draw five cells in different stages of cell division.
Unit 4.1
Equipment
Microscope, prepared microscope slide showing Questions
onion root tips 1 Present the five cells you have drawn in the order in
which they would occur during mitosis.
Method
1 Set up the microscope ready for viewing the slide. 2 Explain how you can be sure that the cells are
undergoing mitosis and not meiosis.
2 Observe the slide under low power. Near the central
part of the root is a section with cells in various stages
of cell division. Focus on cells in this region.

Modelling meiosis Fig 4.1.16

3 Sketch the gametes in
Modelling meiosis your book.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3
Aim To construct models to demonstrate the until you have drawn all
Prac 2 process of meiosis possible gametes.
Unit 4.1
Equipment
6 pieces of pipe cleaner to represent 6 chromosomes; Questions
1 short, 1 medium and 1 long piece of pipe cleaner of colour I; 1 Predict how many
1 short, 1 medium and 1 long piece of pipe cleaner of colour II possible gametes can
(colour I represents chromosomes from your mother, colour II be produced from a
from your father); large sheet of paper for sketching cells colour I colour II
cell with three pairs of (from your (from your
Method chromosomes. mother) father)

1 Draw a circle to represent a parent cell. Place the pipe 2 During meiosis, there is
cleaners in the cell to represent three pairs of homologous a ‘random assortment’
chromosomes. Sketch this cell in your book. of chromosomes.
Explain what the term ‘random assortment’ means.
2 Draw two smaller circles to represent daughter cells.
Move the pipe cleaners into these two cells to represent 3 Meiosis is described as a ‘reduction division’. Explain
two gametes formed when the parent cell divides by what this means.
meiosis. The gametes should each contain three pipe 4 Describe one feature of meiosis that was not shown in
cleaners, one of each length. this modelling exercise.

104

Modelling inheritance
Aim To model the random nature of inheritance
Prac 3 Equipment
Unit 4.1
60 counters or beads or buttons (30 each of two
different colours), 2 paper bags
Method
1 Place 15 counters of each colour in each bag.
2 Draw up a table for recording results, using two letters
to represent the colours of the counters, e.g. R for red,
G for green.
RG RR GG
3 Take one counter from each bag (without looking in the
bags).
4 The counter from one bag represents the gene from a
sperm, the counter from the other bag the gene from an
egg cell. Record the genotype of the offspring resulting
from your first selection of counters by placing a tick in
the appropriate column of the results table.
4 .1
UNIT
5 Replace the counters and shake the bags.
6 Repeat the selection process until 20 results have been
obtained.
7 Record the totals for each genotype.
8 Continue until 100 results have been obtained (or
combine results from several groups).
Questions
1 The modelling used represents a cross between two
heterozygous individuals. Explain what ‘heterozygous’
means.
2 Predict the pattern for the three genotypes that you
would expect to see.
3 State whether the expected pattern was observed after
20 selections.
4 State whether the expected pattern was observed after
100 selections.
5 Explain how the 60 counters would need to be arranged
in bags to represent each of the following crosses:
a homozygous x homozygous
b homozygous x heterozygous
105
 UNIT
>>>

4. 2
context

Can you roll your tongue? Many people

can’t. Although you collected your genes
from your mum and dad, you are probably
different to them and to any brothers and
sisters. You might more closely resemble
your grandparents or even an uncle or aunty.
Where do all these characteristics come from?
Does human inheritance follow special rules or
does it follow the same rules as for peas, rats and
cows?
Some characteristics controlled by a single gene in
humans are listed in the table.
Albinism is the inability to make the pigment
melanin, which normally colours our skin. An albino
has white hair and pink eyes. Normal colour (A) is
dominant and lack of colour (a) is recessive. Suppose
two people who are heterozygous for albinism
produce offspring. What are the chances that the
offspring will be albino? The Punnett square method
tells us that the chances are 1 in 4 (25%).

Simple human Characteristic Dominant Recessive

inheritance Tongue rolling Able to roll tongue Unable to roll tongue
In humans, some characteristics are Right- or left-handedness Right-handed Left-handed
under the control of a single gene. Hair colour Dark or light Red
Some of these characteristics are fairly
Hairline Widow’s peak present Straight hairline
trivial ones, such as the ability to roll
your tongue. Others like right- or left- Night blindness No night blindness Night blindness

handedness affect your everyday life. Earlobe attached or free Attached Free
Some produce severe conditions such Albinism Normal pigment production No pigment
as albinism.

Punnett square showing the inheritance of

albinism Fig 4.2.2

heterozygous male (Aa)

P1
P2 A a

A AA aA

heterozygous female (Aa) a Aa aa

We inherit our parents’ characteristics, but do Fig 4.2.1

not look exactly like them. Why?

106
 4 .2

UNIT
Using a Punnett square we can P1
An often fatal IA IO
problem predict the possible genotypes and P2
Albinos appear in phenotypes of their offspring. IB
IB IA IB
almost every plant The chances of each of the IO
and animal species. possible blood groups of a child are: IA
In plants it is lethal IO IO IO
because the plant • 25% of having blood type AB IO
cannot make food • 25% of having blood type A
without the pigment • 25% of having blood type B
chlorophyll. In animals
• 25% of having blood type O.
it is often fatal because
it makes the animal a
more obvious target for Other types of human inheritance
predators. The animal
also has no protection While some of your characteristics were inherited in a
from the Sun’s relatively simple way, the vast majority were not.
ultraviolet rays and is
more likely to get skin Eye colour
cancer or eye damage.
In white-skinned people, eye colour is to some extent
determined by a single gene. Brown eyes (allele B) are
dominant over blue eyes (allele b).
Fig 4.2.3 Albinism is a genetic disorder caused • Genotypes BB and Bb therefore produce brown
by a single recessive gene. eyes.
• Blue-eyed people are homozygous, bb.
Blood groups Green and grey are genetically considered to be
forms of blue. Hazel and black are forms of brown.
Do you know your blood group? You will probably
While the basic colour is determined by one pair of
know only your ABO and Rh groupings. The Rh
alleles, other genes may modify the effects. At present,
system is controlled by two alleles, one dominant
three gene pairs are known to influence human eye
over the other. A person may be homozygous or
colour. The first gene, on chromosome 15, has a brown
heterozygous Rh positive, or homozygous Rh negative.
and a blue allele. A second gene, on chromosome
The ABO system involves three different alleles,
19, has a blue and a green allele. A third gene, on
identified as IA, IB and IO.
chromosome 15, is a brown eye colour gene.
• IA and IB are codominant.
• IO is recessive to both IA and IB. Eye colour is inherited, with brown eyes
Possible genotypes and phenotypes are shown in dominant over blue eyes. Fig 4.2.4
the table.

Genotypes and phenotypes for the ABO blood grouping

Genotype IA IA IA IO I A IB I B IB I B IO I O IO

Phenotype A A AB B B O
(blood group)

Using this information we can determine the

possible blood groups of a child, given the blood
groups of the parents. Alternatively, if the blood
groups of mother and child are known, the possible
blood groups of the father may be determined.
Example: Consider the following cross:
• mother with blood group A, and the genotype IA IO
• father with blood group B and the genotype IB IO.

107
 Human inheritance >>> male

female
Bright sparks
Intelligence seems to be male with the
Continuing on partly inherited under the characteristic
Sharply defined characteristics influence of several genes.
such as left- or right-handedness Environmental influences deceased female
also affect intelligence.
are described as showing There is a long and
discontinuous variation. The ongoing debate about how
identical twin boys
opposite is continuous variation, much of intelligence is
inherited (nature) and how
shown by characteristics such much develops (nurture).
as height or eye colour, where a non-identical twin girls
continuous
range of characteristics may occur. generation I mating of a female
and a male
People are not simply tall or short,
but show a wide range of heights. offspring shown in birth
generation II
Nature or nurture? Tall parents seem to produce order from left to right
1 2 3
Ident ical twins have the same tall children. Height is partly
genotype. Do they always have inherited, but probably under
the same phenotype? Several the influence of several genes.
Symbols used when drawing Fig 4.2.6
studies of identical twins pedigrees
raised together and separately Environmental factors must also
have been conducted. The play a part. For example,
IQ scores of identical twins an undernourished child
correlate more closely than
with rare characteristics. A pedigree is a pictorial
those of non-identical twins,
may not grow as tall as family tree where individuals who show a particular
even when they are raised ‘genetically expected’. Prac 1 disease or characteristic are marked on it. A little
apart. In one case, identical p. 113
detective work follows, to find patterns of inheritance.
twins raised separately both
developed schizophrenia The symbols used when drawing pedigrees are shown
within two months of their in Figure 4.2.6.
sixteenth birthday. How much
is inherited, and how much is Analysing pedigrees
environmental?
Consider the pedigree shown in Figure 4.2.7,
which shows the inheritance of night blindness. In
generation III, the parents who partnered both had
night blindness, but they had a daughter (2) who was
not affected. This suggests that night blindness is a
dominant gene. If it was recessive the parents would

II
1 2 3 4 5
Identical twins have the same genotype. Fig 4.2.5
Do they have the same phenotype? III

Studying human inheritance IV

Using pedigrees 1 2 3
Humans take a long time to breed, so we cannot
study human inheritance the way Mendel did with This pedigree for night blindness shows a strange pairing. Fig 4.2.7
Why are genetic disorders more likely in children born
his peas. To overcome this problem, pedigrees of from parents who are closely blood-related
families are recorded and analysed, especially those (e.g brothers/sisters/cousins)?

108
 4 .2

UNIT
have to be homozygous to show the disease, and all Without this chemical, even a simple wound can
their children would also show night blindness. The cause severe bleeding. Untreated, the disease is almost
generation III parents must have been heterozygous, always fatal. Notice that in the pedigree all those
and by chance produced a daughter who was not affected by the disease are male. To understand why,
affected. This also shows that sometimes a dominant we first need to understand what makes one person
gene can be less common in a community than a male, and another female.
recessive gene.
Now consider the pedigree in Figure 4.2.8. How X and Y chromosomes
can we know whether the characteristic shown is Look back at Figure 4.1.4, which
dominant or recessive? Look at generation II. An shows the chromosomes of a
Boys or girls?
unaffected male partners an unaffected female (1), human. In 22 of these chromosome
Since there are an equal
to produce an affected child. This indicates that the pairs, the members of each pair number of X- and Y-
characteristic is caused by a recessive gene and that are the same size and shape. carrying sperm, there
For pair number 23, however, should be an equal number
the generation II parents are both heterozygous. of girls and boys born.
there is a distinct difference. However, in most parts of
These are known as the X and Y the world there are slightly
chromosomes. The X chromosome more boys than girls born.
Why is not clear, but it may
I carries many genes, the Y be that the sperm carrying
chromosome carries few. the Y chromosome are
• A male has the genotype XY. lighter, and therefore they
are more likely to reach the
II • A female has the genotype XX.
ovum first, to produce a
1 2 3 • All ova contain an X male. However, the balance
chromosome from the mother. of males and females in the
• Sperm have either an X or a Y population is later restored,
III since the mortality rate
chromosome from the father. for boy babies and men is
• It is the type of sperm (X slightly higher than for girl
Fig 4.2.8 Pedigree showing the inheritance of a or Y) from the father that babies and women.
disease. Is it recessive or dominant? determines the sex of the
offspring.
Worksheet 4.3 Pedigree analysis
Prac 2
p. 113 Sex determination in humans Fig 4.2.10
Sex-linked inheritance
Figure 4.2.9 shows a pedigree for the disease
X Y
haemophilia, sometimes called the ‘bleeder’s disease’. X
Sperm may
People with this disease have a defective gene and contain an
All ova contain an X or a Y
as a result lack a particular blood-clotting chemical. X chromosome. chromosome.

I X X Y MALE
Y-bearing
sperm
Y Zygote has genotype XY.
II
1 2 3

X-bearing X X X FEMALE
III
sperm
1 2
X Zygote has genotype XX.

Pedigree showing the inheritance of haemophilia. Fig 4.2.9

Haemophilia and many other genetic diseases
affect far more males than females.

109
 Human inheritance
X-linked diseases
A royal disease
The gene for haemophilia has
influenced history. Born in 1819,
n Victo ria was an unkn owing
Quee
carrier. She gave birth to four
boys and five girls, one son being
haemophiliac. Two daughters went
on to have haemophiliac sons and,
through marriage, introduced the
gene into the Russian and Spanish
royal families. The illness of one of
the Russian heirs, Alexis, set off a
chain of events that contr ibute d to
the Russian revolution in 1917. The
Tsarina, mother of Alexis, thought
Rasputin had magical powers which
ophil ia.
could cure Alexis’s haem
Because of this, she allowed
Rasputin to influence Russia’s
foreign and domestic policies,
leading in part to the revol ution .
Medical laboratory technician
A medical laboratory technician
preparing DNA for analysis
110
The Y chromosome is
small and carries very few
genes. The X chromosome
is longer and has many
genes on it. In males (XY)
many of the genes on the
X chromosomes do not have
a matching allele on the
Y chromosome. Therefore
a single gene on the
X chromosome, regardless
of whether it is recessive or
dominant, will control the
phenotype of the male.
More than 50
conditions caused by
recessive genes on the
X chromosome have been
identified. They are called
sex-linked or X-linked
Career profile
Fig 4.2.11
>>>
conditions and include colour blindness, some forms
of haemophilia and one form of muscular dystrophy.
These conditions are far more common in males than
females. For example, 8% of males are colour blind,
compared with only 1% of females.
Example: Consider again the pedigree for
haemophilia shown in Figure 4.2.9. Haemophilia is
a recessive X-linked disease. The genotypes can be
worked out by using
• XH for a normal gene and
• Xh for a recessive gene for haemophilia
on an X chromosome.
All affected males have the genotype XhY. In
generation II, the females 2 and 3 must have an Xh
gene inherited from their father. Since they are not
haemophiliacs they must have the genotype XH Xh. In
generation II, male 1 must have inherited an Xh gene
from his mother, and a Y from his father. Female 1 in
generation I must therefore have the genotype
XH Xh. Females who have a hidden gene for
a disease are called carriers of the disease.
Medical laboratory technicians carry out routine laboratory
tests and other procedures for use in the diagnosis and
treatment of diseases and disorders of the human body.
Medical laboratory technicians can be involved in:
• setting up equipment used in the laboratory and
maintaining it in a clean condition
• preparing and staining slides of micro-organisms for
examination
• testing and analysing blood, tissue or other body
samples to determine blood types and composition,
and to identify diseases
• analysing DNA samples to screen for diseases
• communicating the results of tests to the medical
officers who have requested them.
A good medical laboratory technician will be able to:
• work as part of a team with doctors, scientists and
laboratory assistants
• work accurately and with minimal supervision
• do repetitive work without losing concentration
• keep accurate records and communicate well with others
• apply scientific method to problems.

4 .2 [ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
Simple human inheritance
1 List three human conditions inherited through a single
gene.
2 Two ‘normal’ parents produce a child with a recessive
genetic characteristic being expressed. Identify
whether the parents have homozygous or heterozygous
genotypes.
3 State the probability of a recessive characteristic being
expressed in the child of parents who are:
a both homozygous for that characteristic and are
themselves affected by it
b both heterozygous for that characteristic
Blood groups
4 Describe the type of inheritance involved when Rh
blood groupings are inherited.
5 Outline the type of inheritance for the ABO blood group
system.
6 List the alleles of the ABO system.
7 Identify the codominant ABO allele, and the recessive
allele of the ABO system.
Other types of human inheritance
8 State the number of gene pairs thought to influence
eye colour.
9 Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous
variation.
10 List the two influences on intelligence.
Studying human inheritance
11 Studying human inheritance is complex. Identify the
main method of gathering information.
12 Draw the symbols used in pedigrees for a female,
identical twin boys, non-identical twin girls, and parents.
Sex-linked inheritance
13 Modify the following statements to make them correct.
a The X chromosome is responsible for female
characteristics only.
b Males have the genotype XX.
c The Y chromosome carries more genetic coding than
the X chromosome.
d Sex-linked diseases occur because the Y
chromosome has fewer genes than the X.
e Diseases like haemophilia are inherited through males
in a family.
14 a Clarify what is meant by the term ‘a carrier’ of the
disease haemophilia.
4 .2
UNIT
b Explain whether a male can be a carrier of
haemophilia.
Think
15 Listed here are some characteristics:
height, ability to roll the tongue, skin colour, blood group
a From the list, identify two examples of characteristics
that show discontinuous variation within a population.
b From the list, identify two examples of characteristics
that show continuous variation within a population.
16 Cystic fibrosis is a disease carried by a single recessive
gene. Two unaffected parents have a child who suffers
from the disease. Predict whether they will produce a
child without the disease.
17 For each of the blood group genotypes listed below,
identify the blood group phenotype.
a IA IA c IA IB e IB IO
b IA IO d IB IB f IO IO
18 An albino female and a non-albino male have two
children. One is non-albino, one is albino. Using the
letters A for the dominant gene and a for the recessive
gene, identify the genotypes of each of the children.
19 a If two albino people partner and produce a child,
predict whether the child will be albino.
b If an albino person partners a person heterozygous
for albinism, predict the chances of their children
being albino.
20 Explain why approximately half the human population
is female.
21 A genetic abnormality occurs where a person has the
genotype XXY. Would the person be male or female?
Justify your answer.
22 The ability to roll the tongue is a dominant characteristic.
Two people who cannot roll their tongue have four
children. Predict how many of these children would be
likely to be able to roll their tongue.
23 A child has blood group AB. The mother has blood
group A.
a Identify the possible blood group genotypes of the
father.
b Identify the possible blood groups of the father.
Analyse
24 ‘Sperm are either male or female’. Analyse this
statement, explaining whether the writer is correct,
incorrect, or a bit of both, and justifying your answer.
>>
111
 Human inheritance >>>
25 Identify the meaning that matches the pedigree symbol. They have two children: Susan and Alison. Susan has
a partner, Paul. They have three children: Anne, Emma
and Colin. James, Natasha, Susan and Anne are all
Symbol Meaning albino.
28 A man with blood group B and a woman with blood
A Mating of a male and female group A produce a child. Predict the possible blood
groups of the child by constructing a Punnett square.
29 Colour blindness is an X-linked recessive condition.
B Male with the inherited characteristic The symbols used to show the relevant genes are
Xn for the recessive allele on the X chromosome and
XN for the normal gene on the X chromosome.
C Identical twin boys a Identify the genotypes of a non-colour-blind female,
a colour-blind female, a non-colour-blind male and a
colour-blind male.
D Female without the inherited characteristic b If a colour-blind female partners a non-colour-blind
male, predict the chances of:
i their daughters being colour blind
E Deceased male ii their sons being colour blind
30 Haemophilia is an X-linked recessive disease.
A heterozygous female does not show the disease.
Her genotype is XHXh.
26 Some people can roll their tongue into a U-shape. a Identify the genotype of:
Tongue rolling is controlled by a dominant gene (R) and a i a haemophiliac male
recessive gene (r). A pedigree for tongue rolling is shown ii a non-haemophiliac male
in Figure 4.2.12. Identify the genotypes of each of these b If the heterozygous female partners a non-
individuals. haemophiliac male, predict whether their sons will
a I male (generation I male) be haemophiliacs.
b II 1
c III 1
Pedigree for tongue-rolling ability Fig 4.2.12
[ Extension ]
I Investigate
1 a Gather information about the pedigree of a
II champion horse or show dog.
1 2 3 4 b Construct a pedigree for your chosen animal.
c Discuss the factors and outcomes that were
III
important when matings were chosen at each
stage of the pedigree.
1 2
2 a Research the genetics of human blood groups,
and the problems raised by blood transfusions.
IV
b Present a case study on one problem that has
1 2 3
occurred with a transfusion, explaining why the
problem arose.
3 a Research some studies that have been conducted
Skills concerning twins.
27 Construct a pedigree from the following information. b Evaluate the evidence, summarising whether
heredity or environment is the major factor
Jim and Jean are partners. They have four children: Scott,
responsible for patterns of inheritance.
James, Natasha and Alan. James has a partner, Kylie.

112
 4 .2

Surf
4 Complete the following activities by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 4 and clicking on the destinations button.
a Research a human genetic disease such as cystic
fibrosis or muscular dystrophy. Contact the relevant
society for information.
UNIT
b Design a website or pamphlet explaining the cause,
occurrence and treatment of the disease.
5 Complete the activity on constructing pedigrees, and
give a PowerPoint presentation of your resulting
pedigree. The tutorial contains instructions on how to
do this.

4 .2 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT

Variation within a population

Aim To analyse continuous variation in humans 2 Survey 25 people of about the same age. For each
Prac 1 Equipment person, record their height (in cm) and the heights of
Unit 4.2 their parents.
25 people to survey (e.g. the students in your
class), graph paper 3 On the same axes, plot graphs showing the heights
of the 25 people surveyed, and the heights of
Method their parents.
1 Draw a table for your results.
Questions
Person Height Height of Height of 1 Based on your results explain whether there appears
(cm) mother (cm) father (cm) to be any link between height and parental heights.
1 2 Do your results support the conclusion that height
shows continuous variation in a population? Justify
your answer.

Construct a pedigree
Aim To analyse your family and construct a
Prac 2 pedigree for different characteristics
Unit 4.2
Method
1 Figure 4.2.13 shows four pairs of human characteristics
that are inherited. Select one of these pairs. Survey as
many members of your family as possible (brothers, sisters,
parents, grandparents, uncles, aunts etc.) to determine
which characteristic of the chosen pair they have.
2 Construct a pedigree for the chosen characteristic for
your family.
Questions
1 Discuss whether your pedigree gives any information
about how the characteristic is inherited. For example,
does it appear to be a simple dominant/recessive
characteristic?
2 Discuss whether your findings agree with how the
characteristic is actually inherited. You may have to
conduct research to find out.
Inherited features Fig 4.2.13

Can roll the tongue

Widow’s peak or not? or not? Which thumb is on the top? Length of second toe?

113
 UNIT
>>>

4.3
A T
context

We have seen a little of how the genes on sugar–phosphate chain

chromosomes interact to produce certain T A

inherited characteristics. How does it all base pair

A T
work on a chemical or molecular level?
Genes are made of DNA. So how does the
DNA actually lead to the appearance of a G C

characteristic such as eye colour? T A

C G

The structure of DNA

T A
Imagine getting a ladder and twisting it into a spiral. phosphate unit
Well, a twisted ladder is the same shape as a molecule
of DNA! The DNA molecule is called a double helix.
C G
sugar unit
The uprights are made of a chain of alternating
sugar and phosphate units. The ladder rungs are pairs Fig 4.3.1 DNA structure—the lower part is shown
of molecules containing nitrogen (called nitrogen untwisted to illustrate the pairing of bases.
bases) which form cross-bridges.
There are four different nitrogen base molecules, Copying DNA
represented by the letters:
When a cell is undergoing mitosis, the DNA is
• A—adenine
copied exactly in a process called replication. The
• T—thymine
strands are first unzipped. An exact copy is then
• C—cytosine
made by matching each base with
• G—guanine. Khan you get a its complementary base. Once a
Because of their free meal? section is copied, one old and one
chemical structure, each In 2004, Shish, a
restaurant in London
new strand are zipped together to DYO Prac 1 Prac 2
base can pair only with in p. 119 p. 119
the United Kingdom, produce the duplicate DNA.
one other. The only offered its customers
possible complementary free DNA testing to Replication of DNA Fig 4.3.2
base pairs are: determine whether the
y
were descended from
• A with T the Mongol chief and
• C with G. warrior Genghis Khan. original 2 ‘new’
If one upright If found to be related, DNA DNA
of the ladder (one you got a free meal! strands

strand of DNA) has

a base sequence of
ATTCGTC, the opposite strand would have the
complementary sequence, TAAGCAG. It is the
sequence of these bases along the length of the
DNA strands that is the basis of heredity.

Worksheet 4.4 Model DNA

114
 4 .3

The genetic code
A gene consists of a segment of DNA with a sequence
of up to 1000 bases. The difference between one gene
and another is the order of bases. The base order forms
the genetic code. This code describes the type and
sequence of amino acids that cells use to make protein
molecules. Proteins are polymers made up of small
units called amino acids, joined together like beads on
a string. There are 20 different amino acids that join
together in different combinations to create thousands
of different proteins.
UNIT
The genetic code actually consists of sets of three
bases, called codons. Each set of three bases codes for
a particular amino acid.
For example, the base sequence CGG codes for the
amino acid alanine, TTT for lysine, CAA for valine,
and so on. Most of the 64 different codons code for
the 20 different amino acids. A small number code for
‘stop’ and ‘start’ type instructions. The order of the
codons on a length of DNA ‘spells out’ the order of the
amino acids on a length of protein. The code appears
to be universal. The same codon almost always
specifies the same amino acid in all organisms.

nucleus Each cell: • 46 human chromosomes

• 2 metres of DNA
• 3 billion DNA subunits—
cell (A, T, C, G)
• Approximately 32 000 genes
code for proteins that
chromosomes perform life functions
genes

T
T
DNA C T
C Genes contain
A A
C instructions for
A G making proteins
G G A
T
A
A T G
C
A T C

proteins

Proteins act alone or in complexes

to perform many cellular functions

Fig 4.3.3 Proteins determine characteristics by controlling cellular functions.

protein Amino acids make up a protein.

strand

The monkey in me alanine lysine valine

The universal nature of the genetic
code strongly supports the idea that
all living things are related to each
other, and have evolved from common
ancestors. Comparisons of DNA C G G T T T C A A
are used to provide evidence of the
relatedness of different species. The
DNA strand
genetic make-up of a chimpanzee is 3 bases form a codon
98.5% identical to that of a human.
Using the genetic code—each codon on a DNA strand codes for an amino acid. Fig 4.3.4
Amino acids are joined together to form a protein strand.

115
 The molecule of life >>>
Determining characteristics Mutations
It is proteins that actually determine characteristics such
What happens if there is an accident in the copying of
as eye colour. Most proteins are enzymes that control
the DNA strands during replication? Suppose one base
chemical activities in the cell, and therefore affect the
was substituted for another—would it matter? Such
nature of the cell. The normal functioning of organisms
accidents do occur, although they are reduced by the
is the result of hundreds of chemical reactions
action of enzymes that correct copying mistakes.
catalysed by hundreds of enzymes. In this way, many
A mutation is any spontaneous change in a gene
characteristics are influenced by many genes.
or chromosome that may produce an alteration in the
Consider the following example involving skin
related characteristic.
pigments. Tyrosine is a colourless amino acid but
Mutations that occur in non-sex cells (normal body
in the presence of an enzyme called tyrosinase, it is
cells) may affect the organism, but these mutations
converted to melanin, a dark-coloured pigment. If the
will not be inherited. Only those mutations occurring
gene for the production of tyrosinase is missing or
in gametes, or the cell that forms when they join, will
defective, the enzyme is not made, so tyrosine is not
be inherited.
converted to melanin. Without melanin there is no
pigment, and albinism results. Mutagens
The rate of gene mutation is low, but as each
individual has a large number of genes, mutations
A gene codes for constantly occur within a species. The rate is
production of the
enzyme tyrosinase.
increased by exposure to mutagens (mutation-causing
section
of DNA agents). These include X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet
light and a range of chemicals such as benzene.
Tyrosinase
catalyses
a reaction. Single-gene mutations
Mutations may involve only one gene, with a section
of DNA being incorrectly copied. The disease sickle
cell anaemia results from such a single-gene mutation.
tyrosine— melanin— As a result of the altered gene, the protein making
a colourless amino acid a dark-coloured pigment up the haemoglobin in red blood cells of people with
this disease has one altered amino acid. This results
Fig 4.3.5 From genes to characteristics. If a gene defect in distorted haemoglobin, and red blood cells shaped
occurs, tyrosinase is not produced. Therefore
melanin is not produced, resulting in albinism. like a sickle. These distorted cells may form clumps
and clog small arteries. Victims of the disease usually
die young.
Gene expression
Each cell contains the same type and quantity of DNA Normal disc-shaped red blood cells and distorted
with the same code. Why then does a cell grow into red blood cells that result from a single-gene
mutation, causing sickle-cell anaemia Fig 4.3.6
a muscle, nerve or blood cell? Why do some cells
produce chemicals such as insulin while others do not?
Gene expression refers to the appearance in the
organism of the characteristic that the gene codes for.
Genes contain information about where and when the
gene is to act. As the body develops, certain genes are
‘switched on or off’. For example, in animals the gene
for haemoglobin production is switched off in nervous
tissue. This switching may be done by chemicals
within the cell, but the exact mechanism is not
fully understood. Sometimes this mechanism is also
affected by environmental factors.

116

Whole-chromosome
mutations
Parts of chromosomes may break off and
rejoin, or whole chromosomes may be
lost or added. Sometimes during meiosis,
a pair of homologous chromosomes fails
to separate. The gamete then has an extra
chromosome. The cell resulting from
gamete fusion will have three chromosomes
instead of a pair. Many such changes result
in spontaneous natural abortion long before
birth. One that is not always fatal is Tri-21
(Down syndrome), where the individual has
an extra chromosome number twenty-one.
Fig 4.3.7 Chromosomes of a person with Tri-21
4 .3 [ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
The structure of DNA
1 List the three chemicals that make up the structure of
DNA.
2 Identify what the letters A, T, C and G in a DNA base
sequence stand for.
3 Outline what is meant by ‘complementary bases’ in
the structure of DNA.
4 .3
UNIT
Helpful mutations?
Generally mutations cause more
Mutant bacteria
damage than improvement. However,
A mutation that produces drug
resistance in bacteria may occur sometimes a mutation may prove
in one in every 1 000 000 000 cell beneficial. The Granny Smith apple
divisions. This seems to be of little was the result of mutation in an apple
concern until we realise that a colony
of only 10 bacteria divid ing every 20 tree in a Sydney backyard. Breeders
minu tes will carry out this numb er of various species use mutations to
of divisions in around 4–5 hours. develop new and improved varieties
If the colony was treated with an
of organisms, including dogs, cats,
antibiotic such as penicillin, almost
all the bacte ria would die. Only those horses, sheep and crop plants.
few carrying the mutated, resistant Mutations are responsible for
gene would survive. These would in much of the genetic variation we
turn produce an entire generation of
penicillin-resistant bacteria. see today. Maybe all humans had
brown eyes until a blue mutant gene
appeared!
The Granny Smith is a mutant apple. Fig 4.3.8
4 State how one DNA segment differs from another.
Copying DNA
5 Define ‘replication’.
6 Explain why DNA must replicate.
7 Use a diagram to demonstrate the replication of DNA.
The genetic code
8 Outline how one protein differs from another. >>
117
 The molecule of life
9 Clarify what is meant by a ‘codon’.
10 Use a diagram to demonstrate how DNA is a code for
constructing a protein.
Gene expression
11 Explain what is meant by ‘gene expression’.
Mutations
12 Clarify what is meant by a ‘mutation’.
13 List three mutagens.
14 Disease can be due to mutations involving one gene
only. State an example.
15 State the name of a disease that is caused by
mutation of a whole chromosome.
Think
16 The following base sequence is part of a gene that
codes for a protein: CGGATAAGCTA
Identify the complementary DNA base sequence.
17 Calculate the minimum number of bases a section
of DNA would need to code for a protein that has
200 amino acids.
18 Mutations are usually harmful. Describe an example
of a beneficial mutation.
19 Explain why mutations in a body cell are unimportant
to the species as a whole.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 The 1962 Nobel Prize for medicine was shared by
J. Watson, M. Wilkins and F. Crick for their work in
creating a model of DNA. Write a short biography of
each of these scientists, outlining their contributions
to our understanding of genetics.
2 Research the contribution made by Rosalind Franklin
to the discovery of the model of DNA. Write a short
biography, including the difficulties she encountered
as a female in a male-dominated field.
3 Research human genetic abnormalities that involve
having the wrong number of chromosomes. Write
a report on the types, symptoms, occurrence and
treatment of the abnormalities for one disease.
118
>>>
20 Discuss the large-scale use of antibiotic drugs
used to treat bacterial infections. Could they lead to
untreatable infections in the future?
Analyse
21 Use information from Figure 4.3.5 and your
knowledge of mutations to predict an effect on skin
appearance from excessive exposure to UV radiation
from the Sun.
22 Figure 4.3.7 shows the genes of a person with Down
syndrome.
a Identify the abnormality on the gene map.
b Identify the sex of the individual.
Skills
23 a Draw a diagram to demonstrate a simplified DNA
molecule as shown in Figure 4.3.1 but change the
base sequence.
b Add a genetic mutation to the genetic code
in your DNA drawing and predict a possible
outcome of this mutation.
4 Research gene switching and gene expression.
You could start by considering the work of F. Jacob,
J. Monod and H. Harris. Summarise your findings
using a time line.
5 Research mutagens and use one example to
summarise your findings while answering the following
questions.
• What are they?
• Can we avoid them?
• Do regulations exist to limit our exposure to
mutagens?
Surf
6 Complete the activity on DNA replication
by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 4 and clicking on the destinations button.
Record your results using a diagram of the model you
constructed in the interactive program.

4 .3 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT
Modelling DNA
1 Construct a model of DNA. You might use
Prac 1 cardboard for the ‘uprights’ and coloured
Unit 4.3 paperclips for complementary bases.
You might use construction blocks or
polystyrene pieces. Liquorice, jelly beans and
skewers make a very tasty model! Use your
DYO imagination!
Extracting DNA
Aim To extract a DNA sample from wheatgerm
Prac 2 Equipment
Unit 4.3
250 mL beaker, 15 mL test tube, test tube rack,
measuring cylinders (10 mL and 100 mL), meat
tenderiser, non-roasted fresh wheatgerm,
ice-cold 95% ethanol, thermometer, stirring rod,
dishwashing detergent, water bath, compound
microscope
Method
Note: To get good strands of DNA it is essential to be very
gentle while stirring!
1 Add 100 mL of water to a beaker and warm to 50–60°C
in a water bath.
2 Add one heaped tablespoon (6 grams) of wheatgerm
and mix.
3 Add 3 mL of detergent to break down the cell
membranes of the wheatgerm. Maintain the temperature
at 50–60°C and stir for 5 minutes. Be careful not to form
froth or scrape the sides of the beaker.
4 Add one level teaspoon (3 grams) of meat tenderiser.
5 Maintain the temperature at 50–60°C and stir for
10 minutes.
6 Remove the beaker from the water bath, and transfer
some of your solution from the beaker to fill one-third
of a test tube.
7 Allow the test tube to cool to room temperature.
4 .3
UNIT
2 Your model should show all the basic features of
DNA, and be able to demonstrate the process
of replication.
8 The DNA is still dissolved in solution. Pour 6 mL of
ice-cold ethanol down the side of the test tube into
your solution to form a layer. The DNA will precipitate
into the alcohol.
9 Let the mixture stand until it stops bubbling (2 or 3
minutes).
10 The DNA will float in the alcohol. Swirl a glass stirring
rod at the junction between the layers to see strands
of DNA.
11 Drag some DNA strands out of the test tube and view
under a microscope.
Results
You can expect three basic results from your DNA
extraction. The actual result will depend on how careful
you have been:
• No DNA. Something went wrong—revise your
method.
• Fluffy-looking DNA. This means that it has been
broken into many small pieces during extraction.
Usually caused by rough stirring.
• Thin threads of DNA. Perfect.
Extension
Try extracting DNA from another plant such as
strawberries.
Questions
1 Describe your DNA after extraction.
2 Explain why each of the following chemicals was
added during the process:
a detergent
b alcohol
3 Deduce what factors affected your success in
extracting DNA.
119
 UNIT
>>>

4. 4
context

Is it possible to change your inheritance? have already been placed into plants, and genes from
How would you like to have gills to breathe humans have been placed in bacteria. Parents can
underwater, or the feathers of a bird? select the sex of their child. Who knows what else
This may sound extreme, but the idea of may be possible in the future!
controlling inherited characteristics is not
new. For thousands of years farmers have
selectively bred plants and animals with desirable
Nectarines are a mutant form of peach. Fig 4.4.2
characteristics. Recent scientific research has
increased the precision and control with which
we can select characteristics. Genes from animals

Selective breeding
Selective breeding takes place all the time and is
a simple process. Merino sheep produce more and
better-quality wool than the breeds from which they
were originally bred. Australian wheat was once
attacked by a fungal rust disease. Resistance and good
yield were gained when wild rust-resistant relatives
of wheat were crossed with wheat plants that produce
lots of seed.

Keeping the seeds from only the best plants for

next year’s crop is a simple example of selective
breeding. Other examples include selecting a male and
a female with the right mix of desirable characteristics
to produce tomatoes that stay ripe longer, dairy cattle
with more milk, beef cattle with more meat, or rice
that produces more seeds.
Sometimes variation is produced by deliberately
introducing mutations into a population, then
selecting those individuals with desirable
characteristics. For instance, nectarines are a mutant
form of peach.

Fig 4.4.1 Reality or fantasy? A square tomato would
allow easier stacking and slicing.
Genetic engineering
Why use gene technology?
Increased research into inheritance and DNA has
allowed selective breeding to be carried out in a much
more precise and efficient way. Genetic engineering

120

uses gene technology to manipulate the DNA within
an organism. Gene technology allows us to:
1 Isolate a gene
2 Alter the gene
3 Copy the gene and
4 Reinsert the gene into another organism, or into a
new position on the DNA of the same organism.
The use of gene technology has helped to develop:
• larger harvests
• plants with greater disease resistance
• crops with improved storage and handling
properties
• fruit and vegetables that last longer and taste better.
Organisms that have had their gene sequence
altered are called genetically modified (GM) plants or
animals.
Genetically modified cotton contains an inserted
gene. This insertion produces a protein that kills the
Heliothis caterpillar when it eats the cotton leaves.
The inserted gene comes from a naturally occurring
bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensils, or Bt. The modified
cotton is called Bt cotton. Australians currently use a
number of products from genetically modified crops
in their foods. These include canola oil, soy beans in
some soy-based products and potatoes in processed
snack foods.
Genetic modification may have other benefits
such as:
• producing plants that can reverse the effects of
salinity
You may already be eating some genetically Fig 4.4.3
modified foods.
4 .4
UNIT
• creating bio-fuel bacteria that can produce energy
• producing bacteria that can clean up oil spills and
process industrial waste
• helping to eliminate genetic diseases.
Some GM food—potatoes, corn, wheat
and soy beans Fig 4.4.4
Manipulating genes
Scientists have known how to manipulate genes
since the early 1970s. Gene technology uses naturally
occurring enzymes that either cut DNA or join it
back together. The enzymes recognise particular base
sequences, and cut the DNA near these sequences.
Scientists can use different enzymes to cut and join
DNA in much the same way as a film editor cuts
and splices lengths of film to make a movie. DNA
segments may be inserted into bacteria, which then
act like factories to copy the segments.
Using bacteria
DNA segments are not directly inserted into bacteria.
Circular pieces of DNA called plasmids are used.
These occur naturally in bacterial cells. A plasmid is
cut open using an enzyme, the foreign DNA inserted,
and the plasmid rejoined. This creates a mixed
molecule called recombinant DNA.
Altered plasmids may be put into bacteria, and
the bacteria cultured to provide many copies of
the introduced DNA. The bacteria will obey the
instructions of the inserted DNA and manufacture
the protein it codes for. Nearly all the insulin used by
diabetics in Australia is now made by this method.
Other substances produced using this technology
include human growth hormone, some antibiotics,
and vaccines against diseases such as hepatitis B.
121
 Controlling inheritance >>>
Who owns your
genes?
The use of gene technology
has paved the way for the
patenting, marketing and
4. DNA is cut using sale of genetic materials and
an enzyme to isolate techniques. Biotechnology
a gene.
firms patent the data of gene
3. DNA is removed sequences, together with a
from a human cell.
use for that data. For example,
a firm might patent a gene
it hopes to use to produce
1. Plasmids are removed 2. Plasmids are cut a drug to overcome obesity.
from a bacterium. using an enzyme. There is considerable debate
surrounding these patents.
Some argue that they are
necessary to support the
costly research needed to
produce new drugs. Others
argue that patents inhibit
7. Bacterial cells grow and divide to produce 6. The recombinant DNA 5. Human gene is inserted into the research by giving one firm
many copies of the introduced gene. is put into a bacterium. plasmid to form recombinant DNA. exclusive rights to a gene, and
that monopolies may control
genetic remedies.
Fig 4.4.5 Gene technology using recombinant DNA

Transgenics The plant or animal with the new gene is called

Inserting modified genes into plant and animal cells
is also possible. In animals the gene is inserted into
the single-celled embryo from which all the animal’s
cells will develop. In plants, the gene may be ‘shot’
into host cells using a miniature gun. The chance
of the inserted gene becoming permanently fixed
into chromosomes is very low. Many cells are
therefore exposed, and the ‘successful’ ones isolated.
transgenic.
Are there risks?
All new technologies have benefits and risks. Gene
technology is no exception. There are many issues
surrounding the use of gene technology, as people weigh
the potential benefits against the potential risks. Listed
below are some of these issues. Can you think of others?

Some arguments against gene technology
• Genetic modification is not natural. Interfering with
a highly evolved and delicate system may upset it in
unpredictable ways.
• GM plants with inbuilt pesticides may kill insects that are
not pests.
• Pests will, in time, develop resistance to the inbuilt
pesticides in GM plants.
• GM herbicide-resistant plants may transfer their resistance
to other plants, creating ‘superweeds’.
• GM herbicide-resistant plants may encourage the
excessive use of herbicides.
• GM crops will not necessarily solve the world’s food
problems. Food shortages have more to do with
economics and politics than with agriculture.
• Multinational companies own the rights to most GM
plants. Farmers will incur costs to use the modified plants.
• Some religious groups have specific arguments against
the use of GM foods.
Some arguments for gene technology
• Gene technology is faster and more efficient than
conventional selective breeding techniques.
• Food production will be increased due to better disease
and drought resistance in plants.
• Animals will produce leaner meat, thicker wool and have
increased productivity.
• GM foods may be more nutritious, cheaper and keep
better than conventional foods.
• GM crops with pest resistance will reduce the use of
harmful chemical pesticides.
• GM crops may be produced that tolerate poor soils and
salinity, allowing more areas to be farmed.
• Gene technology can be used to locate and study genes
causing human disease, and genes that predispose
people to other diseases.
• Gene technology can be used to create new, improved
medical treatments, such as insulin.

122
 4 .4

UNIT
Further uses of gene technology Forensic analysis
Gene probes are also used in DNA fingerprinting
Prenatal testing in criminal cases to identify the parents of children
Prenatal testing involves identifying genetic defects in disputes. DNA fingerprinting relies on the fact
or diseases before a baby is born. Prenatal testing is that each person has a unique sequence of bases in
carried out using gene probes. A gene probe is a small their DNA (identical twins are an exception). The
piece of DNA with a base sequence identical to part of fingerprinting process is explained in the
a gene. This means that a probe can stick to a specific Science focus section on page 128.
gene. Probes are made that recognise the base sequences
of genes associated with diseases. DNA samples from Cloning
embryos can be tested with probes to determine whether In 1997, a lamb born in Scotland
Woolly flocks
a disease like sickle-cell or cystic fibrosis is present. captured the world’s attention. The lamb, Why are scientists so
Prenatal testing is usually carried out in the called Dolly, was genetically identical to excited by the cloning
its mother, and was the first successful of Matilda and Suzi?
first 8 to 12 weeks of pregnancy. Cells to be tested
The technology used
are obtained by amniocentesis or chorionic villus clone of an adult mammal. Cloning refers to produce them could
sampling. These techniques, shown in Figure 4.4.6, to the production of an organism from a help Australia’s wool
involve inserting a needle into the uterus to obtain single cell. Each body cell contains all and dairy industries.
It takes many years of
cells that ‘fall off’ the foetus during its normal the information needed to make a new
selective breeding to
development. Cells are also tested for the type of sex organism. A clone results when one of develop a flock of sheep
chromosomes and counted to identify chromosome these body cells is grown to produce a with improved qualities
new individual. such as finer wool and
abnormalities (such as Down syndrome). Testing for good disease resistance.
certain enzymes is also carried out to give further In May 2000, Australia’s first cloned Given one sheep with the
clues to the presence of genetic disorders. merino sheep (Matilda) and first cloned desired qualities, cloning
calf (Suzi) were born. They were could produce that flock
If a disease is detected then the pregnant parents in a single generation!
undergo genetic counselling to see what action they produced using techniques similar to
can take in regards to the disease. those used to produce Dolly.
To clone a sheep, a cell from a donor
sheep is obtained. An egg cell from
another sheep is also obtained, and the
1. Fluid is removed
through the mother’s DNA is removed from the egg cell. The
abdomen. egg cell and the donor cell are fused to
placenta

Matilda, the first cloned sheep in

Australia, was born in April 2000 but died
of unknown causes in February 2003. Fig 4.4.7
amniotic
cavity— 2. Fluid is
a fluid-filled centrifuged
region to separate
around cells.
the foetus.

cells which
‘fall off’ the wall of
foetus uterus 3. Cells are isolated
and grown in a
culture.

4. Test for genetic 5. Test for 6. Test for abnormal 7. Test for XY
diseases using enzymes. number of chromosome.
gene probes. chromosomes.

Fig 4.4.6 Prenatal testing by amniocentesis. Cells for testing may

also be obtained from the placenta in a process called
chorionic villus sampling.
123
 Controlling inheritance >>>
0ATIENT
create a single cell, the first cell of the new sheep. The
fused cell grows as a normal embryo. The embryo is
grown for several days in a glass dish, then implanted
(EALTHYNORMAL
into a host ewe to develop and be born in the usual CELLTAKEN
way.
Cloning Matilda Fig 4.4.8 $.!OFCELLTRANSFERRED
INTOANEGG
cell from the egg cell from
donor sheep another sheep &ERTILISED
EGG

DNA removed
!FTERnDAYS
two cells egg cell without THEEGGGROWS 4RANSPORTED
fused DNA INTOABLASTOCYST BACK
together
WITHOUT
REJECTION

)NNERSTEMCELLS
ARECOLLECTED
Embryo is grown
FROMBLASTOCYST
for several days in
a glass dish.
3TEMCELLSARE
PLACEDIN
GROWTHMEDIUMS

Embryo is implanted
into a host ewe.

3KINCELLS .ERVECELLS -USCLECELLS

Matilda is born.

Fig 4.4.10 Therapeutic cloning may also be used to cure

many diseases in the future.

Therapeutic cloning involves taking cells from a

Removing DNA from a sheep egg during cloning
Therapeutic cloning
Therapeutic cloning can be used to repair injuries by
placing new nerve cells into a damaged spinal cord,
growing skin for burns victims, or growing muscle
cells to repair damage after a heart attack.
person, extracting the DNA, and cloning the cells by
inserting the DNA into an egg. The egg grows and after
a few days the stem cells are removed from the egg.
These stem cells are special as they can grow into any
type of cell in the body given the right conditions. The
Fig 4.4.9
cells can then be placed back into the person the DNA
came from in order to achieve a desirable outcome.
These cells will not be rejected by the body since
the cells have the same DNA as the original donor.
Maybe we will be able to grow whole organs for
transplant this way!
Worksheet 4.5 Human cloning

124

Gene cell therapy
Another future prospect is the use of gene cell
therapy. This involves removing the genetic material
from some body cells, manipulating it and reinserting
it into the person.
Gene cell therapy could be used to overcome
diseases such as cancer, by fixing the cancer-causing
mutation. More controversial is the use of gene
technology to alter the DNA passed from parent to
child, with a view to overcoming diseases such as
haemophilia, or even just to select eye colour.
Managing the risks
Cloning and gene cell therapy clearly offer benefits,
but they are not without risks. Can you think of some
of these risks, and of ethical questions raised by the
possibility of altering or selecting the genetic material
of a child? In Australia, the Genetic Manipulation
and Advisory Committee currently reviews all
experimental and commercial uses of genetically
modified organisms.
The human genome
Gene technology relies to some degree on knowing
where specific genes are. A genetic map shows the
positions of specific genes along the chromosomes.
Maps have been worked out for many organisms,
including bacteria, fruit flies, some fungi and corn.
The Human Genome Project was an international
effort to determine the complete genetic code for
humans. It identifies every gene that codes for each
characteristic, as well as the base pairs that make
up the genes. The mapping stage of the project was
completed in 2003.
Some findings of the project were
that much of the genetic code that
makes each person unique is in fact
99.9% the same for all people. Only
6% of the DNA actually codes for
Living longer genes; the rest is termed ‘junk DNA’.
Francis Collins, head The map contains 32 000 genes, far
of the Human Genome fewer than the expected 100 000. The
Project, said that by 2030
the genes involved in the code specifies 26 000 proteins, but
ageing process will be fully how these proteins all function and
catalogued. By 2040 gene interact is unknown. There is still
therapy and gene-based
designer drugs will be a great deal to be learned. Armed
available for most disea ses, with the map, many trials are now
and the average human under way to attempt to use gene
lifespan will then be
90 years. technology to cure diseases ranging
from haemophilia to cancer.
4 .4
UNIT
Career profile
Geneticist
A geneticist studies how biological traits pass from one
generation to the next. They also determine how the
environment contributes to the transmission of inherited
traits. Geneticists may also alter or produce new traits in a
species.
Geneticists can be involved in:
• studying the genetic, chemical, physical and structural
composition of cells, tissues and organisms
• determining the influence of the environment on
genetic processes in animals (including humans),
plants and other organisms
• studying organisms in controlled environments to
gain an understanding of their survival and growth in
real environments
• applying the findings of research to maximise the
long-term economic, social and environmental return
from living resources
• writing scientific reports on research
• diagnosing or calculating the risk of passing on
genetic diseases in humans, and advising parents on
these risks.
A good geneticist will:
• enjoy and have an aptitude for science and
research
• be able to think logically and analytically and carry
out detailed and accurate work
• have good communication skills
• maintain accurate records
• be able to work as part of a team, in both the field
and the laboratory.
A geneticist and an agricultural scientist Fig 4.4.11
examine transgenic sheep designed to
produce more milk and more wool.
125
 Controlling inheritance
4.4 [ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
Selective breeding
1 Describe two examples of selective breeding.
2 List two advantages of selective breeding.
Genetic engineering
3 Define the term ‘genetic engineering’.
4 State two examples of how gene technology has been
used to benefit humans.
5 a Clarify what is meant by a ‘genetically modified plant’.
b Clarify what is meant by a ‘transgenic animal’.
6 a Use a diagram to demonstrate what is meant by a
‘plasmid’.
b State where plasmids are found.
c Outline how plasmids are used in gene technology.
7 Describe what is meant by ‘recombinant DNA’.
Further uses of gene technology
8 Explain what is meant by a ‘gene probe’.
9 Outline two uses of gene probes.
10 List three characteristics of an embryo that may be
determined by prenatal testing.
11 Outline how the cells used in prenatal testing are
obtained.
12 Distinguish between cloning and therapeutic cloning.
13 Clarify what is meant by ‘gene cell therapy’.
14 List two possible uses of gene cell therapy.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 It has been suggested that extinct animals could be
‘re-created’ using preserved DNA and cloning.
a Research efforts to conduct such a project.
b Present a report of your findings, including
arguments for and against the ‘re-creation’.
2 Research the use of DNA fingerprinting in criminal
cases or in cases involving disputes over who is the
father of a particular child.
a Present the findings of one example illustrating
the DNA fingerprinting.
b Discuss whether the findings are foolproof.
126
>>>
The human genome
15 Outline what is meant by the ‘human genome’.
16 Describe two features of the genome discovered by the
Human Genome Project.
Think
17 Bt cotton produces a protein that kills its major pest,
the Heliothis caterpillar. Predict two ways in which
other organisms might be affected by the modified
cotton.
18 Scientists have suggested that, within five years, pet
lovers may be able to clone their dog or cat.
a Outline what is meant by ‘cloning’.
b Would a cloned cat or dog have all the
characteristics of the original animal? Justify your
answer.
19 Imagine that a person’s genetic code was mapped and
a gene predisposing that person to heart disease was
identified.
a Explain how the person might use this information.
b Predict how an insurance company or a prospective
employer might use this information.
Analyse
20 Figure 4.4.5 shows a section of DNA being inserted into
a plasmid. Do you consider this procedure beneficial to
humans? Justify your answer.
21 Discuss whether the procedure shown in Figure 4.4.6
is ethical.
22 Evaluate the arguments for and against genetic
engineering presented in this unit to decide whether it
should continue to be investigated.
3 Research arguments for and against the use of
prenatal testing and early abortion for family planning.
Organise a class debate on the issue.
4 Stem cells can theoretically turn into any of the many
cell types that make up your body.
a Research why stem cells are of great interest to
scientists, and why their use is controversial.
b Write a newspaper article aimed at informing the
public about this issue.

Surf
Complete the following activities about
genetics by connecting to the Science Focus 4
Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 4 and clicking on the destinations
button.
5 Research the Human Genome Project and summarise
your information under the following headings:
What is it?
Goals
Progress
History
Benefits
Ethical issues
6 Imagine that a multinational company owns the patent
on a genetically modified variety of wheat that is high
yielding and drought tolerant.
a Research ways in which this patent could affect an
Australian wheat farmer.
b Outline the main issues in a letter written to the
farmer’s local Member of Parliament.
7 Complete the electrophoresis experiment online to
separate your own samples of DNA.
4 .4
UNIT
Creative writing
How do you see it?
1 A genetically modified soybean that can tolerate
a commonly used weedkiller has been produced.
Using this soybean would allow farmers to spray
to kill weeds without killing the soybean crop. It is
proposed that this soybean be planted in Australia.
Write a letter to the newspaper explaining why
you think the planting should be allowed. Write a
second letter explaining why you think it should
not be allowed.
2 Suppose an experiment is being conducted to
genetically modify cow’s milk so that it has a
composition more like that of human breast milk.
To achieve this, a single human gene is to be
inserted into the DNA of a cow’s zygote (the first
cell of a new cow). Imagine you are the human
gene. Describe what happens to you during the
course of the experiment, and explain how you feel
about being used in this way.
127
 Science focus: Biotechnology
and DNA fingerprinting
Prescribed focus area: Current issues in research
and development
What is biotechnology?
Biotechnology is the use of living organisms and
the substances produced by them or biological
techniques developed through basic research.
Biotechnology products include antibiotics, insulin,
interferon, recombinant DNA, and technologies
such as waste recycling, bio-batteries and DNA
fingerprinting.
Humans have already exploited biotechnologies
in many ways, such as selectively breeding plants
and animals and extracting chemicals from animals
and plants to make medicines, glues, health products
and fibres. With our ability to manipulate genes and
determine the genetic code of any organism, many
new biotechnologies are using the manipulation of
DNA and particular genes.
Biotechnology and crime
Forensic scientists have always sought a ‘universal
identifier’ that could be used to accurately identify
Fig SF 4.1 A fingerprint can easily be wiped away from
a crime scene, but DNA cannot.
128
the perpetrator of a crime. Fingerprints were
originally thought to have provided the answer but
criminals soon learned to wear gloves or to make
sure they wiped clean any surface they touched
while committing the crime. The discovery of the
genetic code as a base-pair sequence within the
DNA molecule made it obvious that within the cells
of each person was a unique genetic code. This
code represents a universal identifier that cannot
simply be wiped away. A person can leave DNA on
anything they touch, by losing a hair or even dead
skin cells.
Developing biotechnology
There are a few key biotechnologies that are used in
the DNA fingerprinting process.
Restriction enzymes
Restriction enzymes are protein molecules that can
bind to a particular sequence of base pairs in a DNA
molecule and then cut the DNA into sections.
Electrophoresis
After cutting the DNA molecule into smaller pieces,
scientists need to be able to separate these pieces
of DNA for analysis. The process for separating
DNA is called electrophoresis and is similar to
chromatography. The DNA samples are placed in a
gel, and an electric current is applied. The current
makes the pieces of DNA move, with larger pieces
moving more slowly through the gel, and smaller
pieces moving faster. Pieces of DNA separate across
the gel according to their size.
 This technician is placing DNA samples into
the wells at the end of the electrophoresis
gel ready for separation. The result will be a
DNA fingerprint.
<Fig SF4.2> <Photo of electro-
phoresis set up, SPL G210/216>
PCR
Only very small amounts of DNA are now needed
Fig SF 4.2 to conduct DNA fingerprinting. The DNA required
for the process can even be obtained from a corpse
or sample where the DNA may have started to break
down. Where only a very small amount of DNA is
available for analysis, a technique called polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) is used. This technique uses
enzymes to copy the DNA sample many times,
producing much more of the DNA collected. When
enough DNA has been produced, the sample can
undergo DNA fingerprinting.

DNA fingerprinting
Crime scene investigation
The process of DNA fingerprinting is outlined
in Figure SF4.4. DNA fingerprinting produces
a barcode-type result that is unique to each
individual. By comparing the DNA found at a crime
scene with that of a suspect, the perpetrator of a
crime can be identified.

Gene probes
There is a huge amount of DNA in a human cell
and much of this genetic material is very similar in
different people. To use DNA for solving crimes it is
necessary to find sections of the DNA that represent
genes that produce different but comparable results for
different people. For example, the gene for a physical
trait such as hair or eye colour can be used for this.
Once these genes are identified, a way to mark
them while analysing DNA is needed. This is where
a gene probe is used. A gene probe is a small piece
of DNA with a base sequence identical to part of a
gene, which enables it to stick to a specific gene. By
attaching a radioactive atom (radioisotope) to the gene
probe, the radiation released from the sample can
be analysed to determine where the gene probe has
become attached.
Gene probes that attach to the sections of DNA
required for analysis have finally enabled forensic
scientists to use the information provided by DNA
evidence. DNA fingerprints on X-ray film Fig SF 4.3

129
 Fig SF 4.4 The process of DNA fingerprinting

1 DNA is extracted from blood or a cell sample.

DNA sample

2 DNA is cut into fragments using enzymes.

3 Pieces of DNA are separated in a gel using

electric current. This process is called power
supply
electrophoresis and is very similar to DNA samples
chromotography. Small DNA pieces move placed in wells
faster and further than larger ones. in the gel

agarose
gel
conducting
solution

DNA samples move and

separate in electric current

4 DNA band pattern in the gel is transferred

to a nylon membrane.
gel nylon

5 A radioactive DNA probe is added that binds

to specific sequences in the DNA bonds.

radioactive probe

6 The excess probe material is washed away,

leaving a unique pattern.

7 The radioactive DNA pattern is transferred DNA fingerprint on X-ray film

to X-ray film, giving the DNA fingerprint.

130
 who were DNA fingerprinted after a challenge as to
S1 S2 V C St who was the father of the child. The results for the
child’s mother were also included. The arrows in the
diagrams show where the woman has been clearly
identified as the mother. For the man to be identified
as the father, the child’s DNA must match his result.
Which of the two men do you think is the father of
the child?
Other uses
DNA is a very stable molecule and, under the right
conditions, and in certain tissues, it can remain
intact for a very long time. For example, DNA in
bones or hair can remain intact for hundreds of years.
Armed with these new techniques for DNA analysis,
archaeologists and anthropologists are able to analyse
samples of DNA extracted from ancient corpses, such
Fig SF 4.5 Whodunnit? DNA fingerprints from as the Egyptian mummies. The results obtained in
suspects (S1 and S2), the victim (V),
the crime scene (C) and a standard these studies are providing information about the
(St). Can we tell who is guilty? relationships between the different races of humans,
and about human evolution.
Paternity disputes
DNA fingerprinting is also finding roles in other
applications and has become a tool in legal cases
where the identity of a child’s parents might be in
doubt. Figure SF4.6 shows the results for two men
[ Student activities ]
1 Some in the community have expressed concern
that the increasing use of human DNA and genetic
information could lead to an ‘invasion of privacy’
Possible
father 1 and that the information obtained by screening a
person’s DNA might then be used for the wrong
reasons.
a Discuss this issue with classmates and
propose the advantages and disadvantages that
screening of each person’s DNA could have for
society.
b Evaluate this information and make a judgement
as to whether the collection of DNA-related
Possible information should be allowed in the future, and if
father 2
so, under what conditions.
2 a Gather information about how one of the
following biotechnologies works: electrophoresis,
restriction enzymes, gene probes.
b Draw a flow chart using a series of diagrams
and text to demonstrate how your chosen
biotechnology works.
>>

Fig SF 4.6 Who is the father?

131
 A AT G C G T C T G ATAT C T C C C AT G C A C G C G C C C G G G AT TA C G TA C C C G G G AT C C G C G TA A C A C T G ATAT C TAT T

3 The diagram above represents a gene located in a Discuss whether giving a DNA sample should
a section of DNA that a forensic scientist wants be voluntary or compulsory.
to analyse. Only one strand of the DNA is shown. b A person has chosen not to give a DNA sample
The code for the gene is shown in red. as they fear their genetic information may be
To cut up the DNA, a restriction enzyme that misused. Account for this person’s decision.
recognises a particular sequence of six bases is to be c Do you think that a person who chooses not
used. The restriction enzyme uses the base sequence to give a DNA sample should be treated any
GATATC to allow it to identify the place where the DNA differently than a person who does give one?
should be cut. Justify your answer.
a Copy the base sequence shown above and d Propose a set of guidelines that could be used
identify each location where the restriction enzyme when collecting DNA samples for analysis in this
will attach to the section of DNA for cutting. town, to convince people that their DNA would
b Propose reasons why this particular restriction not be misused.
enzyme was chosen to locate the place to cut
the DNA.
Police collect DNA using a cottonbud-like
c Construct a sequence of six bases for a gene swab and seal the sample in a tube for
probe that will attach to the gene shown in testing. A swab to collect cells is usually
the diagram. taken from the inside of the cheek. Fig SF 4.7
4 It has recently been suggested that the use of DNA
for crime solving might have serious flaws. The
technology is now so freely available that a criminal
could potentially take someone else’s DNA, use a PCR
(polymerase chain reaction) to make lots of it, and then
deliberately spread it around at a crime scene.
a Conduct research to find out how DNA is
replicated using PCR.
b Produce a poster or cartoon to demonstrate how
a sample of DNA can be replicated by PCR.
c Using an example, assess whether criminals using
this technique could influence the use of DNA as
evidence of their crime.
5 Imagine you are in a small town where a serious
crime has been committed. In order to help catch the
criminal, the police have asked everyone to give a
DNA sample for analysis. This would either eliminate
people as suspects or, hopefully, confirm the criminal’s
identity.

132
Chapter review
[ Summary questions ]
1 List two influences that make you what you are, giving 10 For each term in the table, identify the relevant
an example of each. description.
2 a List two ways in which you resemble your mother.
b List two ways in which you resemble your father. Term Description
c List any of your own characteristics that are like Codon Causes a spontaneous change
those of your grandparents and not like your Genetic map in a gene or chromosome
parents. Plasmid A small piece of DNA that
3 In Mendel’s pea plants, long-stem flowers were recognises a gene
Gene probe
dominant over short-stem flowers. Stem length is An organism with a new gene
controlled by a single gene with dominant and recessive Recombinant DNA
Transgenic organism Shows the positions of genes
alleles. Using this example, explain what is meant by
Mutagen on chromosomes
the following terms:
A circular piece of DNA
a allele
A molecule containing DNA
b genotype
from two organisms
c phenotype
A sequence of three bases that
d homozygous
codes for an amino acid
e heterozygous
4 a Define the term ‘gene’.
b State what the letters DNA stand for.
11 Explain what is meant by:
5 Distinguish between genes, chromosomes and a gene technology c gene cell therapy
DNA.
b cloning d therapeutic cloning
6 For each term in the table, identify the relevant
12 a State three arguments for the use of genetically
description.
modified foods.
b State three arguments against the use of genetically
Term Description
modified foods.
Meiosis Chemical that carries the genetic code
Mitosis A hereditary unit
Diploid
Haploid
Cell division that produces gametes
Cell division that produces daughter cells
[ Thinking questions ]
Gene identical to the parent cell 13 Select the statements from i to v that are correct for:
DNA A cell that has two of each type of a mitosis
chromosome b meiosis
A cell that has one of each type of i It involves replication of DNA strands.
chromosome ii Two daughter cells are produced.
iii Four daughter cells are produced.
iv It produces cells with half the chromosome number
7 Use examples to explain the difference between of the parent cell.
dominant and codominant inheritance. v It occurs in most body cells.
8 Using examples, explain the difference between 14 The ability to taste a bitter chemical known as PTC is
continuous and discontinuous variation within a dominant over the inability to taste it. Three children in
population. a family can taste PTC; one cannot. Explain whether
9 Briefly outline the process of replication of DNA. it is possible for both parents to be:
a non-tasters of PTC
b tasters of PTC

133

15 Colour blindness is an X-linked recessive disorder. The
symbols used to show the relevant genes are Xn for
the recessive gene on the X chromosome and XN for
the normal gene on the X chromosome. A colour-blind
female partners a non-colour-blind male.
a State the two possible genotypes of their offspring.
b Their daughters will be carriers of the disorder.
Explain what this means.
16 The structure of DNA may be likened to that of a twisted
ladder. State:
a what forms the uprights of the ladder
b what forms the rungs of the ladder
c the name given to the structure formed when the
ladder is twisted
17 Explain how a mutation may be:
a harmful to an individual but have no effect on the
species
b harmful to the species but not to the individual
c beneficial to the species
18 a State the approximate percentage of your total
DNA base sequence that is the same as that of your
classmates.
b State whether it is possible for two people to have
exactly the same total DNA base sequence. Justify
your answer.
[ Interpreting questions ]
19 In humans the ability to roll the tongue (R) is dominant
over the allele for being unable to roll the tongue (r).
A tongue-rolling heterozygous person is crossed with
a person who cannot roll their tongue.
a State the genotype of each person.
b State the possible genotypes of their offspring.
c Predict the percentage of offspring that would be
expected to have each of the genotypes listed in b.
d Predict the possible phenotypes of the offspring.
e Predict the percentage of offspring that would be
expected to have each of the phenotypes listed in c.
20 For snapdragons, a cross between a plant with red
flowers (RR) and a plant with white flowers (WW)
produces a plant with pink flowers. Predict the expected
ratio of red, white and pink flowers in the offspring of a
cross between:
a a red-flowered plant and a pink-flowered plant
b two pink-flowered plants
134
>>>
21 The father of a child has blood group AB; the mother
has group O. Predict the possible blood groups of the
child.
22 Albinism is caused by a single recessive gene (a). Two
people heterozygous for albinism produce a child.
a Predict whether the parents are albino.
b Predict the chances that the child will be albino.
23 A pedigree for a rare X-linked disease is shown in
the figure below. The symbols used to show the
relevant genes are Xm for the recessive gene on the
X chromosome and XM for the normal gene on the
X chromosome.
a State the genotypes of the following individuals:
i II male 3
ii the female partner of II male 3
iii III male 1
b Is the disease carried by a dominant or a recessive
gene? Justify your answer.
c Predict the probability that a male child of female
III 2 and her partner will have the disease.
I
II
1 2 3
III
1 2
IV
1 2
Worksheet 4.6 Genetics crossword
Worksheet 4.7 Sci-words
>>>

5 Motion
Key focus area
>>> The applications and uses of science

By the end of this chapter you should

5.3, 5.6.2
Outcomes
be able to:
explain the terms ‘speed’,
‘acceleration’, ‘force’ and ‘energy’
contrast Newton’s Laws of Motion
analyse motion using Newton’s
Laws
explain how gravity and air
resistance affect falling objects
sketch graphs that illustrate
various motions
calculate speed, force and
energies.

1 Where would feathers and

Pre quiz
hammers fall at the same rate?
2 How long does it take you to react
to something?
3 Passengers are thrown forward in
a head-on car crash. True or false?
4 Are headrests in cars for comfort
or for some other reason?
5 What are the differences between
kicking a football and kicking a
brick?
6 How does a jet engine propel an
aircraft forward?
7 How can the footballer in the
photo still be moving if his feet are
not touching the ground?
8 Why is motion often blurred in
photos?
 UNIT
>>>

5.1
context

You are in motion all the time. Even when
you are asleep, you are travelling at a speed
of about 1300 km/h. How can this be? It’s
because the Earth is rotating on its axis and
revolving around the Sun, carrying you with it.
It’s a journey that you take for granted, but what about
other movements like running for the school bus in the
morning? Let’s now look at how scientists describe
motion.

Distance and displacement Physics facts

How would you describe your journey to school this
Distance and displacement
morning? Apart from ‘boring’, you might mention
Symbol in formulas: s (distance has no direction,
the distance travelled and the time it took. Scientists
displacement has direction)
use two terms, distance and displacement, when
Unit: metres
describing a journey.
Unit abbreviation: m
• Distance can be measured in any length units,
but is usually converted into metres (m) for
calculations. Likewise, time is usually converted
into seconds (s). Speed and velocity
• Displacement is distance with a difference. Speed
Displacement is how far you end up from where In a car, speed is measured continuously by the
you started, and in which direction (up, left, north, speedometer in kilometres per hour (km/h or
towards the window). It is distance with direction. km h–1). This is its instantaneous speed or its speed
You travel a considerable distance each day, but at any moment in its travels. Speed is the rate at
your overall displacement is likely to be zero. You which distance is covered.
will end up in the same bed that you crawled out
of this morning. A cloud of ice crystals forms as an aircraft
Fig 5.1.2 reaches an instantaneous speed of 1200 km/h.

A to B
distance = 8 metres
displacement = 8 metres
to the right

A B
A to B back to A
distance = 16 metres
displacement = 0

8m

The difference between distance and displacement Fig 5.1.1

136
 5.1

UNIT
Fig 5.1.3 Police radar guns measure instantaneous speed. How to convert speed
units
÷ 3.6
km/h m/s
That’s fast!
× 3.6
Measurements are only
Averages are useful but tell as accurate as the device
little about what is actually that measures them,
happening. If the distance or and faulty equipment
will never give accurate
time chosen for the average is measurements. This was
small, however, average and particularly true when a
instantaneous speeds become driver in Belgium was
fined after a radar gun
closer to each other. A runner
measured his speed at
might be timed at completing the 3500 km/h!
100 metre sprint in 12 seconds,
but it would be better to measure
the times taken to run past markers spaced
We do not always have a speedo or radar gun with
at, say, 10 metres. The average speed of
us to measure instantaneous speed. Some simple
each section would show any changes that Prac 1
measurements, however, allow us to calculate average DYO p. 142
happened along the way. Spacings of one
speed:
metre would be even better.
distance travelled
average speed =
time taken Velocity
s A weather report of 60 km/h wind gusts is useless to
or v =
t pilots, sailors, surfers and people fishing unless they
also know the wind’s direction. Velocity is speed in
a given direction. Wind movement is an example of
Physics facts velocity.
That’s slow!
displacement
The speed limit for cars Speed and velocity Average velocity =
in France was 13 km/h time
Symbol in formulas:
in 1893. Originally all
cars in Great Britain
v (speed has no direction,velocity
had to have a man has direction) The ticker-timer
walking in front of them Unit: metres per second A ticker-timer is an instrument
with a red flag to alert Unit abbreviation: m/s or m s–1
horseriders! In 1896
that breaks movement into a
series of small intervals. It gives Don’t even think
the speed limit was Time
about stopping!
raised to 20 km/h, and Symbol in formulas: t us a way of accurately measuring
in 1904 to 33 km/h. In about 700 BC, King
Unit: seconds distances travelled and times Sanherib of Assyria
The first Australian
speeding ticket was Unit abbreviation: s taken, and provides the data from built a road from his
given to a Tasmanian, which speeds can be calculated. capital, Nineveh, to
nearby temples. It was
George Innes, who was A small electric hammer strikes so wide that it would
recklessly driving a car If your school bus took half
through Sydney at a piece of carbon paper at the have been equivalent
an hour to travel 10 kilometres to to a modern freeway
13 km/h—tourists! same frequency as the AC power
school, its average speed would of eighteen lanes! The
supply, 50 times a second or king was justifiably
be:
50 Hz. Motion is then recorded proud of his road and
10 as dots on a strip of paper that didn’t want it spoiled
v= = 20 km/h
0.5 by chariots parked
passes under the hammer. Fifty along it. Death was the
This seems slow, but is an average of all the dots are produced every second, penalty for doing so,
instantaneous speeds the bus did on its journey. The so a space between dots takes with offenders being
bus went faster than 20 km/h, but also stopped at only one-fiftieth of a second or impaled on spikes!
traffic lights and bus stops. It also had to reduce its 0.02 seconds to produce.
speed through school zones and shopping areas.

137
 Describing motion >>>
The steeper a distance–time graph is,
the faster the object is going. Fig 5.1.6
vibrating arm or hammer
paper ticker tape



to AC 
power
pack  4OCALCULATE
GRADIENTPICK
 RISE
ANYPOINTS GRADIENT 
RUN

$ISTANCEM
  
dots produced

  MS
carbon paper RISE
disk 


Fig 5.1.4 Although useful, the ticker-timer can record
only motion in a straight line. 
RUN



     
4IMES

at constant speed
D D

accelerating
FAST
SLOW

decelerating
T T
start

The spacing of dots gives Fig 5.1.5 D

an accurate idea of what is
happening in the motion.
ATREST
Prac 2 DYO
p. 143

Graphing motion
Distance–time graph
Graphs are very useful in representing the motion of
an object travelling in a straight line.
Distance–time graphs show the total distance
travelled by an object as time progressed. Time is
always placed on the horizontal axis. Steep graphs
indicate that the object is covering more distance and
travelling faster than flatter graphs. A horizontal graph
indicates no movement at all: the object is at rest or
stationary. The slope or gradient of a distance–time
graph gives us the object’s average speed.
T
Speed–time graph
A graph of speed against time gives another picture
of what is happening in the motion of an object. As
before, time is placed on the horizontal axis. If the
object is getting faster, the graph rises. If slowing, the
graph falls. Constant speed gives a flat graph. The area
under a speed–time graph gives the distance that the
object has travelled up to that point. You can count
the squares or use area formulas to find the distance
travelled.

138
 5.1

UNIT
Calculating distance
v The average speed formula can be rearranged to give
another useful formula:
distance = speed × time
speed is increasing or s = vt

A car travelling at an average speed of 20 m/s for

5
t 5 seconds will have travelled a distance of:
v 4 s = 20 × 5 = 100 m
Speed (m/s)

3 Humans do not respond immediately to

speed is decreasing
2
emergencies, but take up to 1.5 seconds to react. This
area = 8
area = 6
is their reaction time. This means that when in a car,
1
a driver will not begin braking until well after they
0 see an emergency. Meanwhile the car is travelling fast
t 0 1 2 3 4 5
v Time (s) towards it.
To calculate the distance a car travels while the
constant
driver reacts, the speed must be converted into m/s
speed to match the units used for time. Assume a car is
being driven at 60 km/h (16.7 m/s) by a driver with
a reaction time of 1.5 seconds. The distance the car
t
travels before the driver brakes is then:
s = 16.7 × 1.5 = 25.05 m (equivalent to five to six car lengths).

Fig 5.1.7 The total distance travelled is A driver who is distracted (using a mobile phone,
the area under the graph. The changing a CD, or who has drunk alcohol) may take as
area here is 6 + 8 = 14. The
object has moved 14 metres.
long as three seconds to react.
Prac 3 DYO
p. 143
Worksheet 5.1 Distance–time graphs

5.1 [ Questions ] Prac 4

p. 144
Prac 5
p. 145
UNIT

Checkpoint
Distance and displacement
1 State the symbol, metric units and their abbreviations 7 Identify the formula used to calculate:
for: a average speed
a distance b distance
b time c average velocity
2 Use an example to demonstrate the difference between 8 To calculate time, t = s/v can be used. Write this
distance and displacement. formula in words.
Speed and velocity The ticker-timer
3 State the meaning of the term ‘speed’. 9 Ticker-timers produce a series of dots on a strip of
4 State the symbol, accepted units and unit abbreviation paper. Outline the information that can be obtained
for speed. from such data.
5 Define the term ‘instantaneous speed’. 10 State one disadvantage of ticker-timer data.
6 Use an example to demonstrate the difference between Graphing motion
speed and velocity. 11 Outline the type of information found from a distance–
time graph.
>>

139
 Describing motion >>>
12 A motion graph is horizontal. State what this indicates if Skills
the graph is a:
20 Complete the conversions in the table below
a distance–time graph (round answers to one
b speed–time graph decimal place).
13 Outline how a distance–time graph can be used to Speed km/h m/s
21 Calculate the
determine speed. average speed of: Athlete sprinting 11.7
14 Outline how a speed–time graph can be used to a a car that Bushwalker 4.0
calculate total distance travelled. travelled 990 km
Race horse 19.0
Calculating distance in 9 h
b an ant that ran Cheetah 100.0
15 State the formula used to calculate distance.
24 cm in 2 s Greyhound 18.3
16 a Clarify what a driver is doing during his/her reaction
time in an emergency. 22 Calculate the Cockroach 4.5
distance travelled
b Discuss why differing blood alcohol limits apply to Speed of sound 334
by:
different levels of drivers’ licences.
a a jet in 6 h at Antelope 88.0
Think 800 km/h
b a sprinter running
17 A distance–time graph always increases and never
at 11.7 m/s in 8 s
drops down, while a displacement graph could drop
down. Explain why. 23 Use the formula t = s/v to calculate the time taken
18 List three factors that could be expected to influence to travel:
reaction time. a 75 m at 2.5 m/s
b 300 km at 60 km/h
Analyse 24 Scott leaves home for the 1.5 km walk to school at 8.15
19 For the motions shown in Figure 5.1.8 calculate: and arrives at quarter to 9. Calculate his average speed
i the distance travelled in km/h.
ii the displacement 25 Thai tribe member, Hoo Sateow, died at the age of 77 in
iii the average speed for the whole trip 2001, having made it into the Guinness World Records
for having the world’s longest hair. Its length was 5.15 m.
iv the average velocity for the trip
a Calculate the speed in
mm/y at which his hair
grew.
A KM B b State any assumptions
KM made in the calculation.
KM
UP c Explain whether the
speed calculated is
KM
instantaneous or average.
M
. 26 Light travels at a speed of
START
300 000 km/s. Calculate
KM M
how long it takes to travel:
M
a from the Sun to Earth,
M a distance of
TIMETAKENH M
149 600 000 km
START TIMETAKENS
END b the 384 403 km distance
between the Moon and
Earth
KM
END c from Earth to Pluto,
5 750 400 000 km away
Fig 5.1.8

140
 5.1

UNIT
27 Copy and complete the following table to calculate the Fig 5.1.10
distance a car would travel while the driver is reacting.
A
Speed Speed Reaction Reaction
(km/h) (m/s) time (s) distance (m)
20 0.7
B
50 0.6
60 0.9
100 0.5
110 0.8 C

28 Eight Zuni rockets launched

a craft from Woomera, South
Australia, in 2001 to gauge its 30 Calculate the gradients of the graph in Figure 5.1.11 to
impact in falling back to Earth. find two different speeds.
It reached a height of 5.9 km Fig 5.1.11
in 40 s.
a Construct a scale
for distance from the 6
photograph.
b Calculate the average 5

speed of the craft.

Distance (m)

4
c Calculate the distance
3
the craft travelled before
landing. 2
d Calculate the approximate
Fig 5.1.9 1
displacement of the craft
from launch to landing. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
e The shape of the trajectory is a familiar one in Time (s)
mathematics. State its name. (Hint: turn the photo
upside down.)
29 Measure the distances travelled on the sections of 31 Calculate the area of the shaded parts of the
ticker-tape shown in Figure 5.1.10 and calculate the v–t graphs in Figure 5.1.12 to find the distance >>
average speed. travelled.

Fig 5.1.12

A B C
  
  
3PEEDMS

3PEEDMS

3PEEDMS

  
  
  
  
  
                    
4IMES 4IMES 4IMES

141
 Describing motion >>>
32 Sharnika graphed Calculate the following:
6 a trip she took a the distance Sharnika travelled in total
at the weekend. b her displacement for the journey
5
She drew the c the time she was away
displacement–time
Distance (km)

4
d her speed for the first leg of the trip
graph shown in
3
Figure 5.1.13. e her return speed
f the times when she was stationary
2
g her average speed for the whole trip
1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (h)
b Use a diagram to demonstrate your information,
Fig 5.1.13 including how a sonic boom is created.

Action
3 Research the times taken for the same race

[ Extension ] (e.g. the men’s 100 m sprint) in each Olympics since

1896.
Investigate
1 a Investigate how one of the following devices works:
i a radar gun or speed camera for measuring speed
ii a fish finder for measuring depth and locating
schools of fish
b Present your information as a booklet to explain your
findings to someone who has just purchased the
device.
2 a Research the meaning of ‘sonic boom’ and the
speed at which it occurs.
a Construct a graph showing the variation in time for
the race through the past century.
b Convert these times to speed, and construct a
graph of speeds through the century.
c Modern athletes can analyse their movement by
viewing videos of their races. They can then correct
faults in style that may slow them. The way athletes
move and the equipment they use has changed over
the past century to increase speed. Gather photos
to show how the sprint sports of running, cycling
and swimming have changed.

5.1 [ Practical activities ]

UNIT

They’ve got the runs! 4 Repeat for another student’s run.

5 Plot the results obtained for each run as a distance–time
Aim To collect data and construct a distance–time graph.
Prac 1 graph
Unit 5.1
Equipment Questions
Stopwatches (one per person preferably), chalk or 1 Identify where the student became faster or slower on
other markers, access to a tape measure the run. Describe what happened to the shape of the
DYO
graph in these areas.
Method 2 Identify where the speed would be reasonably constant.
1 A student is to run a short distance (say, 50 metres). Design
3 Normally, experiments are repeated a number of times.
an experiment that will enable a group of other students to
However, only one set of measurements should be
collect as much data as they can about the run.
taken in this case. Explain why.
2 Make sure you have selected somewhere flat and safe for
4 Describe what the graph would look like if the student
the run.
was cycling and not running.
3 Gather all the data and display it in an appropriate table.

142
 5.1

Ticker-timer experiment
Aim To analyse motion using a ticker-timer
Prac 2 Equipment
Unit 5.1
AC ticker-timer, carbon paper circles and tape,
power pack, scissors, ruler, graph paper, paper glue
Method
1 Tear off about 1 m of tape and thread it through the timer.
2 Start the timer, then pull the tape through, changing
speed as you go.
3 Repeat with new tape, until everyone in the group has
their own tape.
4 Draw a line through the first clear dot, then every fifth dot
after that. There should be five spaces per section. This
represents a time of 0.1 seconds.
5 Number each section, then cut along the lines.
6 Paste the pieces in order onto paper to produce a
speed–time graph as shown in Figure 5.1.14.
7 Measure the length of each section in millimetres and
enter your results in a table like the one below.
UNIT
8 Add axes to the cut-and-paste graph and use the
values in the table to mark appropriate scales along
each axis.
9 On graph paper, plot a distance–time graph for your
hand’s motion using the values from your table.
Questions
1 Explain why it was important to number the sections
before cutting.
2 Describe any trends or patterns in the graphs you have
constructed.
3 State how many dots an AC ticker-timer makes in one
second.
4 Once started, describe how long the ticker-timer takes
to produce:
a a new dot (this is equivalent to a single space
between the ‘old’ dot and the new one)
b five new dots (equivalent to five spaces)
Fig 5.1.14

MEASUREINMM
3PEEDMMS 
 
  
S  
DOTS  MEASUREINMM 

  
        
S
DOTS 4IMES

Section Elapsed time Distance of each section Total distance Average speed (mm/s)
(s) (mm) (mm) Column 3 ÷ 0.1
0 to 5 dots 0.1
6 to 10 0.2
11 to 15 0.3
16 to 20 0.4
21 to 25 0.5

Measuring speed
Design experiments that You could use simple equipment such as tape
will measure: measures and stopwatches, or use datalogging equipment
Prac 3 DYO
Unit 5.1 • the speed of a moving with appropriate sensors (light gates, ultrasonic sensors,
object microphones).
• the speed of sound.

143
 Describing motion >>>
Chain reaction
Aim To measure reaction time Part C
Prac 4 Equipment 8 Send the message back to the right.
Unit 5.1
Stopwatch, paper and pen to record results 9 The starter can now touch either the left shoulder of
their neighbour or they can lean behind them and
Method touch their right shoulder.
Part A 10 If the left shoulder is touched, pass the message onto
1 Gather into groups of 10 to 15 students. your neighbour by leaning behind and touching their
2 Stand in a ring, with everyone facing outwards, about right shoulder and vice versa.
50 cm apart. 11 Have a few practice runs before you record any
3 One in the group (the starter) has a stopwatch. Another times.
will record the group results.
Questions
4 The starter is to touch the shoulder of the neighbour
to their right, starting the stopwatch when they do. 1 Record all results.
When a shoulder is touched, the message is to be 2 Calculate the average reaction time for each person,
passed on. for parts A, B and C.
5 Time how long it takes for the message to get back to 3 Discuss whether there was any difference between
the starter. Record the time taken and the number in sending the message to the right and sending it to
the ring. the left.
6 Repeat at least three times. 4 Part C needed complex thinking. Explain what
happened to reaction times when you needed to
Part B
process information.
7 Repeat, but send the message to the left, using the
left hand.

Fig 5.1.15 Measuring group reaction times

144
 5.1

UNIT
Driving reaction times
Aim To measure your reaction time as a ‘driver’ 3 Place a desk close to a wall, leaving a small gap
Prac 5 of a car between them. Place a chair on top.
Unit 5.1 4 One student holds the chair securely. Another (the
Equipment
Metre ruler, access to a calculator, access to the Internet ‘driver’) sits on it. The ‘driver’ places their right heel on
the desk, their toes against the wall, in the position of a
Method car accelerator.
1 Form groups of three.
2 Copy the table below into your workbooks.

Without distractions With distractions

Ruler drops Average drop Average reaction Ruler drops Average ruler Average reaction
(cm) (cm) time (s) (cm) drop (cm) time (s)

5 The third student holds a metre ruler against the wall.

This is the ‘brake’ pedal. Align the ruler so that the
‘zero’ is level with the top of the driver’s toes.
6 Without warning, let the ruler go.
7 The driver must pivot their foot onto the ruler and stop
it falling.
8 Read off the position of the toes now and enter the
reading in the table.
9 Repeat at least three times. Each student must have
a turn as ‘driver’.
10 Repeat the test, but now distract the driver (touch their
neck, tickle them etc.).
11 Use this formula and your own data to calculate your
reaction time:

d
t=
490

where t = reaction time (s)

and d = average ruler drop (cm)
Check that you are doing the calculation correctly.
If d = 10 cm the time should come out as 0.14 s.
If not, find out what you are doing wrong with your
calculator.
12 Copy the new table shown on the next page into your
workbook.

>>
Fig 5.1.16 Measuring reaction time

145
 Describing motion >>>

Speed of car Without distractions With distractions

(km/h) (m/s) Reaction time Reaction distance Reaction time Reaction distance
(s) (m) (s) (m)
Column 2 × Column 3 Column 2 × Column 5
10
30
50
60
80
100

13 Use your reaction times to calculate the distance a car
travels before braking.
14 In the yard or corridor pace out each reaction distance.
Assume one large pace is about 1 metre.
15 On the Internet, find the site www.happyhub.com/
network/reflex or use the words ‘reflex tester’ to find
other similar sites. Compare the reaction time obtained
from that test with the time obtained in this experiment.
Questions
1 It was assumed here that the ruler dropped without any
resistance. Explain whether this is true.
2 Your first drop was probably the worst. Discuss what
this suggests about inexperience in an emergency.
3 Explain what distractions do to reaction times.
4 List some distractions a driver might logically
encounter.
5 Explain what alcohol in the blood does to reaction
time.
6 The Road Traffic Authority estimates that the reaction
time of an average driver is between 0.5 s and
1 s. Times from this experiment are probably less.
Propose reasons for the difference.

146
UNIT

5. 2
context

The sudden changes in speed and direction

of a rollercoaster give us the sensations and
thrill that we are after. The culprit responsible
for all this fun is acceleration: the rate at
which speed or velocity changes.

Acceleration
Imagine two cars taking off at traffic lights. Both reach
60 km/h, but their accelerations are not necessarily
the same unless you are told how long each took. If
one took 6 seconds, while the other took 16 seconds,
it becomes perfectly obvious which one is accelerating
the fastest!
change in speed
Acceleration =
time taken for the change

or a = (v – u)
t
where
• v is the final speed
• u is the initial or starting speed
• t is the time taken for the change in speed to
occur.

Acceleration is
Physics facts measured in speed
units per time unit.
Acceleration The most common
unit for acceleration
Symbol in formulas: a
Unit: metres per second squared is metres per second
Unit abbreviation: m/s2 or m s–2 per second, m/s2 or
m s–2.
If an object slows, it is decelerating. Deceleration is
negative acceleration.
Calculating acceleration
If the speed of a car changes from 0 to 60 km/h in
6 seconds, then its acceleration is:
(60 – 0)
a= = 10
6 5
Acceleration is one factor that makes the Fig 5.2.1
rollercoaster a thrill.
The unit here would be speed units (km/h) per
time unit (s) or k/h/s: the car gained an extra 10 km/h
every second.
For an athlete, speed is better measured in m/s. For
example, a runner is jogging along at 2 m/s but then
slows her speed over the next 5 seconds until she is
running at 1 m/s. Her acceleration would be:
(1 – 2) –1
a= = = –0.2
5

147
 Acceleration >>>
The units here would be her speed units If a = 50 m/s2, then 50 m/s is added
(m/s) per time unit (s), i.e. m s–2 or m/s2. every second. Fig 5.2.3
You can say that her speed decreased by
Prac 1
0.2 m/s every second, or her speed changed p. 152
by –0.2 m/s every second. The negative sign t=5s v = 250 m/s
tells you that it is a deceleration.

add 50 m/s

t=4s v = 200 m/s

add 50 m/s

t=3s v = 150 m/s

add 50 m/s

t=2s v = 100 m/s

add 50 m/s
Fig 5.2.2 A multiple-exposure photograph shows
different stages in a motion. The spacing
between each image gives some idea of speed. t=1s v = 50 m/s
Increasing spacing shows acceleration.

Calculating speed add 50 m/s

Let’s say a rocket launches with an acceleration of t=0 v=0

50 m/s2. It started at rest, but 50 m/s is added to its
speed every second that passes.
Its speed will then follow the pattern shown in
Figure 5.2.3.
If the rocket was already moving at, say, 500 m/s,
then the speeds would be those shown in the figure
with another 500 m/s added to them.
You can write this as:
final speed = starting speed + acceleration × time taken
or v = u + at
Acceleration and graphs
High acceleration is a rapid increase in speed. The
speed–time graph would be a steeper one than if
you accelerated at a lesser rate; that is, the slope or
gradient of a speed–time graph gives us the rate of
acceleration (see Figure 5.2.4).

148
 5.2

UNIT
v quick acceleration v v
no acceleration
deceleration constant speed
(negative acceleration)
slow acceleration

t t t Prac 2
p. 152

Fig 5.2.4 The gradient or slope of a speed–time graph

is the same as acceleration. Worksheet 5.2 Plotting car performance data

5.2 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint 11 Calculate the speed of an object every second for the

first 4 s if:
Acceleration a it starts at rest and accelerates at 5 m/s2
1 Define the term ‘acceleration’. b it started at a speed of 2.5 m/s instead of from rest
2 State the formula used to calculate acceleration. 12 Which is the most appropriate unit for acceleration for
3 Identify the values, and their symbols and units, needed a car? Justify your answer.
to calculate acceleration. 13 An object has zero acceleration. Identify the answer
4 Identify an alternative term for ‘negative acceleration’. that best describes its behaviour.
Calculating acceleration A The object is at rest.
B The object is travelling at a constant speed.
5 A car accelerates at 10 km/h/s. Write a sentence to
outline what this means. C The object is travelling at a constant velocity.
D All of the above are possible.
6 A runner has an acceleration of –0.2 m/s2. State what
she is doing. 14 Explain why deceleration is always a negative number.
Calculating speed Analyse
7 State the formula required to calculate the speed of an
accelerating object. 15 a Analyse Figure 5.2.2 to decide whether the
diver’s head and shoulders were moving faster
8 Record the formula v = u + at in words. than his legs.
Acceleration and graphs b Analyse whether the diver was increasing or
decreasing speed.
9 Identify the graph c Describe what an even spacing of images
A in Figure 5.2.5 that suggests about speed.
shows: d Describe what increased spacing suggests.
B
a slow acceleration e List the information that would be needed to
C b quick acceleration calculate speeds from this picture.
Speed

c no acceleration 16 Describe the motion shown on the ticker-tapes in

d deceleration Figure 5.2.6.
Fig 5.2.6

D A

Time
B
Fig 5.2.5

C
Think
10 Explain how much speed is gained every second if
acceleration is 15 m/s2. >>

149
 Acceleration >>>
17 The graph in Figure 5.2.7 shows data on distances that Skills
the ‘average driver’ needs to stop a car.
18 Copy the following table and calculate the acceleration.
a Analyse the graph to complete the missing
information in the table below.
Starting speed Final speed Time taken Acceleration
Fig 5.2.7 (m/s) (m/s) (s) (m/s2)
0 50 10

Total 10 50 4
50 30 5
80 Stopping
distance At rest 25 10
70
60 Stationary 12
60 Braking
distance
Distance (m)

50
19 Use the table below to calculate the final speed that
40 these objects would have.
30
Reaction Starting speed Acceleration Time taken Final speed
20
distance
(m/s) (m/s2) (s) (m/s)
10
0 15 3
00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 20 8 5
Speed of car (km/h)
16 1 4
30 –2 10
15 –5 3

Speed Reaction Braking Stopping

(km/h) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m) 20 A car accelerates from rest to 50 km/h in 5 s. Calculate
20
the acceleration of the car in:
a km/h/s
50
b m/s2
60
21 Calculate the area and the gradient of each section of the
80 v–t graph in Figure 5.2.8 to find the distance travelled and
100 the acceleration.
Fig 5.2.8

b In November 2003, New South Wales dropped

the urban street speed limit from 60 km/h to 10

50 km/h. Contrast the stopping distances at 8

each speed limit.
Speed (m/s)

6
c It is recommended that the distance between your
car and the car in front be equivalent to the reaction 4
distance at that speed. Evaluate how many car
lengths a driver travelling at 60 km/h and 100 km/h 2

should leave in front of them. 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (s)

150
 5.2

UNIT
22 Linh, Beth and Brianna had a race. All accelerated
smoothly from rest. Linh reached a speed of 24 km/h after
5 s, Beth reached 1.8 m/s after 2 s and Brianna took half
a minute to reach 3.0 m/s.
a Without changing units, calculate the accelerations of
each.
b Record the measurements as m/s and s and
re-calculate their accelerations.
c Assess who broke away the quickest.
d Evaluate the accelerations and place the three girls in
ascending order.
23 Construct a speed–time graph for the girl opposite
accelerating on a skateboard as she drops into the
half-pipe.

[ Extension ] Fig 5.2.9

Investigate
1 The braking distance of a car is affected
by the factors listed below. Research
one of them and present your
information as a print, radio or TV ACTIVITY
advertisement about the importance of
this feature in car safety. Construct an accelerometer
a tyre design and tread
Use Figure 5.2.10 to build an acceleration indicator, or accelerometer.
b disc or drum brakes
Get it moving along a bench, push it so that it travels at a constant
c ABS braking
speed or allow it to slide to a stop. Draw what the paperclip ‘needle’
2 Investigate why cars sometimes skid does in each case.
when braking and what a driver should
do to regain control. Explain how that
action works.
tape (inside lid)
Action
3 a Gather data from car magazines or fill with water
the Internet on at least two different
cars. glass jar
b Plot speed–time graphs to
demonstrate their performance
from rest. cotton thread

4 a Estimate the acceleration and

braking decelerations happening in
paper-clip
the normal travels of your family car.
b Explain how you
collected the data
and show your
calculations. DYO
Fig 5.2.10 An effective acceleration indicator

151
 Acceleration >>>

5.2 [ Practical activities ]

UNIT

Braking distances 4 Get your reaction distances from Prac 5 in Unit 5.1.
When cars brake in an emergency, the best 5 Find the total stopping distance.
deceleration on a dry road is about 90% g or 6 In the yard or the corridor, pace out the stopping
Prac 1
Unit 5.2 –8.82 m/s2 (you will find out more about g in distances you found at each speed. Assume one pace
Unit 5.6). roughly equals 1 m.
Aim To calculate the breaking distances for a car Questions
travelling at various speeds
1 a Predict what would happen if brake performance
Equipment was less.
Access to a calculator
b Test your prediction by halving it.
Method 2 Once the brakes are applied, the ability and state of the
1 Copy the table below into your workbook. driver have little to do with the braking distance. Assess
2 Convert all the speeds from km/h into m/s. which of these factors affect reaction distance and
2
v to calculate the braking distance which affect braking distance:
3 Use the formula d = 2b
for a typical car. v stands for the speed of the car (in alcohol and drugs in the blood, bald tyres, tiredness,
m/s) and b stands for the braking deceleration (in m/s2) wet road, noisy kids in the back, icy road, poorly
You will need to follow this order: serviced brakes, old car, age of driver, talking on a
mobile phone
i Put the speed (in m/s) into your calculator.
ii Square it, then divide by 2 and divide again by the
braking deceleration (b).
iii The answer is the braking distance.

Car speed Braking deceleration Braking distance Reaction distance (m) Stopping distance (m)
(km/h) (m/s) 90% g (m/s2) (m) (from Prac 5, Unit 5.1) Column 4 + Column 5
10 8.82
30 8.82
50 8.82
60 8.82
80 8.82
100 8.82
110 8.82

Acceleration and
datalogging
Prac 2 Use datalogging equipment and
Unit 5.2 sensors such as light gates and
ultrasonic sensors to measure and
plot the speeds and accelerations
of a moving object.
DYO

152
UNIT

5. 3
context

Forces act on us every day, causing many

different effects. How do these forces act
and what is the interaction between them? In Physics facts
1687, Isaac Newton asked the same question.
He then formulated three laws to explain how Types of forces
objects move when a force acts on them. The force you apply is very obvious when you physically
They are often referred to as Newton’s Laws. push or pull something. This is an obvious contact force.
A summary of other forces that you will have met before
is given below. Some will be discussed in this chapter.
Contact forces
• Friction: acts between any two surfaces that try and
What is a force? slide over one another. Acts in the opposite direction
A force is a push, pull or twist that causes an object to to the movement or attempted movement.
either: • Air resistance and drag: friction of air (or liquid or
• increase its speed (accelerate) other gases) as it travels across a moving object.
Like friction, it acts in a direction opposite to the
• decrease its speed (decelerate)
movement.
• change its direction, or
• Buoyancy: ‘floating’ force. Acts upwards, opposing
• change its shape. the weight force.
If any of these things happen, then a force caused it. • Surface tension: tiny forces between particles on the
surface of a liquid that form a ‘skin’ on the liquid.
Newton’s First Law • Lift: caused by air moving over a wing or airfoil. Acts
Newton’s First Law examines the forces on an object at 90° to the surface of the airfoil.
that is: • Thrust: caused by gases or liquid being pushed out
• at rest the rear of an engine, jet or rocket.
• in motion. Non-contact forces
• Weight: caused by gravity. Acts ‘downwards’, towards
No force and not moving the centre of the planet.
Place a pen on the desk. Watch what it is doing. Of • Electrostatic: repulsion of like charges (+/+ or –/–) or
course, it’s not moving. This effect is called inertia. attraction of unlike charges (+/–).
Sir Isaac Newton described it in his First Law. • Magnetic: repulsion of like poles
Newton’s First Law states: (N/N or S/S) or attraction of
unlike poles (N/S).
Anything at rest will stay that way unless pushed
or pulled.
That is, a force is required to get something moving. around whenever they like! In an Deadly dogs
In accidents, an unrestrained
accident, you don’t get thrown
No force but still moving family dog becomes a
forward: the car stops moving but projectile and can potentially
Why do you wear seatbelts in a moving car? If you you keep moving like you were kill or injure anyone in the
answered, ‘Because you are thrown forward in a before—until you hit something, seating area. Most dogs
range from 10 to 50 kg
car accident’, then you’re wrong! This suggests like the windscreen, dash or and will not be prepared
that something pushed you … the seat must have steering wheel, which will for the accident when it
shoved you so hard in the back that you were flung provide a stopping (and injuring) happens, losing their balance
towards the windscreen! This is of course ridiculous: and flying forward, with
force. This continued movement
disastrous results.
it implies that seats are capable of throwing you is called inertia, too.

153
 Newton‘s First Law >>>
If a car is travelling at
60 km/h, then so are you. If the
car is involved in an accident,
it will stop very quickly
(typically in about 0.1 to 0.2 of
a second). Unbelted passengers
will keep travelling, however,
at 60 km/h, until stopped by
the windscreen or dash. Our
head tends to be the first part
of the body struck. Seatbelts
provide a restraining force and
allow you to decelerate with
development of the modern
the car. They also spread the
stopping force across the chest
and waist. Airbags also allow
us to stop with the car.
Project BBQ
Crash test dummies have
been used for over 30
years to develop safer
cars. Before that, live but
anaesthetised pigs were
used in crash tests. A large
pork BBQ often followed.
Human corpses (cadavers)
were also used in tests.
Accelerometers and force
meters were implanted in
the cadavers to measure
what was occurring.
The results from these
experiments led to the
crash test dummy, the
Hybrid 3.

The crash test dummy on the motorbike

Fig 5.3.1 The crash test dummy on the motorbike Fig 5.3.3 with an experimental airbag fitted
continued at the same speed until it hit the car.

Newton’s First Law further states:

Anything that is moving will keep
moving at the same speed and in the Prac 1
same direction unless a force changes it. p.157

Crash test humans

by the US Air Force to
Crash test dummies were first developed
susta in if they ejected from
determine the injuries that pilots would
. Live huma ns were tested befor e the invention of
aircraft in flight
unde rwent 26 tests. In one,
the dummies, and Colonel John Stapp
t-pow ered open sled that accel erated to a speed
he sat in a rocke
then was stopp ed in less than a
of 1000 km/h in five seconds, but ng and
kept his intern al body parts and blood movi
second. Inertia his skull.
eyes would fly out of
he stated later that he felt as if his
ls in his eyes burst and they bled profu sely for 10
Blood vesse
sed, but he recovered
minutes after the test. His lungs also collap
that it was possi ble to survi ve such extreme forces.
quickly, proving

Fig 5.3.2 Inertia ‘pushes’ John Stapp back as he accelerates, and his body continues moving forward when the sled stops.

154
 5.3

UNIT
Inertia explains why you sometimes
‘feel’ lighter or heavier when in a lift as it
first moves off or slows to a stop. It also
Prac 2
tells why you ‘move sideways’ when a p. 158
car corners: you keep trying to travel in a Inflatable seatbelts
ft generally don’t. Apart
straight line. Most modern cars have airbags, but aircra
sions , most aircra ft accid ents are survivable and
from mid-air explo
able seatb elt for aircraft to make
We keep travelling in a straight line unless a force one company is producing an inflat
Fig 5.3.4 changes our direction. so. The Aviat ion Inflat able Restr aint Belt inflates in
them even more
the passe nger collapses as
0.070 s to form a large pillow into which
s to a halt in an accid ent. Some airlin es have already
the aircraft come
passengers keep moving and Airbu s 340– 600 aircraft.
in a straight line installed them in their Boeing 777
car
turns
left
passengers appear to move to right

Worksheet 5.3 All over in 200 milliseconds! Fig 5.3.5 The inflatable seatbelt promises to slow
passengers in an aircraft accident.

5.3 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint c A typical accident takes 1 to 2 seconds.

d You have enough time in a collision to brace yourself
What is a force?
to avoid injury.
1 Define ‘force’. e To keep something moving on Earth, you need to
2 List four possible outcomes when a force is applied to keep pushing.
an object. 7 Explain what happens to the occupants of a car when
3 Classify the following forces as either contact or it:
non-contact forces: a turns left
electrostatic, lift, thrust, weight, friction, buoyancy, air b suddenly accelerates
resistance, magnetic, drag c goes fast over a speed hump
Newton’s First Law d goes over a deep dip in the road
4 Recall the two parts of Newton’s First Law. e collides head-on with a wall
5 Define ‘inertia’. f is parked, but is hit from behind by another car
g is parked, but is hit from the left by another car
Think 8 Outline the features of a car that are designed to
6 Assess whether the following statements are true or comfortably stop our forward inertia.
false. 9 Propose why it is preferable to have the stopping force
a An object needs a force to start moving. in a car applied to the chest and waist instead of the
b Passengers are thrown forward in a head-on collision. head.
>>

155
 Newton‘s First Law >>>
10 Explain why rockets will keep Fig 5.3.7
moving in deep space, needing
no engines to do so.
then then
11 A car on ice is almost impossible
to stop or control.
a Use the concept of inertia to
explain why.
b Identify the force required to
gain control.
12 People sometimes hold their baby
while travelling in a car, thinking
that they will react and hold the
child in any accident. Assess
whether these people are seriously
risking the life of the baby. 19 Figure 5.3.7 shows three frames of a collision.
13 Evaluate whether passengers in the rear of a car are a Predict the type of collision that probably happened
safe when not wearing seatbelts. here.
14 Assess whether buses should be required to have b Account for what is happening in each diagram.
seatbelts for all passengers and whether passengers c Use this diagram to explain why modern cars are
should be allowed to stand. fitted with headrests.
15 Even when a person is not wearing a seatbelt, their 20 Johanna lets a bucket go at point X when swinging it.
lower body is less likely to be influenced by inertia than Trace the diagram and add an arrow at X to show in
their head. Identify which force(s) slow the lower body. which direction the bucket will fly.
16 Seatbelts leave bad bruising and can crack ribs in a car
accident.
a Explain why they do this.
b A friend is arguing that this is a good reason not to
wear seatbelts. Propose three reasons that would
convince them to buckle up.
17 Truck cabins need to be rigid and able to withstand a
heavy blow from the rear. Explain why.

Analyse
18 a Use the diagram in Figure 5.3.6 to explain how a
magician can pull a tablecloth out from under a table
set with china.
b In reality, the china will probably shift slightly in the
direction of the tablecloth. Explain why.
X
Fig 5.3.6

Fig 5.3.8

156
 5.3

[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research the use of airbags in cars. Present your
information as a poster of a car that illustrates their use
and features, including:
a how an airbag is triggered and inflated
b where airbags can be installed in a car
c how much safer a car is with airbags than without
d why most cars in Australia only have driver airbags
2 a Research the development of crash test dummies
and the current model, the Hybrid 3.
UNIT
b Imagine you had to sell the Hybrid 3 to car
companies. Present your findings as a brochure on
its benefits.
Surf
3 Investigate Newton’s First Law by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 5
and clicking on the destinations button. You will
need to complete a tutorial including animations and
questions. Record a log of your progress, outlining
any misconceptions you may have discovered and
corrected.

CHALLENGE
The yoke’s on you!
Your task The material
Use your knowledge of inertia to design a safe container 1 piece of cardboard of roughly A3 dimensions, sufficient
that will protect a fresh hen’s egg from injury in a high- string/sticky tape/staples/glue/other fixings to hold it together
speed collision (vegans can use a light bulb). You cannot use:
The collision • tape etc. as reinforcing or padding
Drop from a first floor window or balcony onto concrete • extra paper or cardboard for padding or parachutes.
or bitumen. All fittings must be made from the original A3 sheet of
cardboard.

5.3 [ Practical activities ]

UNIT

Crash test dummies 4 Place a chalk mark every 20 cm up the ramp, and
place a brick on the flat near the ramp’s end.
Aim To perform your own crash tests
5 Model a head-on collision by releasing the trolley from
Prac 1
Unit 5.3
Equipment a 20 cm mark on the ramp (see Figure 5.3.9). Repeat
Dynamics trolley, ramp, ruler, chalk, a solid barrier from the rest of the marks. Note what happened to the
such as a brick or wall, plasticine or playdough, plasticine person, particularly to any parts of the body
talcum powder, sticky tape that moved a lot and any parts that moved little. Test
which 20 cm mark you consider to be ‘life threatening’
Method
to the plasticine driver.
1 Mould a small plasticine person. Lightly powder it so
that it loses its stickiness. Part B
2 Sit it on the dynamics trolley. 6 Build a sticky-tape seatbelt for the driver and repeat.
Are there any differences in the results? Which 20 cm
Part A mark is now the ‘life-threatening’ one?
3 Set the ramp up on a shallow slope and let the trolley
7 Take the belt off, but this time add a ‘crumple zone’ to
run down it and onto the floor. Carefully note what
the front of the trolley. Once again, which 20 cm mark
happens to the plasticine person.
do you consider to be ‘life-threatening’?
>>

157
 Newton‘s First Law >>>
Part C
8 Place the trolley and its driver on trolley and ‘person’
a flat desk.
9 Model a rear-end collision by
hitting or flicking the back of the
trolley with your hand or a ruler.
Once again, note which parts bricks/books
moved. Build a safety feature
that would minimise injuries in
this type of collision. 20 cm marks

Questions
brick
1 Your backside is probably the
least affected part of your body
in a car crash. Explain why
inertia keeps heads, arms and
legs moving but seems to be Fig 5.3.9 Modelling a head-on collision
less effective on your backside.
2 Predict what would stop the forward movement in a car 4 Modern cars are designed to crumple in an accident.
when no seatbelts are worn. Propose reasons why.
3 Predict the injuries that are likely to occur in a head-on 5 Propose reasons for the use of headrests in a car.
collision while not wearing a seatbelt.

Inertial eggs
Aim To determine whether an egg is raw or 4 Note which egg spun the fastest.
Prac 2 hard-boiled 5 Spin each egg separately again. Place a finger on
Unit 5.3
Equipment the egg to stop it briefly, but let go immediately. Note
1 hard-boiled but unpeeled egg, 1 fresh raw egg, which egg remained stationary and which began to
smooth desk, pen or pencil spin again.
6 Repeat step 5 to confirm your results.
Method
7 Crack each egg over a sink. Which was hard-boiled
1 Copy the following table into your workbook.
and which was fresh?

Questions
Egg 1 Egg 2
1 If the shell of the fresh egg was spun, predict what its
Fast or slow spin? liquid insides would do.
Began to spin again? 2 Predict whether this would slow the spin of the shell.
Fresh or hard-boiled? 3 In the experiment, once the whole egg was moving the
shell was then stopped. Explain what inertia suggests
happened to the liquid inside the egg.
2 Mark one egg ‘1’ and the other ‘2’ with a pen or pencil. 4 Explain why this would get the shell moving again
when you let go.
3 Place both eggs on a smooth desk and spin each
equally hard. 5 Discuss why the hard-boiled egg spun faster and why
it remained stopped when you let go.

158
UNIT

5. 4
context

When you ride a bike, you have to apply a
force to the pedals to get the wheels turning.
The larger the force applied, the faster you
accelerate. When you want to stop you
have to apply a force, using the brakes, to
Acceleration
Acceleration applies to any change in velocity. This
may be a change in speed (e.g. from 10 to 20 m/s) or a
change in direction (e.g. from north to east).
Fig 5.4.1 Acceleration depends on mass and the force applied.
slow you down. The harder you squeeze the brakes,
the faster you slow, or decelerate. This is Newton’s
Second Law! Too easy ...
All acceleration requires a force. The bigger the
force, the greater the acceleration. Two people pushing
a car will be more effective than just one person
pushing it. But if the car is a big one, the acceleration
will be less: mass affects acceleration. Mass is the
amount of matter in an object. It never changes unless
you remove a bit from it or add more to it. A 2 kg
mass stays as 2 kg regardless of where it is in the
universe.

Force
Acceleration Physics facts Crumpling crashes
The force that you
Mass experience in an accident
depends not on your speed,
Symbol in formulas: m but the rate at which you
Unit: kilograms come to a stop. If you
Unit abbreviation: kg decelerate more slowly, then
the impact force is less.
Modern cars are designed
Twice the force Twice the acceleration to extend the time you
take to stop in a collision.
Newton’s Second Law Crumple zones slow
the crash, and seatbelts
Newton’s Second Law states: and airbags allow you to
decelerate with the car.
Something will happen if a Without this protection you
force is applied: the object will strike something hard.
will accelerate and the Deceleration and impact
force will then be high.
acceleration will depend on
the mass of the object.
Bigger mass,
smaller force = mass × acceleration
acceleration or F = ma
Force
This formula can also be arranged to give:
m = F/a and a = F/m

Prac 1
p. 162

159
 Newton‘s Second Law >>>
Spongy heads
needed acceleration. You don’t speed up, nor do
Our head has very little you slow down (Newton’s First Law). You just
Physics facts padding and comes to a
remain stationary, or keep travelling, like you
stop very quickly if you fall
Force from a bike and it hits the were before.
road or kerb. Bike helmets
Symbol in formulas: F extend the time during
(force needs direction) which your skull comes to
Unit: newtons a stop, thereby protecting
Unit abbreviation: N your brain. The wearing 15 000 N
of motorbike helmets has (force of ground on car)
been compulsory since
1963 throughout Australia.
In New South Wales,
cyclists have been required
by law to wear helmets
Prac 2 DYO since 1991. If only our
p. 163 heads were more spongy! 8000 N 2000 N
driving force resistance
(force from (air resistance,
A matter of balance driving wheels) drag, friction)

There is usually more than one force acting on

any object. Some of these forces may balance by
cancelling each other out. If cancellation is complete
then the overall force is zero and can cause no total force
6000 N weight (force of car on ground)
15 000 N

5.4 [ Questions ] Forces often balance or cancel. Fig 5.4.2

UNIT

Checkpoint Worksheet 5.4 Calculating F = ma

Acceleration
1 Define the term ‘mass’.
2 Describe what happens to acceleration when the same 8 Running is more comfortable and less likely to jar if you
force pushes larger and larger masses. wear sport shoes with spongy soles. Identify the most
3 Describe what happens to the acceleration of an object likely reason.
if the force pushing it is increased. A They have better grip.
Newton’s Second Law B They reduce acceleration and impact force.
4 State Newton’s Second Law of Motion in words. C They shorten impact time, making the force less.
5 Use a mathematical formula to demonstrate Newton’s D They stop the foot from rolling.
Second Law of Motion. 9 Rugby players often slide to a stop.
A matter of balance a Compare the deceleration obtained this way with
the deceleration if they dropped to the ground.
6 Use Newton’s First Law to predict what will happen to
acceleration when forces are balanced. b Predict the resultant impact force on stopping when
sliding.
Think 10 Airbags are designed to inflate rapidly. Explain why
they need to deflate as a person collapses into them.
7 A car turns a corner without any change in speed.
Identify the incorrect statement: 11 Because they need to apply huge forces, hammers are
made hard.
A It has no acceleration.
a Predict whether the deceleration on hitting a nail will
B Velocity has changed. be high or low.
C Force was required to do the turn. b Explain why a rubber hammer would provide less
D Speed was constant. force and be less effective.

160
 5. 4

UNIT
Analyse
Use this key to answer questions 12 and 13: 13 Sarah measured the acceleration of a trolley using
A: Tripled the set-up shown in Figure 5.4.4. She found it to be
B: Doubled 0.5 m/s2. She then replaced the 100 g with 200 g and
C: The same then with 300 g. Calculate what she would expect
D: Halved the new accelerations to be.
E: One-third of what it was
Skill
12 Compare the maximum accelerations away from traffic
lights of the three identical cars shown. 14 Calculate acceleration or force to complete the table.

Fig 5.4.3
Force (N) Mass (kg) Acceleration (m/s2)
5.0 4.0
6.1 2.0
12.0 4.0
16.4 2.0
9.3 3.1

15 Calculate the force being applied if:

same mass as car
a a 5 kg box accelerates at 4.1 m/s2
b a 1.3 tonne car accelerates at 2 m/s2
c a 400 g ball accelerates at 4 m/s2
16 Calculate the acceleration caused by:
a a 40 N force applied to a 0.5 kg mass
equivalent to
mass of 2 cars b a 0.5 N force applied to a 50 kg mass
17 A 35 N force causes a mass to accelerate at 7 m/s2.
Calculate the mass.
18 A 3.5 kg body accelerates from rest to 20 m/s in 5 s.
Calculate:
a its acceleration
b the force required
Fig 5.4.4

MS

G
G
G

>>

161
 Newton‘s Second Law >>>

KG .
[ Extension ]
Investigate
. 1 Research the different types of seatbelts installed
in cars and the advantages of each. Present your
.
information in the form of an advertisement designed
to sell a model you think is effective.
B
2 Research bike helmets or sports shoe design and how
they reduce deceleration and impact forces. Write an
article for a consumer magazine explaining the special
KG features of these products.
. .

Surf
3 Investigate Newton’s Second Law
by connecting to the Science Focus 4
. Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.
au/schools, selecting chapter 5 and clicking on the
Fig 5.4.5 destinations button. You will need to complete a
tutorial including animations and questions. Record
a log of your progress, outlining any misconceptions
19 Calculate the overall force and acceleration on
you may have discovered and corrected.
the masses shown in Figure 5.4.5.
20 The brakes of a car can exert a stopping force
of 3000 N. The car is 1.5 t. Calculate the following:
a the mass of the car in kg (note: 1 t = 1000 kg)
b the deceleration of the car
c how long it would take to stop if it was travelling
initially at 10 m/s

5.4 [ Practical activities ]

UNIT

F = ma
Aim To investigate Newton’s Second Method
Prac 1 Law 1 Copy the following table into your workbook:
Unit 5.4
Equipment
Dynamics trolley, 50 g masses, pulley and clamp,
Hanging mass (g) Mass on trolley Acceleration of
block and clamp, string or fishing line, ruler, = pulling ‘force’ (g) trolley
access to electronic balance or beam balance
Either
Ticker-timer, tape and carbon paper circles
Or
Stopwatch
Or
Appropriate light gates and datalogging equipment
to measure acceleration

162
 5. 4

UNIT
2 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5.4.6. • Change the mass and repeat.
• Each member of the group should analyse one tape.
Method 2: Mathematical
block and
clamp • Accurately measure out a 2 m track on the desk.
50 g masses • With the stopwatch, time the run. Repeat three times
single
pulley and find the average time taken.
• Use the formula below to find the acceleration of the
trolley trolley in m/s2. d is the distance of the run.
2d
a=
t2
bench Method 3: Datalogging
• Each equipment manufacturer will have instructions to
50 g masses determine the acceleration of a trolley.
• Use appropriate sensors to find the acceleration.
Fig 5.4.6 The basic experiment—measure the trolley’s
Questions
motion using one of the three methods
described. 1 Copy and complete:
a When the mass of the trolley increased, acceleration
Part A: Changing trolley mass ______________
3 Find the mass of the trolley and record it. b When the mass and the force pulling the trolley
4 Measure the acceleration using one of the three along increased, acceleration ______________
methods described below. 2 Explain Newton’s Second Law in your own words.
5 Add a mass to the trolley and measure the new 3 Deduce what effect mass had on the acceleration of
acceleration. the trolley.
6 Repeat with at least three different masses.
Part B: Changing force
Hang 50 g on the line. Forces in sport
Method 1: Ticker-timer Many datalogging companies have
specific pracs that test the force
• Attach 1 m of ticker-tape to the back of the trolley. Prac 2
Unit 5.4 and acceleration involved in sport.
• Turn on and let the trolley pull the tape through. TAIN has two experiments:
• Draw a line through every fifth dot and measure the • shock-absorbing footwear
distance between the lines in millimetres. • starting blocks.
• Calculate the speed (in mm/s) of each section by DYO Run one of these experiments, or another
dividing the distance by 0.1. sport-related one, and report on it.
• Plot a speed–time graph and then calculate the slope of
the graph. This will be the acceleration in mm/s2.

163
 UNIT
>>>
.
55
of gunpowder in a cannon will push a cannonball out
context

A hose flicks about if it is turned on, its

nozzle moving in a direction opposite to the
water. The hose is pushing the water out, but
the water is also pushing the hose back in
the opposite direction. This is known as an
action/reaction force pair.
A similar situation occurs whenever
a weapon is fired. The weapon recoils (moves
backwards) as the ammunition is shot. The explosion
Newton’s Third Law
Newton explains the action/reaction phenomenon
in his Third Law:
For every action force there is an equal and
opposite reaction force.
(the action) and the cannon recoils because of the force
the ball applies back on it (the reaction).
Summary: Newton’s three laws
Newton’s First Law
Any object at rest will stay that way unless a force acts on it.
Any object that is moving will keep moving at the same speed
and in the same direction unless a force changes it.
Newton’s Second Law
If the forces on an object are unbalanced then its motion will
change. The larger the force the bigger the change in motion.
A change in motion is called acceleration and will depend on
the mass of the object.

The forces on both the cannon and the ball force = mass × acceleration
F = m×a
are the same (but in opposite directions) but their
accelerations are very different. The ball has a Newton’s Third Law
relatively low mass and so has a high acceleration For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. That
and therefore velocity. Having more mass, the is, there is an action and reaction pair of equal and opposite
cannon is much less affected. forces, acting on a different object. The action and reaction
In sport an action force is applied on a ball by forces never act on the same object.
a bat, racquet or foot. When you hit a golf ball, NOTE: When speaking of an action/reaction pair of forces,
the club pushes the ball and is pushed back by it. there can be more than two forces involved but one group will
be action forces, and the other group will be reaction forces.
The ball is light, so its acceleration is high. The
club is much heavier and the force is usually only
enough to slow, not stop, the
swing. It might also cause a
‘shudder’ through the handle.
You would feel reaction force
even more if you played
footy with a brick!

Worksheet 5.5 The history of forces

Fig 5.5.1 Weapons recoil due to Newton’s Third Law.

164

Exhaust gases push a rocket in the
… 3, 2, 1, lift-off! Fig 5.5.3 opposite direction.
Rocket engines are sometimes called reaction engines,
as they use the action/reaction pair of forces to provide
the thrust needed for launch. Rockets expel massive flow-valve
control
quantities of gases in one direction, which push the
rocket in the opposite direction, usually upwards.
liquid liquid
hydrogen oxygen
but not going anywhere.
When thrust equals weight
the rocket begins to hover,
and when thrust is larger
than weight, it lifts off.
Rockets may also contain
engines that use solid
propellant. These engines are
generally simpler, cheaper
and safer than liquid fuel
engines. The solid fuel
is composed of several
Fig 5.5.2 The space shuttle and all rockets lift off chemicals in proportions
because of action/reaction. that allow it to burn quickly
without exploding. Once
The exhaust gases are tiny particles but their effect started, a solid fuel engine
is dramatic due to their high acceleration. cannot be stopped until
The exhaust is produced when fuel, called all the fuel is used. The
propellant, undergoes chemical combustion. space shuttle uses two solid
A liquid propellant engine uses two liquefied rocket boosters (SRBs),
gases (for example, hydrogen and oxygen), which are
which burn for a little over
combined in a combustion chamber. The resulting two minutes before falling
exhaust stream produces thrust—the into the ocean by parachute
force which propels the rocket. to be retrieved and re-used
The thrust produced by the space in future missions. These
shuttle at lift-off is 35 meganewtons are the two thin engines on
ets (35 000 000 newtons), and accelerates the side of the main tank
Animal rock
one recommendation: ‘Don’t use a
The purpleback flying the vehicle at three times the attached to the shuttle.
squid (Sthenoteuthis acceleration of gravity, or 3 g Jet engines work in
oualaniesis) squirts out
(i.e. 30 m/s2). a similar way to rocket
jets of water in order to
leap out of the sea to feed. Initially the thrust is not enough engines: air is compressed
It can then easily glide a to overcome the weight of the by a series of large fans, and is
distance of over 10 metres rocket, so the rocket sits on the
in the air.
then pushed out the rear of the
launchpad, making a lot of flames, engine with high acceleration.
5.5
UNIT
combustion
chamber
coolant exhaust
gases
Flying frozen chickens!
Birdstrikes have been around as
long as aviation. It is estimated
that 30 000 occur worldwide
each year, leading to damaged
aircraft windscreens and even
engine failure. The US Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA)
designed a unique device for
testing the strength of windscreens
on aeroplanes. It is a gun that
launches a dead chicken at a
plane’s windscreen at about the
speed the plane flies. The theory is
that if the windscreen doesn’t crack
from the impact of the carcass, it
will survive a real collision with
a bird during flight. The British
needed to test a windscreen on a
new ultra-fast train. They borrowed
the FAA’s chicken launcher,
loaded a chicken and fired. The
ballistic chicken shattered the
windscreen, smashed the driver’s
seat and embedded itself in the
alum inium back wall. The British
were stunned and contacted the
FAA to see if everything had
been done correctly. The FAA
reviewed the test and had only
frozen chicken’.
Prac 1 Prac 2
p. 168 p. 168
165
 Newton‘s Third Law >>>

external tank Summary: Newton’s three laws

orbit
separation 3 For each of the following statements, identify the
correct Newton’s Law:
a The larger the force the bigger the change in motion.
manoeuvring b Any object at rest will stay that way unless pushed
before re-entry or pulled.
solid rocket
booster c For every action there is an equal and opposite
separation orbiter engines reaction.
fired to slow d Any object that is moving will keep moving at the
descent
main engine and
same speed and in the same direction unless a
solid rocket booster force changes it.
ignition at lift-off re-entry into … 3, 2, 1, lift-off!
atmosphere
4 Use Newton’s Third Law to outline how a rocket
approach achieves ‘lift-off’.
landing 5 Use a diagram to demonstrate how a jet engine works
using Newton’s Third Law.

Think
Fig 5.5.4 The main stages of a space shuttle mission 6 Explain why a balloon shoots around the room when
it is allowed to deflate.
7 a Firefighters often need to brace themselves or
have extra help to hold a firehose while it is on.
fuel Explain why.
(kerosene) combustion
chamber b Predict what would happen if they did not have
this help.
fast moving air
air 8 Michael is stranded on ice that is so slippery that he
cannot walk. Recommend a way that he could get
himself to nearby hard ground.
9 Pat throws a netball.
a Identify the action force.
turbine
b Explain what the action force did in this situation.
c Identify the reaction force.
compressor d Explain what the reaction force did in this situation.
10 Deduce which part of the launch these rockets are in:
fan a thrust = weight of rocket
b thrust > weight of rocket
A jet engine works by action/reaction. Fig 5.5.5 c thrust < weight of rocket
d thrust = 0

5.5 [ Questions ]
11 Explain why the acceleration of a rocket increases as
its fuel is consumed.
12 Rockets normally discard used fuel tanks soon after
UNIT

launch. Discuss the advantage of this.

Checkpoint
Analyse
Newton’s Third Law
1 State Newton’s Third Law of Motion. 13 Ben kicks a football. Use a diagram to demonstrate
the action/reaction pair of forces acting on the football:
2 Describe three examples that show Newton’s Third
a as it lies on the ground before being kicked
Law of Motion in action.

166
 5.5

b as it is kicked, Ben’s boot touching the ball
c as it flies through the air, having no more contact with
the foot
14 Copy the diagrams in Figure 5.5.6 into your workbook
and draw action/reaction force pairs in each.
Fig 5.5.6
a b
walking
UNIT
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 a Research how squids move and record your
findings using a diagram.
b List any other animals that propel themselves
forward like a rocket.
2 Research the development of either the jet engine or
the rocket. Use a time line to summarise the major
developments.
3 The V1 and V2 rockets were developed in Nazi
Germany and were the first missile-based weapons
used in warfare. Use a diagram to demonstrate how
these rockets use Newton’s Third Law of motion.
4 Write a brief journal article on the contribution of
Werner Von Braun to the understanding of motion.

15 The arrows in Figure 5.5.7 show gases being expelled
out the back of the rockets. The longer the arrow, the
more gases are being expelled. Copy or trace these
‘rockets’. Identify any thrust forces produced and the
direction the rocket would go or turn.
Action
5 Using Figure 5.5.8 as a guide, take a whirly rocket for a
spin. Record your observations and deduce whether
Newton’s Third Law is obeyed.

Fig 5.5.7 pivot pin

flexible straw
tape

centre of mass
gases balloon

gases
stick

gases

Fig 5.5.8

gases
Surf
6 Investigate Newton’s Third Law by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 5 and clicking on the destinations
gases button. You will need to complete a tutorial including
animations and questions. Record a log of your
gases progress, outlining any misconceptions you may have
discovered and corrected.

167
 Newton‘s Third Law >>>

5.5 [ Practical activities ] retort stand

UNIT

1.25 L plastic bottle

Water rockets
bosshead 1 fill with water
SAFETY WARNING: The launch of this rocket must and ring 3
Prac 1 be done outside. Everyone must stand clear of
Unit 5.5
the launch area. sanded and
Aim To observe action/reaction forces in action cut cork
bike
bike pump
Equipment valve
1.25 L plastic softdrink bottle, champagne cork (other
corks or rubber stoppers may do, but the fit must be tight),
sandpaper, Vaseline, safety glasses, access to bike pump or
electric pump, access to power drill with fine drill bit, access
to hacksaw, retort stand, clamp and ring Fig 5.5.9
Method Questions
1 Cut the champagne cork with the hacksaw, shortening
1 Identify the action/reaction force pair in this situation.
it so that it is a little shorter than the valve of the bike
pump. 2 Identify the ‘fuel’ for this rocket.
2 Sand the sides of the cork so that it fits neatly into the 3 List the forces that slowed its ascent.
neck of the plastic bottle. 4 Recommend how these forces could be reduced.
3 Drill a hole through the centre of the cork. Lightly smear 5 More water did not necessarily produce increased
the sides of the cork with Vaseline. height. Discuss why.
4 Fill the bottle to about one-third with water. 7 Evaluate the effect of different-sized plastic bottles on
5 Push the valve of the pump through the cork and then height.
secure the cork in the neck of the bottle. 6 Trigonometry can be used to find the height reached by
6 Quickly place the bottle upside down in the ring. the rocket. Describe how this can be done.
7 Start pumping, standing well clear of the rocket.
8 Repeat, trying different amounts of water.
9 Repeat, trying different-sized plastic softdrink bottles. Fig 5.5.10 Fig 5.5.11

round
long balloon
balloon
A two-stage rocket cup

Aim To construct a two-stage rocket using

Prac 2 balloons
Unit 5.5
Equipment
Plastic cup, scissors, 2 balloons (1 long, 1 round), tape cup

tape long
Method balloon
1 Cut the bottom out of one of the paper cups.
2 Partly inflate the long balloon and pull it through the
bottomless cup, taping the opening to the side of the
cup as shown in Figure 5.5.10.
Questions
3 Place the round balloon inside the cup and blow it up so 1 Account for the propulsion of the rocket.
it wedges inside the cup. Hold the opening shut. 2 a Explain how the rocket could be enlarged to include a
4 Remove the tape holding the long balloon on the side third stage.
of the cup and release the end of the round balloon to b Assess whether there would be a limit to how many
launch your ‘rocket’. stages you could attach.

168
UNIT

5. 6
context

Rock climbers appear to defy gravity.

Climbers push down on handholds and On the Earth’s surface the
footholds to advance up the rock. By acceleration of all objects is
maintaining a balanced position, climbers 9.8 m/s2. This means that
can remain stable regardless of their weight. the speed of a falling object
An upward frictional force on the hands and increases about 10 m/s every
shoes opposes gravity and allows the climbers to second of its fall. This value
move upwards. Gravity is that unseen quantity that is for objects falling in a
is always trying to pull you down. vacuum. In air, acceleration
will be slightly less.
An object pushes air out
of its way as it falls. The
Gravity air pushes back with an
Gravity is the rate of acceleration at which objects equal, upward force called
fall. It seems logical that heavier objects should fall air resistance. The more the
faster than lighter ones but Galileo found that the air resistance, the lower the
acceleration due to gravity is the same for all similarly acceleration of the fall.
shaped objects. Newton later discovered that the
Weight
acceleration due to gravity depends on the mass of the
planet you are on and the distance you are from the The force on a mass that is
centre of the planet, but not on the mass of the falling caused by gravity is called
weight. It is the force that
object.
pulls objects down to the
surface of a planet. Weight
depends on the mass of the
object and the acceleration
due to the gravity of the
planet itself. You can write
this as:
weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity
or w = mg
g-forces
Our weight often seems to increase
because of inertia and g-force is
used to describe this. Normally
you only feel 1 g (i.e. normal
gravity, g). If you experience 2 g,
then you are being pushed into
your seat twice as much as normal.
The body responds, squashing
muscles and bones.
Formula 1 drivers experience
forces of up to 5 g when cornering:
neck muscles strain to hold in
place a head five times ‘heavier’
than normal and blood is ‘pushed’
sideways. Blood flow to the
edges of the eye is disrupted,
causing peripheral (side) vision to
deteriorate, distorting perspective
and making it difficult to judge
distances.
If an aircraft suddenly increases
altitude, blood moves down to
the feet and away from the brain.
At 8 g to 9 g this reduced blood
supply to the brain will cause
blackouts.
Prac 1 Prac 2 DYO
p. 172 p. 173

The rock climber’s weight force is balanced only
by her hand grip on the rocks and the friction of
her boots.
Terminal velocity
Air resistance increases as speed increases—the faster
you are falling, the more the resistance. Eventually it
balances weight, and so the total force acting is zero.
There can be no more acceleration and the object falls
at a constant speed, called its terminal velocity. All
objects have a terminal velocity, but its value will
depend on the shape and size of the object. A sheet
of paper has high air resistance and a low terminal
Fig 5.6.1
velocity, while the same paper crumpled has lower air
resistance and will reach higher speeds.

169
 Gravity >>>
Air resistance – increases with speed

Weight = mg
Leonardo Da Vinci’s 1485 sketch of a parachute Fig 5.6.4

Fig 5.6.2 A falling object travels at a constant terminal

velocity if the weight is equal to the air resistance. Physics facts

Worksheet 5.6 Losing and gaining weight Gravity Weightlessness

Symbol in formulas: g You have weight whenever gravity is
Unit: metres per second squared around. True weightlessness (where
(gravity is acceleration) g = 0) only happens far from the
Unit abbreviation: m/s2 or ms–2 influence of stars and planets. You
sometimes ‘feel’ weightless, however,
Weight in rides such as the Tower of Terror
Falling from the sky Symbol in formulas: w
and the Giant Drop at Dreamworld,
nal velocity of about 50 m/s. when the seat (with you in it) falls.
Without a parachute humans have a termi Unit: newtons (weight is a force)
nt by changing the shape of During the fall, the seat cannot
However, skydivers can control their desce
ing them to ‘hang back’ or catch up to others Unit abbreviation: N push back to give your normal
their body as they fall, enabl
hute reduces the terminal ‘feelings’ of weight. When in orbit,
to create group formations. An open parac
just abou t the termi nal velocity of a raindrop the space shuttle and space stations
velocity to 5 m/s, which is
es its shape, which changes fall towards Earth. They don’t hit,
(7 m/s). Pulling on the chute’s strings chang
its speed and direc tion. however, since they are travelling
sketched his ideas for a at such high speed ‘horizontally’
Leonardo Da Vinci (painter of the Mona Lisa)
rin comp leted the first successful that they always miss the planet.
parachute in 1485. In 1797, Andre Game Prac 3 Prac 4
, havin g dropp ed 680 m from a hot air balloon. p. 174 p. 174
Astronauts aboard them have the
parachute jump ‘feeling’ of weightlessness because
Water is ‘weightless’ both they and the floor fall at the
Fig 5.6.5 in a falling cup. same rate. Try the experiment in
Figure 5.6.5 as evidence.

polystyrene water
cup

small hole does

punched water
through exit?
Skydivers can change their terminal velocities. Fig 5.6.3

170
 5.6

UNIT
5.6 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint Analyse
Gravity 19 Identify the diagram in which the ball will be:
1 Define ‘gravity’. a accelerating
b getting blown upwards
2 State the symbol, abbreviation and units for gravity.
c travelling at terminal velocity
3 On the Earth’s surface all objects accelerate at the same
rate. State this rate. Fig 5.6.6
4 Define ‘air resistance’.
5 Define ‘weight’. A B C

6 Record the relationship between weight and mass in

words and a formula.
Terminal velocity
7 Define ‘terminal velocity’.
8 List factors that affect terminal velocity.

Think
9 Copy the following, modifying any incorrect statements
to make them true.
a Heavier objects fall faster than light ones.
b Air resistance is high in a vacuum.
c Mass changes as you move between different planets. 20 Complete the ‘photographs’ in Figure 5.6.7 by
d Weight is measured in kilograms. predicting where the missing object is at each
e You would feel weightless in a falling lift. indicated time.
10 Contrast weight with mass.
11 Identify a place that has no air resistance.
12 Spacecraft often have fragile solar panels and antennae hammer shotput feather bullet
projecting from them, but move at very high speeds.
Explain why these things don’t get ripped off the craft.
13 Compare the rate at which a hammer and a feather
would fall on the Moon.
14 Account for the fact that skydivers could throw a
pumpkin back and forth between them before they
release their chutes, but not once the chutes are open.
(Hint: The terminal velocity of a pumpkin is 50 m/s.)
15 a Explain what is meant when it is said that a person
experiences a force of 8 g.
b Predict what will happen to a human experiencing 8 g.
16 a Propose ways in which the g-forces on a human
can be increased.
b Propose ways in which these forces can be
decreased.
17 Assess whether it is possible to be truly weightless,
even in space.
Earth Moon
18 When the space shuttle is in orbit, the gravity on its
occupants is still approximately 7 m/s2. Account for the
fact that they seem weightless. Fig 5.6.7 >>

171
 Gravity
Skills
21 Amal has a mass of 50 kg. Calculate her mass and
her weight on:
a Earth (g = 9.8 m/s2)
b the Moon (g = 1.63 m/s2)
c Mars (g = 3.7 m/s2)
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research Galileo’s gravity experiments on top of the
Leaning Tower of Pisa. Summarise your findings by
drawing a cartoon.
2 Write a biography of Sir Isaac Newton, highlighting his
major scientific achievements.
3 a Research the history of the parachute, and present
your information in a style of your choice.
b Construct a series of diagrams to show the forces
acting during the different stages of descent of a
parachute.
4 a Record the value of gravity on different planets of
the solar system.
b Calculate your weight on each planet.
Surf
5 Investigate terminal velocity further by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 5 and clicking on the destinations button.
a You will need to complete the interactive animation
investigating the physics involved when you drop a
ball. Make changes to mass, radius and height of
drop, and graph the results.
b Record your results in a table and state a
conclusion about your findings.
5.6 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT
Finding g graphically
Aim To experimentally determine acceleration
due to gravity
Prac 1
Unit 5.6
Equipment
Ticker-timer and about 2 m tape, G-clamp, 50 g mass, sticky
tape, ruler, access to a calculator
172
>>>
22 Angelo lands on the Planet X. His mass is 70 kg on Earth.
a State his mass on Planet X.
b If his weight on Planet X is 350 N, calculate the
acceleration due to gravity on Planet X.
c Contrast the size of Planet X with that of Earth.
Creative writing
Convincing Aristotle
This ancient Greek philosopher’s views on gravity
shaped thought for over 1500 years. Unfortunately,
Aristotle thought heavier objects always fell faster than
light ones.
You have travelled back in time to explain to Aristotle
what gravity is and what it does to falling objects.
Because your ancient Greek is not good, you will need to
prepare some simple demonstrations to convince him.
PROJECT
Cartoons for homework!
Videotape a cartoon on TV. Watch carefully the
movements that it shows, particularly anything that is
falling. (Roadrunner cartoons are ideal!)
Prepare a presentation on a short snippet of motion
shown in the cartoon. Were the laws of physics
displayed correctly? If not, what should have happened?
Show the snippet of video to the class and explain the
correct/incorrect use of physics.
Method
1 Tape a 50 g mass to the bottom of a 2 m long strip of
ticker-timer tape.
2 Clamp, or hold securely, the ticker-timer against a wall
or doorframe.
3 Thread the tape into the timer and hold it.
 5.6

UNIT
7 Calculate the average speed of each five-dot section.
8 Plot a speed–time graph for the drop, drawing a line
clamp or hold
of best fit through your points.
ticker tape
flat on 9 Find the gradient of the graph. This is acceleration
doorframe/wall
due to gravity in mm/s2. To convert to m/s2, divide by
1000.
10 How does your result compare to the actual value of
ticker-
the acceleration of gravity of 9.8 m/s2?
timer
to AC Questions
power
pack 1 Calculate how long it would take for one new dot
(equivalent to a space between two dots) and for
five new dots (five spaces between 6 dots) to be
sticky tape produced if the AC supply was:
50 g mass
a 10 Hz
b 100 Hz
2 Explain what the slope of a speed–time graph
indicates.
Fig 5.6.8 Using a ticker-timer to measure g
3 Discuss whether your graph indicates constant
acceleration as the mass fell.
4 Turn on the timer and let the tape fall. 4 Why would the acceleration measured here be less
5 Rule a line through every fifth dot. Measure the distance than 9.8 m/s2? Justify your answer.
between each line. 5 From the tape, describe how you can tell when the
6 Copy the table below and enter your results. mass hit the ground.

Section Elapsed time Time taken for Distance of each Average speed in Time at which this
(s) each section (s) section (mm) each section (mm/s) happened (s)
Column 4 ÷ Column 3
0 to 5 dots 0.1 0.1
6 to 10 0.2 0.1
11 to 15 0.3 0.1
16 to 20 0.4 0.1
21 to 25 0.5 0.1

Datalogging and g
Use datalogging equipment,
appropriate sensors (e.g. light
Prac 2
Unit 5.6 gates) and equipment (e.g. TAIN
has ‘combs’) to measure and plot
acceleration due to gravity.

DYO

173
 Gravity >>>
Measuring height with a stopwatch!
The formula h = 4.9t2 gives the height that an 4 Use the tape measure to find the actual drop.
Prac 3 object drops (measured in metres) when the drop 5 Place all your results in a table like the one below.
Unit 5.6
time t is measured (in seconds). It assumes that
6 If time allows, test whether the formula works for the
the object falls with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s2
mass being thrown down (instead of being dropped)
due to gravity.
and for masses that have high air resistance.
Aim To find height using a stopwatch
Questions
Equipment
Any small mass that won’t break, stopwatch, metre ruler/ 1 You both measured and calculated the height of the
tape measure, string with mass attached drop. Compare your results.
2 Evaluate whether the formula would give inaccurate
Method
results for the drop of things like a feather.
1 Find appropriate safe spots around school where you
can drop a small mass. 3 Identify the starting speed required for the formula to
work.
2 Measure the time taken for the drop at each place.
Repeat to obtain consistent results. 4 Present any assumptions made by the formula.
3 Use a calculator and the formula h = 4.9t 2 to calculate
the expected height of the drop.

Place of drop Time of drop Average time Height from formula Measured height
(s) (s) (m) (m)

Finding the centre of gravity

Mass is spread all through an object. Weight,
Prac 4 however, acts as if it is concentrated at one
Unit 5.6
particular point, called the centre of gravity or
centre of mass.
Aim To locate the centre of gravity of different objects
Equipment
A photocopy of a map of Australia, scissors, 2 sheets of
cardboard, cotton line, small mass (e.g. some paperclips),
sticky tape, access to a hole punch, access to photos of
athletes (e.g. running, jumping, kicking, throwing)
Method
2 Punch a hole anywhere near its edge.
3 Tie the line to the hole and attach the small mass to the
other end.
4 Attach another line at the hole and suspend Australia
from it.
5 Use a pencil to trace onto the cardboard the vertical
line the mass line makes.
6 Repeat, but place the hole somewhere else on the
map.
7 The centre of gravity is where the two lines intersect.
Mark its position.

Part A Part B
1 Trace a map of Australia onto a piece of cardboard and 8 Make a larger version of the ‘person’ shown in
cut it out. Figure 5.6.9 on the other piece of cardboard.

174
 5.6
Fig 5.6.9 Finding the centre of a mass
9 Arrange in a pose and use tape to connect the body
parts. Find the centre of gravity using the above
method.
10 Arrange the body into the poses of various athletes of
different sports and find the centres of gravity.

Questions
1 Propose another method of finding the centre of
gravity.
2 Refer the position to an atlas and identify which town
is the closest to the ‘heart’ of Australia.
3 Is the centre of mass the same for all human poses?
Justify your answer.
4 There are two styles of high jumping: the scissors and
the flop.
a Identify which one has the lowest centre of mass.
b Propose why the flop is the favoured style.
5 Skiers try to keep their centre of gravity as low as
possible. Explain why they do this.
6 Predict how the centre of gravity affects the stability
of cars and trucks.

175
 UNIT
>>>

5. 7
context

That was hard work! You have probably said

that recently, but what does ‘work’ actually The work done in a car crash The Trabi
mean in science? Basically if you apply a force is very obvious. The car and its West Germany produced
and move an object, you have done work. occupants can undergo radical Mercedes Benz, BMW,
That is why the phrase ‘hard work’ really Porsche, Audi and VW, but
rearrangement: bonnets crumple, East Germany made the
makes sense when you start lifting rocks and windscreens shatter, bones break. 3
Trabant. Its 660 cm two-
stacking boxes. But you probably use a little less Forces are applied and things cylinder engine accelerated
moved. Work is done. Where did the it to a maximum speed
energy doing your homework, which, scientifically of 80 km/h, a terrifying
speaking, is not really hard work after all. energy to do this work come from? speed, given that much of
the car’s body was made
of compressed recycled
cardboard! Collisions at
Physics facts speeds as low as 16 km/h
Work were often deadly. Although
Energy the Trabant is no longer
Movement involves energy. Energy is the ability to do
being produced, there are
work. Work happens whenever things are shifted or Unit: joules still lots of old ones on
rearranged by a force. The bigger the force, the more Unit abbreviation: J the roads of the old East
Germany.
work done. Likewise if something is shifted a long
way, then more work is done than if it only moves
slightly. If it doesn’t move, then no work has been Kinetic energy
done on it. Movement is needed for cars to crash: no accident will
work = force applied × distance shifted happen if everything is stationary. When something
or W = Fs moves it has kinetic energy. The heavier the car, the
more kinetic energy it has and the more work and
Force is always measured in newtons (N) and
damage it can do. Likewise, the faster you travel, the
distance in metres (m). Work is a form of energy and,
more work will be done. In fact, if you double your
like all energy, is measured in joules, abbreviated as J.
speed, the work done in a collision and the damage
If a heavy box takes a force of 500 N to shift it 3 m,
caused will be four times what it was at the slower
then the work done on it is:
speed.
W = 500 × 3 = 1500 J
Kinetic energy = 1/2 × mass × speed × speed
or KE = 1/2 mv 2

Kinetic energy is measured in joules (J), mass in

500 N force kilograms (kg) and speed in metres per second (m/s).
Compare the kinetic energies of a typical 1.5 tonne
car (1500 kg). At 50 km/h (13.9 m/s), the car has a
kinetic energy of
KE = 1/2 × 1500 × 13.92
= 144 908 J

At 100 km/h (27.8 m/s), the kinetic energy is

quadrupled:
KE = 1/2 × 1500 × 27.82
Fig 5.7.1 If the crate shifts 3 m, then 1500 J of work
= 579 630 J
has been done.

176

On braking, all this kinetic energy is converted into
heat energy that is dissipated by the brake pads or
discs. In a collision, it converts into heat and sound,
but mainly into work as the car crumples or crumples
other cars or objects—a lot of rearranging is done in an
accident.
Gravitational potential energy
Similar damage would be sustained if a car ran off
a cliff. The higher the cliff, the worse the situation
becomes. Obviously height gives you energy too.
Potential energy is stored energy—it gives the object the
potential to do work. If you lift an object to a height you
give it gravitational potential energy. The heavier the
object and the higher you lift it, the more energy it will
have, and the more damage it will cause when let go.
Mathematically it can be written as:
gravitational acceleration
= mass × × height
potential energy due to gravity
GPE = mgh
Fig 5.7.2 Gravitational potential energy converts first
into kinetic energy (and high speed), then
work done (crumpling of the panels).
5.7
UNIT
GPE is measured in joules (J), m in kilograms
(kg) and h in metres (m). Like all accelerations, g is
measured in metres per second squared (m/s2). On
Earth g is 9.8 m/s2.
As something falls it picks up speed—gravitational
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
When it hits the bottom, most will be converted into
work done on the ground and the object itself. Both
the ground and the object will dent and change shape
or break.
Elastic potential energy
Elastic bands and springs store energy when they
are stretched or extended. They store it as elastic
potential energy. They have the potential to release
energy and do work when they are let go, bouncing
back to their original shape. This is very obvious
when a slingshot is stretched and let go. You put your
own energy into stretching the elastic band. The more
a slingshot is stretched, the more energy it stores, the
more kinetic energy the projectile will have, the faster
it will go and the more damage (work done) it will do.
This is also the energy that puts the fun into bungee
jumping.
A bungee rope stores elastic potential energy
ready to release at the bottom of the fall. Fig 5.7.3
177
 Work and energy
Springs also store energy when squashed or
compressed. Tennis balls act as a store of elastic
potential energy when compressed on a bounce
or when hit. The more the ball stores, the more it
releases and the higher it will bounce.
Some materials are stiff—they need high forces
to change their shape. Others are highly elastic. One
measure of stiffness is the spring constant of the
material. The higher the constant, the stiffer (and less
elastic) it will be.
Elastic potential energy = 1/2 × spring constant × extension2
EPE = 1/2 kx 2
Here, x is the extension or compression
of the elastic band or spring (measured
in metres) and k is its spring constant (in
newtons per metre, N/m).
>>>
Efficiency
Friction between moving surfaces wastes
useful energy, converting some of it into
heat and sound. Efficiency is a measure of
Prac 2
how much useful energy is retained in a p. 181
conversion:
useful energy after the conversion
efficiency = × 100%
energy before the conversion
A rolling ball will eventually stop due to friction.
All the kinetic energy it once had has been converted
into heat and sound: the efficiency is 0%. A 100%
efficient machine would be perfectly quiet and would
run forever, because all the energy conversions would
be perfect.
Prac 1
p. 180 A ball loses a little of its useful energy
each time it bounces. Squash balls have very
little bounce and are incredibly inefficient, Prac 3
losing most of the energy to heat. The ball p. 182

gets hot quickly, which then gives it more

elasticity and better bounce.

Worksheet 5.7 Work and energy DYO

extension x
5 Use words and symbols to describe the formula used
F to calculate kinetic energy.
6 State the units for the terms in the kinetic energy
equation.
k = spring constant = slope m
Gravitational potential energy
F = weight = mg 7 Define the term ‘potential energy’.
x
8 Use words and symbols to describe the formula used
to calculate gravitational potential energy.
Calculating the spring constant Fig 5.7.4 9 State the units for all terms in the formula:
GPE = mgh

5.7 [ Questions ]
Elastic potential energy
10 Define the term ‘elastic potential energy’.
UNIT

11 List two objects capable of storing elastic potential

Checkpoint energy.
12 Use words and symbols to describe the formula used
Work
to calculate elastic potential energy.
1 Define the term ‘energy’.
13 State the units for the terms in the equation:
2 Use words to explain the following equation: EPE = 1/2 kx 2
W = Fs
Efficiency
3 State the name, abbreviations and units for all terms in
14 Describe how friction wastes energy.
the equation: W = Fs
15 Define the term ‘efficiency’.
Kinetic energy
16 Write an equation to demonstrate how efficiency
4 State the type of energy a moving object possesses.
can be calculated.

178
 5.7

UNIT
Think 25 Figure 5.7.6 shows the graphs for the extensions
17 Identify the situations in the list below that do not of the elastic band combinations shown. Identify
involve any work being done. the graph that matches each elastic band
combination.
A A 10 kg crate is lifted up 2 m.
B A car is pushed along a road.
C A spacecraft travels through the solar system
without being affected by air resistance or gravity.
D A skateboard rolls to a stop.
E A book sits on a desk.
18 State the names given to:
a ‘moving’ energy
b ‘height’ energy
c ‘spring’ energy
d ‘rearranging’ energy
19 ‘If speed is doubled, the car accident will be twice as
bad.’ Use your knowledge of kinetic energy to evaluate
A

Force
this statement.
20 Crumple zones are incorporated into the front and B
rear of modern cars to convert the energy of the
collision into work on the panels. It does this by C
allowing them to buckle instead of remaining rigid.
If these zones were not there, predict what would D
absorb the collision energy.
21 A tennis ball that was 100% efficient would bounce
Extension
forever. Assess this statement.
22 In reality, a tennis ball will bounce a little less each time.
Explain why this occurs. Fig 5.7.6
23 A slingshot that is stretched twice as far does roughly
four times the damage. Explain why. Skills
Analyse 26 Calculate the work done:
a by a 7 N force that shifts a box 2 m
24 List the springs in Figure 5.7.5 in order from stiffest to
b in shifting a trolley 50 cm by a 20 N force
least stiff.
27 Calculate the kinetic energy in the following:
Fig 5.7.5
a A 400 kg motorbike travels at 25 m/s.
b A 50 kg skateboarder is freewheeling at 9 m/s.
c A 20 g stone is thrown at 2 m/s. (Note: 1000 g = 1 kg)
Force d A 30 mg spider runs about at 5 cm/s.
D (Note: 1000 mg = 1 g)
C 28 Calculate the gravitational potential energy that the
B following objects have:
A a Travis stands on a diving board, 11 m above the
surface. His mass is 60 kg.
b A 2.5 kg textbook is on a desk that is 70 cm high.
(Note: 100 cm = 1 m)
Extension
c Matthew (65 kg) is on the Centrepoint observation
deck, 250 m above the street.
d Yee is piloting Flight 007 at a height of 9500 m. Her
mass is 55 kg.
>>

179
 Work and energy
29 Tanya is about to dive off the 10 m board. Her mass is
50 kg.
a Calculate her gravitational potential energy before
the dive.
b This energy had to come from somewhere. Predict
where. (Hint: How did she get there?)
c When she dives, predict the potential energy
conversion.
d Specify evidence for the energy conversion in part c.
e Calculate her kinetic energy just before she enters
the water.
f Describe where all this kinetic energy goes when she
enters the water.
30 a Calculate the gravitational potential energy before
and after a bounce, if a 30 g ball is dropped from 2 m
and bounces to a height of 1.5 m.
b Calculate its efficiency.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research the methods used to stop a lift falling if
the cables break. Record your findings in the form of
a safety report that might appear on an advertising
brochure.
2 Some cars and trucks have leaf springs in their
suspension. Use a diagram to explain how a leaf
spring works.
3 Active safety features are those that allow a driver
to avoid an accident in the first place (e.g. brakes,
5.7 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT
Extension of an
elastic band
Prac 1 Aim To measure the elasticity of elastic bands
Unit 5.7
Equipment
Three similar elastic bands, retort stand,
bossheads and clamps, 50 g masses, ruler
Method
1 Copy the table opposite into your workbook.
180
>>>
31 Compare the elastic potential energy stored in an
elastic band (spring constant 6 N/m) that is stretched
0.1 m with an identical band that is stretched exactly
double the distance.
32 Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in each
spring (make sure all lengths are in metres):
a A slinky spring with a spring constant 5 N/m is
extended 3 m.
b A spring (k = 25 N/m) is squashed 0.5 m.
c A slinky has a natural length of 15 cm, but is
stretched to a new length of 90 cm. Its spring
constant is 30 N/m.
d The slinky in part c is stretched from 15 cm to 4 m
in length.
tyre tread, headlights). Passive safety features protect
the occupants when an accident occurs (e.g. seatbelts,
energy-absorbing bumpers). Search the websites of the
major car manufacturers to:
a identify the safety features included in modern cars,
and list them as active or passive features
b design a new safety feature for cars, one that does
not currently exist, but you think may be worth
including in cars in the future.
Mass attached (g) Length (mm) Extension (mm)
0
50
100
150
200
250
 5.7

2 Measure the natural, unstretched, length of an elastic
band.
3 Hang a single band from the retort stand and attach a
single 50 g mass.
4 Measure its new length and calculate the extension the
50 g mass has caused.
5 Repeat for 100 g, 150 g, 200 g and 250 g.
UNIT
6 Plot a graph of mass (g) (vertical axis) against
extension (mm). Draw a line of best fit through the
points.
7 Repeat the process for the other elastic band
arrangements shown in Figure 5.7.7.
8 On the same graph as before, plot the graphs of
these arrangements.
9 Repeat the experiment using elastic bands of
different thicknesses.

Fig 5.7.7 Measuring elasticity Questions

1 Identify the energy being stored
in this experiment.
2 Discuss which arrangement of
retort
stand the elastic band was the stiffest.

elastic band

50 g mass
100 g mass

measure extensions

Efficiency of a roller coaster

Aim To design a roller coaster and determine Method
Prac 2 the efficiency of different-shaped curves 1 Set up the roller coaster as shown.
Unit 5.7
Equipment 2 Let the marble run from one end of the track to the
Material to make a track out of (clear plastic tubing is other.
ideal), ballbearing or marble, retort stands, bossheads and 3 Measure the starting and finishing height. >>
clamps, metre ruler, access to electronic scales
Measuring efficiency Fig 5.7.8

start

finish
measure
height
measure
height

181
 Work and energy >>>
4 Determine the mass of the marble. Questions
5 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the marble 1 Gravitational potential energy is converted into other
at the beginning and end of the track. forms as a marble drops. Deduce what forms it is
6 Calculate the efficiency of the track. converted into.
7 Change the shape of the track and repeat. 2 Identify the type of energy the marble had at the
8 Find the most efficient and inefficient shapes for the bottom.
track. Draw them. 3 The track will never be 100% efficient. Explain why.

Ball bounce
The coefficient of restitution of a ball is a Questions
Prac 3 measure of the rate at which a ball regains its 1 List the balls in order from highest to lowest
Unit 5.7 shape on a bounce. It can be calculated by the coefficients of restitution.
formula:
2 Deduce whether the coefficient of restitution was the
coefficient of restitution = height of bounce same for each ball for each drop height.
height of drop
DYO 3 A coefficient of 1 is impossible. Explain why.
Aim To calculate the coefficient of restitution of 4 Use your observations to discuss where the energy
various balls goes in a bounce.
Equipment 5 Apart from ball type and height, identify other
A variety of balls (tennis, squash, superball, basketball), variables that could affect the coefficient of
metre ruler restitution.

Method
1 Design an experiment to measure the coefficient of
restitution of different balls from a particular height.
2 Run a further test to see if the coefficients change when
the starting height is changed.

182
Chapter review
[ Summary questions ]
1 From the following list identify the most appropriate unit 9 Calculate any missing values in the following table
for the quantities below: and select the appropriate units for each.

J N m/s2 m/s m s °C
Distance travelled Time taken Speed
a energy 20 m 5s
b displacement
6h 80 km/h
c time
1000 km 100 km/h
d velocity
e acceleration 2.5 cm 0.5 s
f force 7.0 m 35 m/s
g work done
2 Record the symbols normally used for the following
quantities:
10 Identify the graphs below that represent an object that
a distance is:
b speed
a at rest or stationary
c acceleration
b moving at constant speed
d force
c accelerating
e mass
d decelerating
3 Contrast the following:
a average and instantaneous speeds
b mass and weight v v
c work and force
B
4 State what a driver is doing during reaction time and
A
braking time.
5 Use examples to explain what is meant by ‘inertia’.
6 List two things that need to happen for work to be
t t
done.
7 Outline Newton’s three laws. v v

[ Thinking questions ]
8 Identify the Newton’s law that best explains these
situations:
a You feel a gun recoil.
b You are ‘pushed’ back into the seat when a car
accelerates away at traffic lights.
c A hose flicks about when the water is turned on.
d A hand passes through a piece of wood in a karate
chop.
e A soccer ball is kicked.
f Sand moves under your feet when you run.
C
t t
11 ‘All things fall at the same rate.’ Is this statement true,
false or a bit of both? Justify your answer.
12 Station wagons are more dangerous than sedans. Use
your knowledge of inertia to explain why.
13 Use F = ma to explain why high-jumpers and pole-
vaulters land on a spongy mat and not the hard ground.

183
 Writing chemical equations
14 Dashboards are generally padded but once were made
of metal. Explain how a padded dash reduces impact
force.
15 Predict what doubling the speed would do to the
kinetic energy.
16 Predict the forms into which a car’s kinetic energy will
get converted in an accident.
17 Squash balls don’t bounce well and get very hot after a
little play. Explain how these two facts are connected.
[ Interpreting questions ]
>>>
22 Construct separate speed–time graphs for these
motions:
a A car accelerates away from traffic lights.
b A car travels at 100 km/h along a freeway.
c A car brakes hard.
23 On the one graph, construct speed–time graphs for
these drops:
a A shotput is dropped from 2 m.
b A tennis ball falls 2 m to the ground.
c A piece of crumpled paper falls.
d A parachutist jumps out of the plane, waits a short
time, opens the chute and then floats to the ground.

18 Calculate the distance and displacement of a ball that Worksheet 5.8 Motion and energy crossword
is thrown vertically, rises to a height 3 m above your
hand, and then returns to it. Worksheet 5.9 Sci-words
19 The same ball is thrown up to the same height, but
is dropped on its return, falling 1 m to the ground.
Calculate its distance and displacement.
20 A cricket pitch is 20.1 m long. The ball is released
0.5 m behind the wicket and reaches the batter’s
wicket 0.83 s later. Calculate the average speed of
the ball in m/s and km/h.
21 Calculate the final speeds of these objects:

Starting Accelerated Rate of Final

speed for this time acceleration speed
0 5s 15 m/s2
0 12 s 4 m/s2
18 m/s 6s 2 m/s2
40 km/h 5s 5 km/h/s
20 m/s Half a minute 3 m/s2

184
>>>
Health
6 Key focus area
>>>
and disease
The implications of science for
society and the environment

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

5.4, 5.8.4
Outcomes
explain the factors that influence our health
use the food pyramid to create a balanced diet
contrast infectious with non-infectious diseases
describe the agents that cause different
infectious diseases
explain various methods that the human body
uses to defend itself from disease
explain how vaccinations give immunity
describe how lifestyle and environmental factors
can produce disease
describe how the diet and health of Aboriginal
people has changed since the arrival of
Europeans.

1 Rank your health from 1 (very poor) to 10

Pre quiz
(excellent). Why have you given yourself this
number?
2 How much exercise should you do each week
to stay healthy?
3 What diseases have you had so far?
4 What vaccinations/needles have you had in the
past?
5 It is usually a waste of time and money taking
antibiotics to ‘cure’ you of a cold or the flu.
Why?
6 What do kJ, GI, HIV+, AIDS and DVT stand for?
7 What problems are associated with smoking?
8 Is the brain shown in the scan on this page
healthy?
185
 UNIT
>>>

6. 1
context

Are you healthy? What about you indicates
that you are healthy or not? How can you
tell? The term ‘good health’ means different
things to different people. A person in the
Indian slum of Dharavi may think that they
are in good health because they are able
to walk and work while many others around them
can’t. You probably look at that same person and
think they are in very poor health because they
may be malnourished or have skin diseases from
contaminated water. This example shows that health
is a relative term. In general, a person with good
health has an overall sense of wellbeing and is able to
function well within their environment.
These people might be said to have good
health because they are able to function
effectively in their environment. Fig 6.1.2

Good nutrition
To survive, organisms Health facts
must take in nutrients. A
nutrient is any substance Energy is measured in joules
that is used by an organism (J) or kilojoules (kJ).
1000 J = 1 kJ
either as a source of energy
An older unit of energy is
Fig 6.1.1 Philippinos living in this Manila slum are prone or to build living tissue.
to malnutrition and infectious diseases. the calorie: 1 calorie = 4.2 kJ.
Fats, proteins and Fat supplies about 38 kJ
carbohydrates can all be of energy per gram, while
used by the human body to
What is needed for good health? make energy and so these
carbohydrates and protein each
supply about 17 kJ per gram.
There are many factors that contribute to the overall are our main nutrients.
sense of well-being that makes good health. Three
vital components are good nutrition, a healthy mind A balancing act
and adequate exercise. A balanced diet should consist of a variety of foods
It is important to pay attention to all these factors including fresh fruit and vegetables, breads and
or you can quickly become unhealthy. It is not enough cereals, dairy products, fish, lean meats and water.
to eat well but never exercise, or to have a healthy The food pyramid shows the proportions of the
mind but eat only cheeseburgers. various food groups needed for a balanced diet.

186
 6 .1

UNIT
indulgences or extras no more than 2

meat and alternatives 1 serve (2)

milk and milk products 2 serves (3)

GI Joe
The glycemic index (GI) is
e-
now used to rate carbohydrat
tain ing food s. Sug ars are a
con
fruits 3 serves (3) drat e and the GI
form of carbohy
ars in
measures how quickly the sug
ed into the bloo d.
food are absorb
vegetables 4 serves (4) ds are give n a GI sco re out of
Foo
g taken
100, with pure glucose bein
the stan dard (GI = 100 ). Foods
as
breads and 5+ serves to be abs orb ed are
that take longer
cereals (9–12) GI’ and fast -ab sorb ed
call ed ‘low
carbohydrates call ed ‘hig h GI’.
Some experts recommend that
foods
Fig 6.1.3 The food pyramid, showing the relative everyone should eat low-GI
proportions of each food group for a t of the time . Low -GI food s give
mos
supplied in a balanced and mor e sus tain ed
balanced diet a long-lasting
ply of ene rgy. This mea ns that
diet, and so vitamin and sup
you will be able to concentrate
Chips, fried foods and lollies are fine occasionally, but mineral supplements are longer
better and be more active for
should make up the smallest part of your food intake. usually unnecessary. In fact, . Eati ng low -GI foods
periods of time
rs befo re end uran ce events
As well as needing energy for movement and too much of some two hou
(and
normal body functions, your body needs to be kept vitamins can be just such as long-distance running
even homework!) may improve
at 37°C, the temperature at which your organs work as dangerous as too performance. Low-GI foods
are
little. Prac 1 arly imp orta nt for diab etics.
best. The amount of energy that different people need p. 191
part icul
depends on their age, health and
activity levels.
The uses of some vitamins and minerals in the
Children need more energy Fig 6.1.4 body and the effects of deficiency
than adults because they are
still growing. Highly active The low-down on fat
Vitamin A is important Fluoride strengthens
people require more energy than Be careful about following for healthy sight tooth enamel and bones
inactive people. If more energy the current trend of eating
low-fat food. While a low- Calcium is important
is taken in than the body can Cracks at the corner
fat diet can be healthy, in bone and teeth
of the mouth show
use, the excess is stored as fat. If many products advertised formation
a lack of B1
you use more energy than you as low in fat are in fact very
high in sugar. They have Skin problems
take in, fat and carbohydrates in to add something to make could mean a
your body are broken down to it taste good! A high-sugar lack of zinc
Chromium
use for energy. If carbohydrates diet can lead to many helps maintain
and fats run out, your body health problems. the glucose
concentration
starts to break down muscle of the blood A lack of folate leads
to anaemia and
protein. intestinal damage
A lack of iron
How much energy? results in anaemia

An average teenager requires about 10 000 to12 000 kJ

of energy per day. This is roughly the same as the Vitamin K is involved
amount of energy it would take to raise the temperature in blood clotting
of 38 litres of cold water to boiling point (100°C). Vitamin C helps
In addition to energy-giving nutrients, your bodies form connective
tissue
need other types of nutrients to stay healthy. Dietary Potassium helps
fibre, which cannot be digested, is important for the carry nerve impulses
health of your digestive system. Vitamins and minerals
are essential in small amounts. They are naturally

187
 Health >>>
A healthy mind Adequate exercise
An old saying states that ‘the mind is the greatest You need to exercise to become healthy and stay
healer’, implying that the mind strongly influences healthy. Exercise can range from playing vigorous
our well-being. Many alternative sports like tennis to a brisk walk. It is important to
healing methods are based on this choose something you enjoy or else you will stop
idea. Thoughts and feelings have the doing it. The exercise you do will need to change as
power to affect every system in the
Aboriginal healing body.
Depression and the eating
disorders anorexia nervosa and
bulimia nervosa are examples of
Traditional Aboriginal mental illnesses. There are many
medicine is a complex triggers for depression, including
system linked to the belief
and culture of the people, stress, drug use and family conflict.
their knowledge of the land Some individuals may be more
and of its flora and fauna. at risk because of their genetic
Traditional medicine and
health care are holistic,
make-up, which may cause
taking a whole-being variation in the chemical message
approach. It recognises systems of the brain. Anorexia
the social, physical and nervosa is characterised by
spiritual dimensions
of both health and life. starvation, while bulimia nervosa
Sorce ry rema ins a poten t is distinguished by a binge–purge
belief and the casting cycle. Other disorders, including
and removing of spells is Fig 6.1.6 Sydney’s yearly City to Surf fun run attracts
still practised. Aboriginal acne and constipation, can be made
more than 50 000 entrants.
Austr alians perfo rm much worse by negative thoughts
ceremonies consisting and feelings.
of singing songs and
painting designs on the
sick person. They may also Aboriginal healing:
be massaged with fat and applying white clay in
red ochre, as well as being a healing ceremony Fig 6.1.5
given herbal medicines to
treat the body.

Some forms of exercise are not for everyone. Fig 6.1.7

188

you get older. Whatever your age and fitness, most
people should aim to do some type of weight-bearing
exercise that increases their heart rate for at least
20 minutes, three times per week.
Worksheet 6.1 The glycemic index and load
Aboriginal diet
Traditional diet
Before White settlement the Aboriginal people were
hunter-gatherers. This involved collecting plants,
seeds, nuts, fruits and hunting animals. This food was
low in fat and sugars (low in kilojoules), but high in
carbohydrates, fibre, protein and nutrients. Overall it
was a healthy diet.
The daily diet of Aboriginal people varied
depending on the season and plants or animals
available. Some foods like kangaroo meat, honey,
witchetty grubs and insects were energy-rich. The
hunter-gatherer lifestyle also gave the Aboriginal
people plenty of exercise.
6.1 [ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
What is needed for good health?
1 Clarify what is meant by the term ‘good health’.
2 Copy the following passage and select words to fill the
missing spaces.
Three things needed for good health are ______ ______,
a healthy ______ and adequate _______. A ______ diet is
essential to good health. Animals must take in _______
to survive. Energy-giving _______ can be either ______,
_______ or ______.
3 Define the term ‘nutrient’.
4 Select the word that best matches each definition.
Psychosomatic Substance taken in and used for
Nutrient energy or to build tissue
Organism Caused by the mind
Calcium A mineral used by the body
Any plant or animal
5 State the ideal body temperature.
6 State the name of a mineral and how it is used in the
body.
6 .1
UNIT
Diet-related diseases such as cardiovascular
disease and diabetes were uncommon. Modern
Aboriginal diets are very different to the diets of their
ancestors and have led to an exceptionally high rate of
cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
New foods
After Europeans arrived, the traditional Aboriginal
diet began to include foods such as flour, sugar and
processed meat. Aboriginal people had less chance
to gather traditional foods. Settlement had often
destroyed the hunting areas of those who remained
on the land. New animals, plants and more frequent
bushfires further restricted their food-gathering
activities. Others had been shifted to government
settlements or worked on cattle stations. Here,
movement was either restricted or they did not have
the time needed to go out foraging in the old way.
As a result the typical Aboriginal diet began to lack
nutrients such as protein, vitamins and minerals.
Modern diet
The typical Aboriginal diet today is much more
Westernised—high in fats and sugar, high in
kilojoules, but low in nutritional value. Exercise has
also decreased because now there is no longer a need
to gather food. The range of foods available to outback
communities is limited, particularly fresh fruit and
vegetables. Surveys indicate that urban Aboriginal
people eat more fast food and salt than non-Aboriginal
people. Aboriginal people of the Northern Territory
consume more sugar, white flour and carbonated
soft drinks than the Australian average. The typical
modern Aboriginal diet, whether city or country, is
especially low in vitamin C, calcium and magnesium.
You will find out about some of the diseases that this
diet causes in Unit 6.2.
7 State the name of a vitamin and how it is used in the
body.
Aboriginal diet
8 Aboriginal Australians were traditionally hunter-gathers.
List foods that fit this description.
9 Outline the nutritional benefits of the traditional
Aboriginal diet.
10 List three food types introduced by colonisation.
11 List three nutrients that were reduced after
colonisation. >>
189
 Health
Think
12 State whether the following statements are true or false.
a Protein provides more energy per gram than fat does.
b Energy is measured in joules or kilojoules.
c Your body doesn’t need energy when you are asleep.
d Children need more energy than adults.
13 Every day, a teenager needs enough energy to heat
38 litres of water to 100°C just to keep them warm.
Identify what this volume is equivalent to. Is it a bucket,
a rubbish bin, a bathtub or a swimming pool?
14 Discuss how ‘health’ is a relative term.
15 Do teenage girls need to eat more than teenage boys?
Justify your answer.
16 List these people in order from the person who would
need to take in the most energy per day to the person
who would need the least:
• a baby
• the NRL players in Figure 6.1.7
• an active teenager
• a postie
17 Psychosomatic illnesses are those caused by thoughts
and feelings.
a List examples of two negative thoughts or emotions.
b Predict how these thoughts would affect the body.
18 Astronauts tend to lose muscle mass in space. Propose
a reason for this.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 a Choose a vitamin (if you need ideas, look at the
side of a jar of multivitamins) and research what
happens if you have too much of it (toxicity) or too
little (deficiency).
b Design a label for a bottle of your chosen vitamin.
You should include enough information so that
people reading the label will understand exactly
how it should be used and what the effects will be.
2 a Investigate the diseases prevalent in slum areas in
order to find out:
i why these diseases are so common in slums
ii how these problems could be eradicated
b Write a letter to the World Health Organisation in
which you recommend action that should be taken
to reduce the amount of disease in slums.
190
>>>
19 List age-appropriate activities to keep these people
healthy:
a a Year 10 student
b a 40-year-old man
c a 70-year-old woman
20 a List three things you currently do that will keep you
healthy.
b List three unhealthy things you do that you could
change.
21 Explain why the traditional Aboriginal diet was
considered a balanced one.
22 Compare the traditional Aboriginal diet with:
a a modern Aboriginal diet
b your own diet
23 Compare a modern Aboriginal diet with your own diet.
24 a Propose reasons why the Aboriginal diet changed so
much after European settlement.
b Recommend ways in which society could support
Aborigines to improve their diet.
Skills
25 a Construct a daily menu for a balanced diet. Think
carefully about what you might include.
b Have another person evaluate the balanced diet
you have designed. Is it really balanced? Could it be
improved?
3 a Research some alternative healing methods like
acupuncture, cupping, candle waxing, homoeopathy,
massage, Reiki or reflexology.
b Explain how the healing technique works.
c Evaluate whether the healing techniques studied are
effective.
d Write an article for a medical journal to explain your
findings. Remember that your information should be
backed by scientific evidence.
Action
4 a Construct a journal to record what you
eat for one week.
b Analyse your findings to determine DYO
whether you are eating a balanced diet
according to the food pyramid in Figure 6.1.3.
c Recommend changes to your diet to make it healthier.
 6 .1

5 Design an exercise routine, and put it in place to ensure
that you do a healthy amount of exercise every week.
Surf
6 Find out more about nutrition by connecting
to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 6
and clicking on the destinations button. Visit the
nutrition café and complete the following activities:
UNIT
a Solve the mystery of the missing nutrients for the
case studies in the ‘Nutrition sleuth’. Record how
many cases you solved.
b Find out whether your diet is healthy or not by
visiting the ‘Have-a-Bite Café’. Use your findings
to deduce which aspects of your diet are already
healthy and which aspects could be improved.
7 Visit the ‘Better Health Channel’ and select a healthy
menu for one day that provides some of the nutrients
you have discovered are missing from your diet.

6.1 [ Practical activity ]

UNIT

Vitamin C
Aim To investigate which brand of orange juice Method
Prac 1 has the most vitamin C 1 Half-fill the beaker with starch suspension. Add 3 drops
Unit 6.1
Equipment of iodine solution. Stir well. The colour of the mixture
Starch suspension, iodine solution, 4 test tubes, test-tube should now be purple.
rack, vitamin C solution (dissolve vitamin C tablet or powder 2 Pour 3 cm of this into each test tube (make sure your
in 50 mL of water), 200 mL beaker, 3 different brands of test tubes are the same size).
fresh orange juice, stirring rod, dropper, lab coat, safety 3 Using the dropper, drop vitamin C solution into the first
glasses, gloves tube until the blue colour disappears. Record how many
Fig 6.1.8 drops it took.
4 Do exactly the same for the other three test tubes,
but use the different juices instead of the vitamin C
test solution solution. Record how many drops of each it took until
the solution was colourless. The more drops it took, the
less vitamin C that juice contained.

Questions
1 Deduce which brand had the most vitamin C and which
1. Starch solution 2. Put 3 cm in 3. Continue
+ 3 drops iodine each tube. until colour had the least.
disappears. 2 List five foods that you know are good sources of
vitamin C.
4. Repeat for juices. 3 Construct a bar graph to show your results.

191
 UNIT
>>>

6.2 Forensic pathology

Whenever a person dies, a cause
of death must be established
before the death certificate can be
context

Not feeling well? Then you could have a
disease. A disease is anything that makes you • An organism is any plant or
feel unwell, or makes you unable to function animal.
properly in a given environment. Diseases cause
• A micro-organism (often
symptoms like nausea, rashes, stiffness in your called a microbe) is a very
joints, fever or blurred vision. These symptoms small organism that can
indicate that your body is no longer working properly
be seen only by using a
and that you may need to see a doctor. microscope. Sometimes
micro-organisms consist of
only one cell.
• An agent or pathogen is
Disease something that causes
The study of disease is called pathology (pathos = disease.
suffering, logos = study) and people working in this • A host is the organism
field are called pathologists. Before examining diseases being affected by the agent.
in more detail, it is important to become familiar with • A parasite is an agent that
some of the common terms used in pathology.
uses the host for food or
shelter.
Fig 6.2.1 Some common diseases and their symptoms
signed. For unexpected deaths,
this is the job of the forensic
pathologist. Even when the cause
seems obvious (e.g. a gunshot
wound or drowning), they must
still try to find out as many facts
as possible. Sometimes they find
out unexpected things.
When American President John
F. Kennedy was gunned down in
Dallas in 1963 the cause of death
was clear. However, the autopsy
revealed a well-kept secret. His
adrenal glands were shrivelled
up, a clear sign that he had
been suffering from Addison’s
disease. Addison’s disease can
cause chronic fatigue, nausea,
weak muscles, irritability and
depression—not a good image
for a world leader, especially one
who took the USA and USSR to
the brink of nuclear war!

botulism (a type of food poisoning) mumps causes fever, influenza causes headaches,
causes blurred or double vision swelling and tenderness fever, chills, cough and
and difficulty swallowing of the salivary glands body aches

the common cold produces chickenpox causes an itchy, tuberculosis causes night
headache and a runny nose blister-like rash. Measles also sweats and a persistent cough
causes a red, blotchy rash.

192
 6 .2

UNIT
A newspaper article warning of the
Fig 6.2.3 1919 flu epidemic in Australia

Child with chickenpox Fig 6.2.2

• An infection is an invasion of the body by foreign

organisms. If the agent can multiply easily in the
host and be passed on to
other host organisms it is
said to be infectious.
• Virulence is a measure
of how much damage a
disease does to the host.
Highly virulent diseases
cause very serious
symptoms, perhaps death.
• There will always be
disease in the world.
Endemic means that a
disease regularly affects a
small number of people in
the population.
• An epidemic is when
there are higher than
normal numbers of
people being affected by
a particular disease in a
certain place.
• An outbreak has
happened when a
disease has suddenly conditioning systems have not
gotten out of control.
Legionnaire’s disease
In July 1976, the Bellevue-
Stratford hotel in Philadelphia
hosted the fifty-eighth state
convention of the American
Legion Department of
Pennsylvania. Not long after,
34 of the participants were
dead of a pneumonia-like
illness and a further 221 were
seriously ill.
The following year, the
bacterium that had caused the
outbreak was identified. It was
named Legionella in honour
of those it had infected.
Legionella organisms
reproduce best in warm,
stagnant water of the type
found commonly in hot-water
tanks, cooling towers, or large
air-conditioning systems.
Outbreaks occasionally occur
in city offices where the air-
been correctly maintained.

193
 Disease
Causes of disease
Disease can be caused by many factors, some
infectious, some avoidable and others you
are born with:
• The body could be invaded by micro-organisms
such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. These
diseases are usually infectious.
• Parasites such as worms could be ‘caught’ from
other infected people. These would then invade
the body.
• Some part of the body could malfunction due to
some imperfection or fault. For example, diabetes
can develop if the pancreas isn’t working properly.
• Environmental factors might cause your body not
to function properly (e.g. air and water pollution,
normal but still damaging exposure to UV
radiation).
• Lifestyle factors can also cause disease. These
factors are ‘self-inflicted’ and include drug abuse,
overuse of alcohol, smoking, sunbaking and high-
fat, high-sugar diets.
• Genetic disorders or diseases that your parents
either had or ‘carried’. You do not ‘catch’ these
diseases, but are born with them.
6.2 [ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
Disease
1 Clarify the meaning of the term ‘disease’.
2 Use an example to outline the features of a disease and
its symptoms.
3 Identify the definition that best matches the term.
Symptom Study of disease
Pathology Causes disease
Microbe Can be passed on to another host
Agent Outward sign of disease
Host Agent using host for food or shelter
Parasite Very small organism
Infectious Organism being affected by agent
4 State the role of forensic pathologists.
5 Contrast the terms ‘endemic’ and ‘epidemic’.
194
>>>
Civilisation arrives in
Australia?
Spreading like the plague!
Early European settlers brought in many new diseases
for which Aborigines had no resistance and no
traditional remedies. Smallpox plagues swept through
Aboriginal Australia, killing as much as half the
population. Influenza, tuberculosis, syphilis and other
diseases all reduced the Aboriginal population even
further.
Diet-related diseases
The change of diet in Aboriginal communities has
led to many ‘lifestyle’ diseases, including obesity,
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, high blood pressure,
certain cancers and stroke. Because these diseases
are more common in Aboriginal communities that in
non-Aboriginal ones, health organisations are trying to
improve the diets of Aboriginal people.
Causes of disease
6 List possible causes of disease, classifying them as:
a infectious
b lifestyle-related
c built into the body
7 Define the following terms:
a micro-organism
b infectious disease
c parasite
Civilisation arrives in Australia?
8 Aborigines caught many diseases from the first colonising
Europeans. List four of these diseases.
9 List two reasons why Aborigines were vulnerable to these
diseases.
10 Diet-related diseases have also affected the health of
Aborigines. List three examples of such diseases.
Think
11 Distinguish between an epidemic and an outbreak.
12 Very small infectious agents spread disease easily.
Propose reasons why the size of the agent influences the
spread of a disease.
13 Describe three behaviours or actions that could spread
disease.

14 a List three diseases that you have had.
b Describe the symptoms and treatment for each
disease.
15 Copy and modify the following statements so that they
are all correct.
a Diseased people can still function well in their
environments.
b A host uses a parasite for food or shelter.
c Not all diseases are infectious.
d Symptoms like blurred vision are not signs of disease.
16 Propose a definition for a non-infectious disease.
[ Extension ]
Surf
Complete one of the following activities related
to diseases by connecting to the Science Focus 4
Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting chapter 6 and clicking on the destinations button.
1 a Carry out research to find an example of a virulent
disease and a non-virulent disease.
b The outcome of each type of disease is very
different. Write a report to demonstrate the
difference.
Worksheet 6.2 Outbreak!
6 .2
UNIT
2 a Investigate an outbreak that has occurred in
Australia in the past five years. You could look at
outbreaks of flu, Legionnaire’s or meningococcal
disease.
b Present your data using a table. Write a conclusion
on the cause of the outbreak and whether it is
under control.
3 a Choose a disease, such as meningococcal
disease, that has occasional outbreaks in Australia.
Research how many deaths have occurred each
year in the past 10 years.
b Present your findings as a table and graph
using an electronic spreadsheet such as MS Excel.
Creative writing
There have been many films made about outbreaks.
Some of these are based on true stories, and others
are pure fiction. Imagine that you are writing a scene
for a movie about an outbreak of a very serious
illness. You are a doctor, in a meeting with local
authorities, trying to convince them that the area must
be quarantined (isolated) immediately. How do you
do it?
195
 UNIT
>>>

6. 3
context

One sneeze or cough can send thousands The disease is said to be endemic
Plague
of individual bacteria or viruses into the air. if small numbers of cases are The Yersinia pestis
These pathogens have direct access to present in the population and an bacterium, formerly called
another host if they are breathed in directly, epidemic if large numbers of Pasteurella pestis, is the
pathogen responsible for
or if they land on someone’s food or on a people are affected. An outbreak bubonic plague—the Black
bench where a hand is placed. Only a few happens when the disease is Death. Between 1347 and
1352, an outbreak of this
need to gain entry to infect the new host, making suddenly out of control. disease killed a third of
infectious diseases very easy to spread. There Europe’s population—an
are many ways that pathogens can be shared. estimated 25 million
people. It was spread by
An infectious communicable disease is a disease Relative sizes of the fleas on rats!
that is transmitted easily from person to person. some viruses,
bacteria, protozoa
Fig 6.3.1 and fungi

25
Diseases caused by
yeast
micro-organisms 20

Not all micro-organisms are harmful to humans. In

fact, some are very helpful. Some micro-organisms 15
Length (µm)

serve as food sources, others help decompose wastes,

some help protect us from disease and others aid malaria
digestion. Only a few micro-organisms cause disease. 10
syphilis

The micro-organisms that cause disease are known as

pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses,
smallpox

5
cholera

protozoa and fungi.

Ebola

TB
HIV

The table below show examples of

disease-causing micro-organisms and what 0
Viruses Bacteria Protozoa Fungi
they cause. Prac 1
p. 201

Agent Type Disease caused Symptoms

Rabies Virus Rabies Paralysis, spasms, fever, overproduction of saliva
Varicella Virus Chickenpox Fever, itchy blister-like rash
Vibrio cholerae Bacteria Cholera Diarrhoea, vomiting and dehydration
Clostridium botulinum Bacteria Food poisoning Blurred vision, weakness, difficulty swallowing and possibly death
Giardia lamblia Protozoa Giardia Nausea, flatulence, diarrhoea
Toxoplasma gondii Protozoa Toxoplasmosis Acute form causes fever, chills, rash, exhaustion
Candida albicans Fungi Thrush Creamy mucus, can be oral or vaginal
Tinea corporis Fungi Ringworm Rounded areas of scaling on the body

196
 6 .3

UNIT
Bacteria
One characteristic that is used to identify bacteria
is their shape. They may be rod-shaped
(bacilli), spiral (spirilla) or spherical (cocci).
All bacteria consist of only one cell, but they
can join together in pairs, chains or clusters. Prac 2
p. 202

Fig 6.3.4 Common bacteria shapes

Type Appearance Examples

cocci (singular: coccus) coccidiosis

diplococci gonorrhoea
All these things were produced with the help of Fig 6.3.2
bacteria. The holes in Swiss cheese are bubbles streptococci (chains) tonsillitis
left after gas was produced by bacteria.
tetrads (groups of 4) sarcina

clusters staphylococcus

bacilli (rods) diphtheria, typhoid

spirilla (spiral forms) syphilis

Does your doctor wear a tie?
neckties worn by
In 2004, Israeli researchers found that the
trans mit disea se from one patien t to another! A
doctors might
New York hosp ital showed
comparison of the ties worn in a
were eight times more likely to be covered in
that doctors’ ties Bacteria can multiply very quickly under the right
ties worn by the security
disease-causing microbes than the conditions. If conditions are not favourable for growth,
there . Docto rs’ ties get sneez ed on and coughed
guards working e all the
go home , but unlik some types of bacteria can form thick-walled spores
on many times each day. They then then
es, they rarely , if ever, get clean ed. They
other doctors’ cloth ted the that allow them to withstand cold, heat and prolonged
the micro bes collec
go to work the next day, loaded with drying. They can remain inactive for days or even
docto rs’ ties are know n as fomi tes, non-living
day before. The
bacteria. years. Antibiotics can kill many types of bacteria.
materials that can transmit disease-causing

Electron micrograph of rod-shaped

Salmonella bacteria (bacilli). Fig 6.3.5

Fig 6.3.3 Doctors who wear a tie may infect their patients.

197
 Infectious diseases
Viruses
Bird flu
Bird flu, or more correctly avian
influenza A virus, usually only
infects birds. But sometimes
these flu strains mutate into more
dangerous forms. This happened
in Hong Kong in 1997 when avian
influenza A (H5N1) infected both
poultry and humans. This was
the first time a bird flu had ever
transmitted directly to humans.
During this outbreak, 18 people
six of them
were hospitalis ed and
died. To control the outbreak,
authorities killed about 1.5 million
chickens to remove the source
of the disease. Further outbreaks
occurred in 2003 and 2004.
Pathologists are concerned about
the possibility that genes might
swap between bird flu and human
flu. This could happen if a person
got infected with both diseases
at the same time. The new bug
would then have the potential
to be as deadly as bird flu, and
as easy to catch as human flu.
It could then bring us the next
pandemic. Similar pandemics
have occurred in the past:
• 1957–58, Asian flu [A (H2N2)]
caused about 70 000 deaths.
• 1968–69, Hong Kong flu
[A (H3N2)] caused
approximately 34 000 deaths.
This virus still circulates today.
Fig 6.3.6 Cold sores on the lower lip due to the
herpes simplex virus (type I)
198
Viruses are so small that they
can be seen only with an
electron microscope. Viruses
are not considered to be living
things because they do not self-
reproduce, feed, grow, produce
waste or move. They do move
from place to place, but only if
they hitch a ride on something
else, like other organisms, wind
or water.
Viruses are parasitic invaders
made of DNA (or a similar
material called RNA) in a
protein coat. If viruses come
into contact with a suitable cell
(called a host cell) they can
attach to the cell and enter it.
They hijack the cell and force
it to make more virus particles.
The cells make so many virus
particles that they burst open,
releasing the virus particles,
which then invade other cells.
Some viruses invade cells
and remain dormant or inactive
for long periods of time. An
example is the herpes simplex
virus, which is responsible
for cold sores. Cold sores
come and go, but the virus is
always there, awaiting the right
>>>
conditions for rapid reproduction
and ‘re-appearance’. Others do
not kill the cell they infect, but
re-program it in a way that causes
The fat virus
it to become cancerous.
A virus known as SMAM-1
Viruses are hard to treat
is a relative of the common
as they are not stopped by cold but has very different
antibiotics. With most viral symptoms. Instead of
coughs and sneezes,
infections you have to wait
SMAM-1 is thought to
until your body itself stops the cause obesity!
invading virus.
Protozoa
Diseases caused by protozoa (sometimes called
protists) are most often seen in tropical and
subtropical areas. Like bacteria, protozoa are single-
celled. Most protozoa are harmless to humans,
but some parasitic types can cause serious illness.
Protozoa sometimes form protective cysts around
themselves if conditions are unfavourable, allowing
them to survive between outbreaks. Giardia and
Cryptosporidium are both examples of protozoa that
contaminate water supplies.
Another example is the common tropical disease,
malaria. Malaria is caused by Plasmodium, which
live in the red blood cells and cells of the liver.
Falciparum malaria, the most dangerous type, is fatal
in about 20% of untreated cases. Initial infection
occurs through a female Anopheles mosquito bite.
An Anopheles mosquito, capable of carrying
malaria, biting into human skin Fig 6.3.7
 6 .3

UNIT
Fungi
Very few fungi cause disease in humans and those
that do commonly invade the hair, skin and nails.
Fungi are opportunistic pathogens. They are not
usually associated with infection, but they can cause
infection if the conditions are ideal or if the person’s
immune system is not working properly. People
can have lowered immunity due to a number of
causes and all are more susceptible to these fungal
infections. HIV/AIDS lowers immunity, and so do the
cancer treatments of chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
After transplants, patients are given anti-rejection
drugs that also lower immunity. Tinea (athlete’s foot),
ringworm and thrush are all opportunistic fungal
infections.

Fig 6.3.8 A fungal skin infection causing tinea

Fig 6.3.9 Electron micrograph of a cercaria or

blood fluke

When they are ready to

The adult worms lay eggs, they push their
live in blood vessels. way into capillaries of
the heart, lungs and
intestine wall. The eggs
cause capillaries to rupture;
Cercaria in the intestinal capillaries,
mature eggs reach the faeces.
into adults.
Fully grown
eggs pass
Cercaria out of the
penetrate human (in
skin and the faeces)
Diseases caused by macroscopic find their into water.
way into
parasites blood
vessels. Upon contact
Parasites that can be seen without a microscope are with water,
called macroscopic parasites. miracidium the eggs hatch
into tiny,
Flukes cercaria immature
flukes.
The most common type of disease-causing Individuals of the
macroscopic parasite is the flatworm. Parasitic flukes free-swimming
The young flukes
(infective) stage
are flatworms, best known for causing disease in many leave the snail swim about and
penetrate the
animals, including humans. Intestinal flukes, blood and swim about
soft parts of the
until they contact In the snail host, the
flukes, lung flukes and liver flukes all affect humans, human skin. snail host,
young flukes reproduce
causing damage to the organs they inhabit, resulting in feeding on it.
to form new flukes.
serious illness for the host. For example, blood flukes
can damage blood vessels near major organs like the
bladder and kidneys. Life cycle of a blood fluke Fig 6.3.10

199
 Infectious diseases >>>
Tapeworm
Another type of flatworm is the tapeworm, which
can sometimes live in human intestines. One type of
tapeworm causes hydatid disease. If the tapeworms’
eggs are swallowed by humans, the tiny embryos will
hatch from the eggs and move from the intestines into
the bloodstream. Cysts develop wherever the embryos
end up, most often in the liver. Here they are capable
of killing the host human.

Worksheet 6.3 Infections

6.3 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint
Diseases caused by micro-organisms Fig 6.3.11 Electron micrograph of a parasitic tapeworm
1 List one way in which micro-organisms can be helpful to showing suckers and hooks used to attach to
humans. the intestine

2 Define the term ‘pathogen’.

3 List the four types of pathogens responsible for
infectious disease.
4 There are three common shapes found in bacteria. State
the name of each and draw an example.
5 Identify the bacterium that causes bubonic plague.
6 List the symptoms of
a rabies
b giardia
7 Explain what viruses do to cells.
8 Viruses are not considered to be living things. Outline
two reasons for this.
9 Clarify what is meant by the term ‘protozoa’.
10 Explain what an opportunistic pathogen is.
Diseases caused by macroscopic parasites
11 Explain the term ‘macroscopic parasite’.
12 List three examples of macroscopic parasites.
13 Outline why tapeworms would cause malnutrition.
14 Hydatid disease can cause death in humans. Explain
how this may occur.
Think
15 Distinguish between macroscopic and microscopic.
16 Explain why it is important to describe all your
symptoms to your doctor when you are sick.
17 Contrast an endemic disease with an epidemic.
18 Propose a definition for the term ‘pandemic’.
19 Copy the following statements and modify them to
make them correct.
a Spherical bacteria are called ‘spirilla’.
b Viruses are larger than bacteria.
c Many fungi cause disease in humans.
d Parasites always kill their hosts.
20 Use a diagram to explain the structure of
Staphylococcus bacteria.
21 Explain why many more diseases are caused by
bacteria than by fungi.
22 Explain why you should wash your hands after going
to the toilet and before eating.
23 Compare the means by which bacteria and protozoa
protect themselves in unfavourable conditions.
24 Ebola is an extremely virulent virus that kills incredibly
quickly. Propose why this virus rarely spreads beyond
the African villages it appears in.
25 a State the name of a tropical region on Earth.
b Discuss why malaria is more common in tropical
regions.
26 Explain how you could protect yourself from malaria
when travelling in tropical regions.
27 Propose some precautions you could take to avoid
becoming infected with blood flukes.

200

Analyse
28 Look at the life cycle of a blood fluke in Figure 6.3.10.
Explain in words what this diagram is showing.
29 Imagine a recently discovered parasite, Cowium, that
lives mainly in cows. Cowium eggs are present in the
cow’s milk. If the milk is not treated before drinking,
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Three ways of preserving food are dehydration,
canning and radiation.
a Research what is done in each process.
b Describe how each method kills or slows down the
growth of microbes.
c Evaluate each method in terms of effectiveness
and safety.
d Recommend the best method for preserving the
following foods: tomatoes, grapes, meat, peanuts.
Justify your answer in each case.
2 The most serious outbreak of the bubonic plague
occurred in Europe between 1347 and 1352.
a Conduct research to find out if this disease exists
today.
b Present a time line of dates for major outbreaks
since 1352.
3 a Investigate different types of malaria and list the
symptoms of each type.
6.3 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT
Making yoghurt
Aim To produce yoghurt using bacteria
Prac 1 Note: This prac involves observations over several
Unit 6.3 days.
Equipment
250 mL beaker, spoon, plastic cling wrap, 1 cup new UHT
milk, 1 large spoon of natural yoghurt with live bacteria,
incubator
Method
1 Half-fill the beaker with milk.
2 Stir in the yoghurt. This will start the process.
6 .3
UNIT
humans become infected. Once inside the infected
person, the eggs become mature worms and live in the
intestines. They cause severe digestive problems and
malnutrition. Draw a diagram to outline the life cycle of
Cowium.
b Construct two scenarios, with symptoms as clues
to the type of malaria.
c Present the case studies you researched as
information so that another student can identify
the type of malaria.
Surf
4 Visit the ‘Infection Detection Protection’ website
by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 6 and clicking on the destinations button.
a Play the game ‘Bacteria in the Cafeteria’. Use
your findings to construct a poster that can be
placed in your school cafeteria to keep it safe from
disease.
b Play the ‘Infection’ game and construct a leaflet
that could be used in a doctor’s waiting room to
protect people from disease.
3 Cover the beaker with cling wrap and place in the
incubator at 40°C.
4 Record any changes in its smell and consistency over
the next few days.
Questions
1 Explain why you needed to add yoghurt to start the
process.
2 Explain why the mixture was left at this particular
temperature.
3 Describe the changes in the mixture over three days.
201
 Infectious diseases >>>

Micro-organisms around us
Aim To grow a variety of microbes on nutrient
Prac 2 agar
Unit 6.3
Equipment
5 Petri dishes containing nutrient agar (agar plates),
wire loops, heat-proof mat, Bunsen burner, masking tape,
gloves
Method
1 Tape one agar plate closed, label it and put it aside.
This will be the control.
2 Take another agar plate and expose it to the air. Each
prac group should sample the air in different locations,
for example the toilets, corridor or classroom. Seal your
agar plate and label it.
3 Light the Bunsen burner and heat the wire loop to
sterilise it.
4 Carefully touch the wire loop to a ‘dirty’ surface, then
brush it lightly over the surface of the agar of a new
plate. Each prac group should sample a different
surface.
5 Seal and label your plate.
6 Put all your plates, including the control, in a warm
place for 48 hours.
7 Without un-taping the lids, examine and note the
numbers and types of colonies that have grown on your
agar plate. Fungal colonies appear fuzzy, while bacterial
colonies are smooth.
Questions
1 Explain the use of a control in this experiment.
2 Compare your results with those of your classmates.
3 Construct a table of the class results. Include the
different colours and shapes of the colonies formed.
4 Evaluate which locations had the greatest numbers of
micro-organisms present.
5 Contrast a fungal and a bacterial colony.
Fig 6.3.12

1 Sterilise the 2 Touch the wire loop 3 Very lightly brush

wire loop. to a surface. Try not over the agar surface
Bunsen to expose the surface to and quickly replace
burner the air for too long. the lid.

202
UNIT

6.4
context

You almost certainly have had the flu before.
Did you know that you cannot get the same
flu again? If you get sick with the flu next year
it will be a different one. This is because your
body builds its own defence to any disease
that you have had, so that you will not get it
again. This idea is also used to make vaccinations
that build up your defences by artificially introducing
you to a safe form of the disease. Vaccinations stop
Pass it on
You can get infectious diseases by direct or indirect
transmission.
Direct transmission comes about by direct contact
with the infected person or by contact with droplets of
body fluid. Diseases transmitted by direct contact are
called contagious diseases.
Indirect transmission occurs through
an intermediary agent like an insect, air or
contaminated water. Carriers of disease are
called vectors. An example of a vector is the Prac 1
mosquito that carries malaria from person to p. 210
person.
you getting a disease in the first place! Although many
infectious diseases are easily spread, modern medicine
has some very effective ways of controlling them.
Natural control
The first line of defence
The human body has several mechanisms for coping
with disease. The first defence is the outer layer of
the skin, consisting of dead cells. Harmful pathogens
on the skin can be shed with the dead cells. There are
also a lot of good bacteria on your skin, which help
fight the invaders.
The second line of defence
The second line of defence is in your blood, as white
blood cells or leucocytes. They travel in the blood to
the site of infection, converge on the pathogens, digest
them and engulf their remains. Dead micro-organisms
and dead white cells are left behind and form the
discharge call pus.
Normal leucocytes, or white blood cells
that fight disease Fig 6.4.2

Fig 6.4.1 Direct transmission can occur by pathogens

expelled from the mouth during a sneeze.

203
 Transmission and control of infectious diseases >>>
The third line of defence Artificial control
When invaded by a pathogen your body responds Relenza TM, relief
from influenza Good nutrition, clean water and
by making antibodies. These antibodies are Even though there is a new adequate sleep and exercise will give
produced in a process called acquired immunity. flu virus every year, there
us a degree of natural protection from
The antibodies float around in the blood and is one drug that works
against them all. This can disease. However, we need additional
attach to a specific part of the pathogen, which
happen because the different and artificial protection against some
is called an antigen. The antibody disables the versions of the flu always particularly dangerous diseases.
pathogen, which is then easily consumed by have one little part of the
white blood cells, thus destroying the threat. virus that stays the same.
The drug called RelenzaTM
Vaccinations
A particular antibody will act against the acts against exactly this part The threat of many of the killer
antigens on only one type of pathogen. The body and so can tackle every flu diseases of the past has been greatly
can continue to produce antibodies long after the that has been caught for the
past 100 years! Although
reduced, and sometimes eliminated,
pathogen has been destroyed. The body will be TM
Relenza was developed in by the development of vaccines.
immune to that particular pathogen as long as the Australia and is extremely A person can be immunised
antibodies are present. For example, if you had effective, the government against a certain disease by being
measles in the past then you may still be carrying is yet to put this drug on
the Pharmaceutical Benefits injected (inoculated or vaccinated)
antibodies for measles. These antibodies allowed Scheme (PBS). Hence it is with a vaccine. Most children in
you to recover and may protect you from measles quite expensive to purchase. Australia are routinely vaccinated
in the future. Unfortunately they cannot protect Most people do not even
know it exists!
against diseases like polio, tetanus
you from chickenpox or any other disease. and measles, chicken pox and
tuberculosis. In Australia there have
been no cases of polio since 1986. Girls
are commonly vaccinated against rubella.
Blood vessel antibody Bone marrow
Why? Although rubella is a nasty disease
lymphocyte
for anyone, it is particularly dangerous
1 White blood cells called B to unborn children, often causing birth
lymphocytes are made in
the bone marrow in large abnormalities, if the baby’s mother contracts
4 Foreign particles (e.g. bacteria,
numbers. Each lymphocyte 2 Millions of different rubella during pregnancy. Some parents
makes an antibody which lymphocytes are made
viruses) arrive in the blood. The
recognises one particular in the bone marrow.
choose not to immunise their children
antigens are on the surface of
the virus particles.
antigen. Many copies of Thus an almost through fear of rare side effects. It is
this antibody can be made unlimited number estimated, however, that for every dollar
by a lymphocyte. of antigens can be
recognised. spent on immunisation programs, four
dollars are saved in public health costs.
Two types of immunity can be produced
5 A lymphocyte comes in contact
with an antigen to which its 3 The lymphocytes move out into the body by vaccines:
antibody can bind. This and the blood. The antibodies are carried • Active immunity: the body is stimulated
stimulates the lymphocyte to on the surface of young lymphocytes.
reproduce rapidly. to make its own antibodies. This usually
8 The lymphocytes which make this involves injecting a live but disabled
particular antibody may remain in version of the virus or bacteria. An
the blood for many years, giving
protection against further attack by example is the Sabin polio vaccine,
this particular virus. which uses a live but non-contagious
strain of the disease.
6 The lymphocytes • Passive immunity: the body is injected
release their antibodies,
which bind to the 7 Other types of white with antibodies previously produced
antigens on the virus’s blood cells then engulf by another organism. This is good in
surface and make the the inactivated viruses
virus inactive. and destroy them. emergency situations, where immunity
is needed quickly. Unfortunately it does
Fig 6.4.3 The process of acquired immunity not last as long as active immunity.

204
 6 .4

UNIT
500 million people worldwide during the twentieth
century, ending in 1977 when the last case of naturally
transmitted smallpox was reported in
Africa. In 1980, the WHO officially
announced the end of smallpox. Two
stocks of the virus remain in high-
security laboratories in the United
Ancient vaccination
States and Russia.
The earliest evidence of
vaccinations goes back to
Antibiotics around 500 BC. Chinese
A doctor injecting a vaccine into the arm of Fig 6.4.4
a patient Antibiotics are drugs that are able to physicians noted that
selectively kill off certain pathogens exposing healthy people
Even active immunity does not to particles from smallpox
while leaving the patient’s own body scars gave them a milder
last forever. Production of antibodies cells intact. Although antibiotics can form of the disease. This
can reduce with time and a booster fight many bacterial infections, they protected them from
shot (re-injection with the vaccine) are ineffective against viruses. the more serious form.
Aboriginal medicines Only 4% died from this
may be needed. It is recommended,
procedure—a phenomenal
for example, that tetanus booster Many different antibiotics success rate for that era.
shots be given every 10 years. are available to fight
Fig 6.4.6 bacterial infections.
Aboriginal Australians
use a range of remedies
for illness—wild herbs, Tamarind seeds, which
animal products, steam are traditionally used
baths, clay pits, charcoal, to treat headache Fig 6.4.5
mud, massages, string
amulets and secret chants.
Many of the remedies
directly assist healing.
The medicinal properties
of goanna oil, aromatic
herbs and the tannin-rich
inner bark of certain trees
have long been known
to Aboriginal people. Overuse and misuse of antibiotics have led to
Compounds coming from
the Moreton Bay chestnut the development of antibiotic-resistant strains of
or black bean are currently bacteria. The more antibiotics are used, the more
showing promise as a quickly resistant strains emerge. It takes up to 20 years
treatment for AIDS.
to develop new drugs and soon doctors might be
left without any drugs to fight the new strains.
Particularly worrying is the recent rise of drug-
The first successful vaccination resistant tuberculosis (TB). This form of TB seems to
In 1796, the English physician Edward Jenner noticed have originated in the overcrowded jails of Russia.
that milkmaids rarely contracted smallpox. He Prisoners often did not complete the prescribed course
hypothesised that this was because most had been of antibiotics, leading to the development of ‘super-
infected with a similar, milder disease of cows, known TB’. This TB has recently appeared in New York,
as cowpox. James Phipps was then an eight-year-old and there is no effective way of treating it. If you are
boy whose family was dying of smallpox. Jenner prescribed antibiotics, make sure you complete the
exposed him first to cowpox, then to smallpox. The course set by your doctor. Unless the infection is
boy survived and, within a few years, widespread severe, it is best to let your body recover naturally.
vaccinations began, with Jenner predicting that
eventually smallpox would be completely eradicated. The problem with viruses
Nearly 300 years later, the World Health Organisation Because they are so small, viruses are difficult to
(WHO) started a program of worldwide smallpox isolate in the laboratory. They also multiply so rapidly
vaccination. It is estimated that smallpox killed that new strains are appearing all the time. Control of

205
 Transmission and control of infectious diseases
viral infections has relied mainly on vaccines. With
so many different strains, however, it is difficult to
find effective vaccines. There are so many strains of
the common cold virus, for example, that no one can
ever become immune to them all. Some chemicals,
like AZT which is used for HIV/AIDS patients, are
effective in reducing virus effects, but as yet
no chemicals can eradicate a viral infection.
Worksheet 6.4 AIDS
People in Science
>>>
CASE STUDY
HIV/AIDS
Consider these worldwide statistics for HIV/AIDS:
• 10 people are infected with it every minute
• 6 people die from it every minute
• 42 million people live with it
Prac 2
p. 210 • 28 million people have died from it since the
epidemic was first identified in the early 1980s.
AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome. It is a condition caused by infection with the
virus known as HIV—Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

Where did it come from?

Joseph Lister The earliest known case of HIV-1 in a human was
Lister is always remembered whenever we rinse from a blood sample collected in 1959 from a man in
our mouths with ‘Listerine’. Joseph Lister was born Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In 1999,
on 5 April 1827. Lister was an outstanding student an international team of researchers discovered the
and graduated from University College, London, in origins of HIV-1, the main strain of HIV. A subspecies of
1852 with an honours degree in medicine. In 1861 chimpanzees native to west equatorial Africa has been
he became surgeon at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. identified as the original source of the virus. Primates
At that time, almost half of the patients undergoing carry their own version of HIV, called SIV (simian
surgery died of post-operative wound sepsis infection, immunodeficiency virus) and are usually immune from it,
known then as ‘hospital disease’. suffering little, if any, illness. HIV seems to have emerged
In 1865 Louis Pasteur found that decay was through a combination of two monkey viruses.
caused by fermentation when living matter in the air
entered the body. Lister made the connection between The surface of a T cell (green) infected
Pasteur’s ideas and wound infection. Having heard Fig 6.4.8 with HIV (red), the agent that causes AIDS
previously that carbolic acid was being used for the
treatment of sewage, he began cleaning wounds and
dressing them with a solution of carbolic acid. Soon
his wards were completely free of wound sepsis. It was
not long before
Lister’s antiseptic
methods were
used worldwide,
saving countless
lives.

Joseph Lister Fig 6.4.7

206
 6 .4

UNIT
It is believed that HIV-1 was introduced into the human AIDS develops, and a small percentage
population when hunters became exposed to infected chimp of people who test positive to HIV never
blood. In 2003, the same team found that the chimpanzees develop AIDS.
could acquire the disease from eating one of their favourite Early signs of HIV infection are HIV but no AIDS!
Not all HIV-infected people
prey: monkeys. Did a human eat infected chimp meat? We will night sweats, fever, swelling of lymph
develop AIDS. A few remain
probably never know for sure. nodes, fatigue, unexpected weight loss symptom-free long after the time
and concentration problems. AIDS is when AIDS would normally have
What does it do? not really a defined disease. Rather, developed. Everyone has human
HIV is a type of retrovirus. These viruses incorporate their DNA it is a collection of symptoms caused leucocyte antigen (HLA) proteins
into the host cell’s DNA. This means that when the host cell in their bodies that attach to
by opportunistic infections that have virus fragments in infected cells
reproduces, the virus is also replicated. The HIV retrovirus is thrived due to the sufferer’s struggling and destroy the cell. Some types
unusual because it invades CD4 white blood cells. These are the immune system. Although symptoms of HLA proteins are better at
cells that are supposed to protect the body from disease! This vary from patient to patient, commonly attaching themselves to certain
means that the body has trouble fighting off other infections. they include: purple markings on the viruses than other HLA proteins.
It is currently thought that those
face (Kaposi’s sarcoma, a type of skin
Transmission HIV-infected people who do
cancer), continued diarrhoea, fungal not develop AIDS have in their
Although the virus is present in all the bodily fluids of an infected infections such as thrush of the mouth bodies a special type of HLA
person, fluids such as saliva, tears, breast milk and sweat are and skin, bleeding, bruises, dementia protein which is good at killing
considered ‘safe’ since the concentration of the virus in them and an extreme form of pneumonia. HIV-infected cells.
is very low. In contrast, blood, semen and vaginal fluid have
high concentrations of the virus and so pose the greatest risk
of transmission. Sexual contact, or sharing of drug-injecting
equipment, are the most common means of HIV transmission.
It can also be transmitted through blood transfusions or blood
products. This is now extremely rare, however, due to rigorous
screening procedures in blood banks. The virus can also be
passed from mother to child in the womb.

Prevention
Prevention is better than cure: understanding and applying the
following information can help stop transmission of HIV:
• Practise safe sex: this means using condoms during
sexual intercourse.
• Do not share drug-injecting equipment: this includes
syringes, spoons, water, water containers and tourniquets.
• Infection needs to be managed when dealing with physical
Many children in Third World countries Fig 6.4.9
injuries, especially when someone is bleeding: standard contract HIV/AIDS from their parents before
procedures for first aid, such as wearing gloves, are they are born. This child is suffering from
effective in preventing HIV transmission. pneumonia as HIV/AIDS has weakened his
• Tattooing and body piercing release fresh blood and give immune system. In these countries familles
ideal conditions for HIV entry unless equipment is correctly cannot afford expensive HIV/AIDS drugs.
sterilised. Hairdressing procedures too are required to
comply with infection control and sterilisation guidelines. Diagnosis
HIV is diagnosed by a blood test, which detects whether HIV
Symptoms antibodies are present. If they are, then you are HIV+. It also
Many people infected with HIV develop symptoms of a viral tests for other indicators of HIV infection such as a very low
illness within a few weeks, much like the flu, although these white blood cell count or a T4 to T8 lymphocyte cell ratio lower
symptoms soon disappear. It can take many years before than 1 to 1. This ratio is normally 2 to 1 in healthy people.

207
 Transmission and control of infectious diseases
Treatment
There is currently no cure or vaccination for HIV/AIDS. The huge
amount of research being conducted in this area means that
treatments for HIV/AIDS sufferers are improving. One major
advance was the development of azidothymidine, known as
AZT. It prevents new HIV particles being correctly made in cells.
It cannot cure the disease, but improves health and adds one
to two years of quality life to about 60% of AIDS patients. The
main problem with AZT is that it is extremely expensive, has
unpleasant side effects and is not effective in all patients.
Fig 6.4.10 A week’s supply of HIV/AIDS drugs
6.4 [ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
Pass it on
1 Clarify what is meant by ‘direct transmission of disease’.
2 State another name for diseases transmitted by direct
contact.
3 Indirect transmission needs an agent or vector to carry
the disease. State one example of a vector and the
disease it carries.
Natural control
4 Explain how skin acts as the first line of defence against
disease.
208
>>>
[ Questions ]
1 State what HIV and AIDS stand for.
2 Identify when the first known case of HIV occurred.
3 Explain how HIV can be passed from person to
person.
4 Describe the three early signs of HIV infection.
5 Explain what HIV+ means and how HIV is diagnosed.
6 Propose ways to minimise your risk of becoming
infected with HIV.
7 Propose reasons why AIDS is spreading so quickly
in Third World countries.
8 HIV/AIDS is currently devastating the African
continent, with up to 40% of the population in some
countries being HIV+. Discuss some of the likely
effects that HIV/AIDS may have in these countries.
9 It could be said that no one has ever died of AIDS.
Explain what kills people infected by HIV.
10 What hope is there for a vaccine for HIV/AIDS in the
future? Evaluate the information listed in this case
study to decide whether it is possible.
11 Evaluate AIDS as a disease. Why is it so effective?
How does it avoid our control measures so well?
5 Outline the role of leucocytes in protecting the body from
disease.
6 Identify the components of pus.
7 Distinguish between an antigen and an antibody.
8 Explain how your body knows when to produce antibodies.
9 The following passage contains some incorrect facts,
spelling and punctuation. Copy it into your workbook,
modifying it to correct any errors.
antibodies are part of a group of chemicals called
imunnoglobens once your body has produced an
antibody it can never produce the same one again.
Your body is immune as long as antigens are present.
 6 .4

UNIT
10 Use a diagram to demonstrate what is meant by the third 19 Jenner found that infection with cowpox gave immunity
line of defence. against smallpox. Describe how an infection with one
Artificial control pathogen could give immunity against a different pathogen.
11 Outline how a vaccine is used to protect against disease. Analyse
12 State why antibiotics are ineffective against viruses.
20 Explain in words what Figure 6.4.11 is showing.
Think
Fig 6.4.11 Infection
13 ‘The overuse of antibiotics is dangerous.’ Discuss this
statement.
DROPLETS
14 Identify the correct words in the following list to complete FROM
the sentences below: infection, immunity, vaccine, SNEEZING
inoculated, antibodies, leucocytes
a White blood cells are also called ________.
BLOODCLOT
b An invasion of foreign organisms is called an ________. OVERWOUND
c Being _______ with a ________ can give a person BACTERIA
________ against certain diseases. MOSQUITO
d A vaccine makes a person’s body produce ________. BITE
15 Contrast active with passive immunity. WHITE
16 Evaluate the effectiveness of active immunity. BLOODCELLS

17 Propose a reason why you are unlikely to get measles

twice.
18 Propose a reason why immunity does not occur after one
cold virus infection. OPEN
WOUND

[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research the arguments for and against vaccination
and answer the following questions.
a Discuss the use of vaccination in stopping the
spread of disease.
b Evaluate the importance of vaccination to society.
c If you had children, would you get them vaccinated?
Justify your answer.
2 How do you think the world’s usage of antibiotics is
related to the emergence of new diseases? Gather
information about the following issues and present
your information as a brochure for doctors and patients
on why they should limit the use of antibiotics.
a the rate of antibiotic consumption in the world today
b the rate at which new diseases or new strains of
known diseases are being discovered
c how a high rate of use of antibiotics leads to new,
more dangerous strains of disease
d other factors that could contribute to the emergence
of the new pathogens
CONTACT
WITHFAECES ANTIBODIES
Surf
3 Research a communicable disease by connecting
to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 6 and
clicking on the destinations button. Some diseases you
may like to investigate are anthrax, chickenpox, diphtheria,
gonorrhoea, hepatitis A, malaria, rubella, shingles, yellow
fever, Giardia, influenza, the common cold, or another of
your choice.
a For the disease you have chosen, research:
i what causes the disease
ii how it is contracted
iii parts of the world in which it mainly occurs
iv how it is spread
v signs and symptoms
vi how rare/common it is
vii the treatment used
b Present your information in an electronic format for
display (e.g. PowerPoint, Microworlds or a website).

209
 Transmission and control of infectious diseases >>>

6.4 [ Practical activities ]

UNIT

Modelling the
transmission of disease
Prac 1 Aim To demonstrate the transmission route of a
Unit 6.4
disease
Equipment
1 test tube per person, phenolphthalein indicator, 0.1 M sodium
hydroxide, 1 Pasteur pipette per person
Method
1 Each student is given a test tube containing 3 cm3 of liquid.
• One of you will have 3 cm3 of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide
solution. If it happens to be you, then you are ‘infected’
with NaOH disease, but you won’t know it! Only the
teacher will know who the infected person is.
• All other students have 3 cm3 of water.
2 You will have 30 seconds to walk around the room, putting
five drops of your solution into the tubes of everyone you
come into contact with. Note the names of your contacts.
3 After the 30 seconds, add 3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator to your test tube. All ‘infected’ people will see a
purple colour in their tubes. Note the number of infected
people.
4 Repeat the activity but this time allowing 1 minute for
everyone to move around the room.
• Half of the students will have 3 cm3 of 0.1 M
hydrochloric acid in their test tube. This represents
an ‘immunisation’ since the acid will neutralise any
‘infection’ with NaOH disease.
• One person will still be ‘infected’ with 3 cm3 of 0.1 M
sodium hydroxide solution.
• The rest of the students will have 3 cm3 of water in
their tubes.
• The ‘infected’ and the ‘immunised’ people will not
know who they are until later.
Questions
1 Is it possible to work out who was the original infected
person? Justify your answer.
2 Describe any difference you observed in the spread of
your disease when the time for infection became longer.
3 The spread of disease was different when half of the
people were immunised. Describe how.

Effectiveness of
antiseptics
Prac 2
Unit 6.4 Aim To investigate the ability of various
antiseptics to kill disease
Equipment
5 Petri dishes containing the nutrient agar, cotton buds,
masking tape, 4 different antiseptics e.g. tea-tree oil,
eucalyptus oil, commercial antiseptics, gloves
Rub the cotton bud over
the agar in this pattern.
Method
1 Expose all agar plates to the air.
2 Tape one dish shut. This is your control.
3 Dip a cotton bud in one of the antiseptics and carefully
brush it in an ‘s’ pattern over the surface of one of the Fig 6.4.12
agar plates as shown in Figure 6.4.12. Questions
4 Repeat step 2 for the other three antiseptics. 1 Sketch the appearance of the control and one other plate.
5 Tape all dishes shut and put them in a warm place for 2 Describe the effect that each antiseptic had on the
48 hours. growth of bacteria.
6 After 48 hours, take them out and record your results. 3 Compare the effectiveness of the four antiseptics.
Remember: Do not open the dishes. Look at them through 3 Which was the most effective antiseptic? Justify your
the plates. answer.

210
UNIT
6. 5
context
There are many diseases that are non-
infectious. They are not ‘caught’, meaning
they are not transmitted or caused by
pathogens. The causes of non-infectious
diseases are varied and frequently unknown.
Genetic disorders
Genetic disorders are caused by abnormalities in one
or more genes—this means that the code contained on
the chromosomes for building new cells is faulty.
These genetic abnormalities may be caused by
mutations (see Unit 4.3, page 116 to revise mutations).
Sometimes a disorder like diabetes may show up
suddenly in a family that has no previous history of
the disease. This is caused by a new gene mutation
in the sex cells. The cause of gene mutation is often
unknown, but mutagens such as radiation, drugs,
chemicals and some viruses may be responsible. Once
a new gene mutation has happened, the disorder it
causes will be passed on to future generations.
Fig 6.5.1 Young girl with Down syndrome
Some are genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome,
while others, like cancers, seem to be linked to environ-
mental factors such as exposure to certain chemicals
and radiation. The cause of others is still unknown.
Haemophilia is an example of an inherited genetic
disorder where people lack an important clotting
factor in their blood.
Down syndrome is not usually inherited, but some
women have anomalies in their genes that could
increase their risk of having a child affected with the
disorder. The chance of a woman having a child with
Down syndrome increases with her age. At 25 the risk
is 1 in 1250, but by the time a woman is 45 the chance
has risen to 1 in 30.
It is possible to test for some genetic disorders
while the child is still in the womb. The methods
used were explained in Unit 4.4.
Diseases caused by diet
Malnutrition
People in developing countries generally do not have
the quantity or range of foods that you have, making
them susceptible to malnutrition. Vitamin and mineral
deficiencies can easily cause death.
This refugee child is getting adequate Fig 6.5.2
carbohydrates, but is at risk of kwashiorkor,
caused by protein deficiency.
211
 Non-infectious diseases >>>
In Australia most people have access to sufficient
food. Despite this, many have poor diets, eating
too much of one type of food. They therefore have
deficiencies in certain essential nutrients, fibre,
vitamins and minerals.

Obesity
Obesity is a widespread problem in Australia and
much of the Western world. Excessive weight places
a strain on all body systems, causing high blood
pressure, joint and blood vessel problems and an
increased chance of developing diabetes.

Eating disorders
Anorexia nervosa results in severe weight loss, often
enough to cause massive organ failure and death.
Bulimia nervosa is a related disorder characterised
by a bingeing and purging cycle. The imbalance of
electrolytes (mineral salts) that results from this cycle
may cause heart failure. Electrolytes are substances
that conduct small electric currents through our
nerves to our muscles and are responsible for
maintaining a regular heartbeat. Fig 6.5.3 Regular exercise is
a key to avoiding
Diabetes diseases of the
circulatory system.
Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which glucose, the
energy source for your bodies, is not used correctly
due to lack of a substance called insulin. Diabetes Many of these diseases Economy Class
are caused by poor diet, Syndrome
seems to have some sort of genetic component but
Passengers on long flights
there is no defined pattern of inheritance. There are smoking and a lack of do not get much chance to
two types of diabetes: regular exercise. move about, and this inactivity
• juvenile onset (Type I) sometimes causes a thrombus
Thrombosis and to form in blood vessels in
• mature onset (Type II). the legs or feet. This deep-
embolism
Being overweight is a vein-thrombosis (DVT) is
common factor in Type II Thrombosis is a disease that in itself not a major problem,
cases. causes a large, solid mass but quickly becomes so when
Monkey magic the passenger gets moving
If the insulin deficiency (a thrombus) to form on
Recent research may again. The thrombus will often
is serious, regular monitoring soon end the daily the inside wall of a blood start moving, only to block
and injections are needed
insulin injections vessel. Sometimes these more vital blood vessels in
needed by millions large masses can detach other parts of the body, maybe
throughout the patient’s life. of diabetics. After in the lungs, heart or brain.
receiving a transplant and end up blocking major Death often results, perhaps
Diseases of the of insulin-secreting
cells, diabetic monkeys
arteries, causing death.
The blockage of a
in the terminal after departing
the plane. All age groups can
circulatory did not require
injections of insulin. blood vessel is called an suffer from DVT and airlines
now recommend that on long
embolism. The embolism
system They did, however,
need to keep taking a can result from a thrombus,
flights you exercise your legs
and feet to keep blood flow
In Australia, heart disease drug that stopped the
gas, fat, tumour cells or moving in them. You will find
is the leading cause of body’s natural rejection these exercises in the in-flight
of the transplanted some type of foreign body. magazines and sometimes on
death in males over 35 cells. one of the video channels.
and females over 60.

212
 6 .5

UNIT
Fig 6.5.5 Varicose veins are caused by a fault in the valves.

deep vein
Stroke
of the brain is cut off by
A stroke occurs if the blood supply to part
(emb olism ) or a burst blood vessel (haemorrhage). connecting vein
either a blockage superficial vein
One third of stroke victims die
Brain cells immediately start to die.
er third event ually fully recov er. The other third
soon after, anoth
often left paral ysed, particularly
need intensive care since they are
of the body. Forty -eigh t thous and Australians
down the left side
to one strok e happening every varicose vein
suffer stroke every year: this amounts
e is the bigge st cause of disab ility in Australia and
11 minutes! Strok
assoc iated with it amount to
the third biggest killer. Health costs
year. Altho ugh little can be done for a haemorrhage
$1.3 billion per
that inject ing speci al chemicals
stroke victim, new research shows in the
attack can some times disso lve embo lisms
soon after the that is
micro scopi c ‘corks crew’ spider vein
brain. Another approach is to use a
blood vesse l. It burro ws into the embo lism and bits
inserted into the
the blockage.
of it can be pulled away, eventually clearing

High blood pressure

Hypertension is the name given
to persistent high blood pressure.
It can cause arteriosclerosis, or Magic margarine
hardening of the arteries, and Cholesterol is a vital
coronary heart disease. The worst component of all your
cells, but too much of
type of arteriosclerosis is called it in a diet can lead to
atherosclerosis. It is characterised by arteriosclerosis. There are
fatty deposits within arteries. These now margarines available
that contain plant sterols,
deposits can eventually cause arteries
substances which can
to become blocked. Atherosclerosis actually lower the amount
can occur in any part of the body, of blood cholesterol. This
not just the heart. It can be inherited, is good news for all those
heart patients condemned
but is also strongly linked to to low-fat diets—for
environmental factors like smoking the first time, margarine
and diet. may actually make them
Fig 6.5.4 A thrombus (blood clot) in red, blocking about healthier!
30% of a coronary artery
Heart
disease
Varicose veins
Coronary heart disease refers
Irregularities in vein walls and weaknesses in the
to anything that reduces blood
valves can stop blood flowing back to the heart Flossy hearts
Want to know one easy
flow to the heart and is usually
normally. Varicose veins are the result and are usually
way to help keep your caused by arteriosclerosis. It
seen in the legs, where blood must fight gravity to get heart healthy? Floss your can cause milder attacks of
back to the heart. Unsightly, bulging veins develop teeth! Gum disease can
chest pain, called angina, or
wherever blood is trapped. result in your mouth
having an extremely high a serious heart failure, called
They are more likely to occur in women than in
concentration of bacteria. a heart attack. About 25% of
men, and are usually inherited. If you are female and These bacteria can end up people with coronary heart
one of your parents has varicose veins, then there is a in your bloodstream and
cause damage to your heart. disease die suddenly from a
very good chance that you will develop this condition.

213
 Non-infectious diseases
Fig 6.5.6 What happens during a heart attack. Not everyone experiences all of these symptoms.
A heart attack is initiated by a blockage in a major blood vessel. This stops blood and oxygen getting to the heart. Within 20 minutes the heart
starts to die, leading to a heart attack.
1 2 3 2 Great pain which can last for hours
4 5
heart attack. Other diseases, including diabetes, can
cause weakening of the heart.
Cancer
Cancer is one disease that is on the increase in
Australia. Cancer occurs when the cell division
that produces new cells occurs uncontrollably. Cell
division is a carefully controlled process and even
tiny changes within cells can be enough to disturb the
process and produce cancer.
A tumour is any abnormal growth in the body.
There are two types:
• A benign growth is one in which the cells are not
rapidly dividing. A wart is an example of a benign
tumour.
• A malignant growth is one in which uncontrollable
growth is occurring—this is cancer.
A biopsy is carried out to determine whether
a tumour is malignant or benign. A small sample
of tissue is taken, and is then analysed under a
microscope.
Cancer can occur anywhere in the body. The most
common sites for cancers are the skin and prostate in
men, and the breasts in women. Factors that can lead
to cancer are:
• environmental—cigarette smoking (lung cancer),
exposure to the sun (skin cancer), poor diet (bowel
cancer), and exposure to certain chemicals, called
carcinogens
214
>>>
1 Stabbing sensation in chest
3 Dizziness, cold sweat, dry mouth
4 Tingling in wrists, hands, fingers
5 Pain radiates down left arm
6 Chest feels like it is being crushed – often described as
‘like being in a vice’ or like a great weight is on the chest
7 Vomiting, indigestion
6 7
One in three people die within a few
hours of the chest pain starting.
Anyone experiencing any of the above
symptoms combined with chest pain
should call an ambulance immediately.
A coloured MRI scan showing a malignant Fig 6.5.7
breast cancer (blue) at right. Note the
increased blood supply to the tumour.
• genetic predisposition—a family history of breast
or prostate cancer suggests that you have a higher
risk of developing those cancers.
If a malignant growth is found, it needs to be
treated before metastasis occurs. Metastasis is when
cancerous cells find their way into the circulatory
or lymph systems and travel to other parts of the
body. The disease becomes very difficult to treat once
secondary cancer sites (called metastases) develop.
Leukaemia is a type of cancer of the bone marrow
and the tissues that produce blood cells. The first
symptoms are usually fatigue, unexplained bruising

and anaemia, caused by the lack of red blood cells.
An abnormal number of white blood cells appear.
Like most cancers, there is no known cure, but many
treatment options are available.
Common treatments for cancer are surgery,
radiotherapy (using radiation to kill localised growths)
and chemotherapy (using chemicals to poison cells).
These treatments can have serious side effects. The
best chance for surviving cancer is to detect it early
while it is still small. Never ignore an unexplained
lump anywhere on your body. Get your doctor to
check it out immediately!
Fig 6.5.8 Surgery is one way to remove tumours from
the body.
Abuse of psychoactive drugs
Many people frequently use substances that cause
them harm. It is very wrong to think that nasty side
effects only occur with prolonged use. Long-term
problems can arise just as easily in first-time users.
A drug is any substance that has the ability to
alter a person’s body chemistry. Psychoactive drugs
Drug Short-term effects
Marijuana Euphoria, poor coordination, affects sense of time, increased
or reduced appetite, thirst, dizziness.
Ecstasy Feeling of closeness to others, stimulant effect. Can cause
(MDMA) increase in body temperature, leading to death.
Speed Stimulant, increases heart rate, decreases fatigue, feelings of
agitation, excited speech.
Ketamine Delirium, amnesia, affects movement. Can cause fatal
breathing difficulties.
LSD Hallucinogen. Increased heart rate, higher body temperature,
tremors. Effects often unpredictable.
6 .5
UNIT
are those that alter mood. Drug use is the controlled,
beneficial use of a substance. Drug abuse is when a
drug is used in a way that causes negative effects.
People who use so-called recreational drugs like
Ecstasy or marijuana are often unaware of the serious
side effects that can occur. Often, users develop
mental disorders that stay with them for life.
The table below shows the long- and short-term
effects of some psychoactive drugs.
Alcohol and smoking
Two of the most widely used and abused drugs in
modern society are the legalised drugs—alcohol and
nicotine. Because they are legal, their use is much
more widespread, open and accepted than illegal
substances like heroin and amphetamines. However,
their results can be just as devastating, both to the
user and to those around them.
Alcohol and smoking lead to an
unhealthy lifestyle. Fig 6.5.9
Long-term effects
Respiratory problems, depression, memory problems and
levels of sex hormones.
Long-lasting, possibly permanent, brain damage, especially
affects memory.
Can lead to brain damage, memory loss, psychotic behaviour
and heart problems.
Affects attention span and can cause learning difficulties.
Also affects memory.
Can result in persistent psychosis and ‘flashbacks’, where
hallucinations recur.
215
 Non-infectious diseases >>>
Alcohol • malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies—diet
In Australia approximately 7% of all male deaths and is often neglected. Although alcohol is rich in
4% of all female deaths can be directly attributed to kilojoules, it has no nutrients.
alcohol. • destruction of the liver—alcohol can cause
Alcohol is technically a depressant drug. Although cirrhosis, a disease where cells are replaced by
it doesn’t necessarily make you depressed, it does fibrous tissue
depress your central nervous system, slowing down its • heart damage—alcohol can harden artery walls
responses. Alcohol has different effects depending on • destruction of brain cells
how much is consumed: • slow deterioration of the central nervous system.
• Alcohol initially gives a sense of warmth and well- The abuse of alcohol can result in the disease
being, and a loss of inhibitions. called alcoholism, where drinking is compulsive and
• With a little more alcohol, muscle coordination the person dependent on it. This dependence is most
becomes difficult and speech slurred. Reactions are often psychological, but can develop into a physical
slower and the senses become dulled. Alcohol is a dependence.
cause of around one-third of all road deaths. Hence
Worksheet 6.5 Blood alcohol concentration
the legal blood alcohol limit in New South Wales
for all learner and provisional licence holders was Smoking
reduced to zero in May 2004.
The harmful effects of smoking have long been well
• If more alcohol is ingested, intoxication occurs.
documented. Despite this, every year young people
The person will be staggering, nauseated, possibly
take up the habit. More young women than men are
vomiting, and will have difficulty speaking. People
currently smokers, one common reason being that it
are likely to fall into a coma if their blood alcohol
content gets to 0.40%. Death through heart and
respiratory failure can occur at around 0.60%. This
rarely happens, however, since unconsciousness
and vomiting have usually forced the person to
stop drinking before then.
Alcohol also stimulates urine production,
dehydrating body cells. Part of the liver is put out
of action while it works on
processing alcohol. A by-
product of all this processing
are poisonous chemicals that
are then released back into Sexist alcohol!
the blood. It is a combination Alcohol affects different
people very differently.
of dehydration and these
Its effects will depend
chemicals that give the on your body weight,
symptoms of a hangover. fat content, age, mood,
Binge-drinking is previous exposure to
alcohol and many other
particularly harmful since it factors. Women’s bodies
gives no time for the body to have a higher fat content
process the alcohol. than men’s and so are not
able to metabolise as much
Chronic alcohol abuse alcohol as men. Women
causes many ill-effects will therefore be affected by
including: smaller amounts. In both
sexes, even small amounts
• digestive problems—
of alcohol can make
alcohol destroys the the symptoms of mood This lung from a heavy smoker shows tar Fig 6.5.10
lining of the stomach. disorders like depression deposits as black spots that would not be
and anxiety much worse. present in a healthy lung.

216
 6 .5

UNIT
Environmental
prone to lung
Increased chance
of cancer and
infections, hazards
persistent
heart disease cough Exposure to radiation, heavy
metals such as lead, and
chemicals such as asbestos are
all environmental hazards that
can’t smell or can cause diseases. Although
taste as well
these hazards are usually
avoidable, some people are
exposed to them without
warning. Many environmental
aging diseases have only been
diagnosed relatively recently,
since many take a long time
expensive to develop. Asbestos was once
unfit
thought to be safe and many
people innocently exposed
themselves to it in the past.
What diseases will develop
bad breath, smelly in the years to come from the
hair, hands, etc
materials society uses today?

Fig 6.5.11 Some effects of smoking

Radiation
is an appetite suppressant. The nicotine in tobacco Radiation can come from natural sources, like the
is addictive and once the habit is formed, it is not an Sun, or can be generated from artificial sources like
easy one to give up. Withdrawal symptoms include X-rays, mobile phones, overhead power lines and
intense craving, anxiety, sweating, depression, sleep nuclear explosions. Radiation most commonly causes
problems and difficulty concentrating. It often takes mutations in cells, producing various cancers.
many attempts before people are able to kick the habit
for good. This cancer of the lower lip was
caused by radiation. Fig 6.5.12
Before you think about lighting up, think about
these statistics. Smokers are likely to have:
• more accidents than non-smokers, due to the
slowing down of their reflex actions following a
cigarette
• constriction of blood vessels, which means that
smokers’ brains don’t work as well as non-smokers’
brains
• a middle-age death rate twice that of non-smokers
• an increased risk of developing many diseases, not
just lung cancer
• an increased risk of having low birthweight babies
with health problems and reduced intelligence if
the mother smokes during pregnancy
• bad breath
• stained teeth and fingers.
Prac 1
p. 220

217
 Non-infectious diseases
Fig 6.5.13 Whether radiation from mobile phones causes
cancer is still a cause for debate and research.
Heavy metals
The heavy metals include mercury, thallium, lead
and bismuth. The human body has no method of
ridding itself of these metals and they build up with
each exposure to them. Hence, they are often called
6.5
cumulative poisons. Throughout history, mercury
and lead were used for many purposes before their
ill-effects were known, poisoning people as they
were used.
UNIT
Lead poisoning has been linked to the exhaust
from cars and from flaking old-fashioned lead-
based paint. Lead is rarely used in paint these
days, but renovators of old homes need to take care
when sanding and ripping down walls. Chronic
lead poisoning has many ill-effects, including
foetal deformities in pregnant women and mental
impairment in children.
Mental illness
Diseases of the mind can be the most devastating
of all. Not only do sufferers have to deal with the
disease itself, they must also deal with the terrible
stigma that society places on those with mental
disorders. In spite of their widespread nature—it is
estimated that one in four Australians suffers from
a mental health problem severe enough to affect
their ability to maintain a normal lifestyle—mental
illnesses are not discussed with the same openness
as many other illnesses.
218
>>>
Depression is a common mental illness that Fig 6.5.14
can be overcome with support and counselling.
Society’s attitude towards sufferers of mental
illness results in them feeling even more isolated,
rejected and shamed. Hopefully this attitude will
change as people become better educated about
mental disorders.
Mental illnesses include schizophrenia, depression
and bipolar disorder. Mental illnesses are no different
to other types of illness—there are symptoms and
treatments. They can be inherited or caused by other
factors such as drug abuse. All sufferers of illness
need acceptance, understanding and respect. Those
suffering from mental illness need it too.
[ Questions ]
Checkpoint
Genetic diseases
1 Outline the causes of genetic disorders.
2 State how errors in genetic coding can occur.
3 Identify some causes of genetic mutations.
4 State the names of two genetically related disorders.
Diseases caused by diet
5 Identify four diseases associated with diet.
6 Describe two effects of obesity on the body.
7 Diabetes is a disease connected with diet. Describe
how diabetes affects the body.
Diseases of the circulatory system
8 Describe three causes of circulatory diseases.
9 Define the following terms:
a thrombosis
b embolism
c hypertension
d arteriosclerosis
 6 .5

UNIT
10 Describe three things you can do to keep your heart Analyse
healthy.
29 Propose reasons why young people are tempted to
11 Explain what can happen if an embolism forms in: use illegal drugs like marijuana.
a the brain
30 The use of ecstasy has some long-term effects. In the
b the legs of a plane passenger on a long flight light of these effects, assess its use by young people.
Cancer 31 Discuss the law that prohibits P-plate drivers from
12 Identify four factors that can lead to cancer. drinking alcohol and driving.
13 Cancer can be treated in a variety of ways. Describe 32 Mental illness is a common problem. Propose
three of these. reasons why it is not discussed openly like most other
14 Explain why metastases make it difficult to treat cancer. diseases.
Abuse of psychoactive drugs 33 Look at the person in Figure 6.5.15. Evaluate which
non-infectious diseases he is at risk of getting.
15 Define the term ‘drug’.
16 Use an example to clarify what is meant by a
‘psychoactive drug’.
17 List the side-effects of a particular psychoactive drug.
Alcohol and smoking
18 List three positive and three negative effects of drinking
alcohol.
19 Describe the effects of blood alcohol levels above
0.60%.
20 It is well known that long-term alcohol consumption
damages one’s health. Describe some of the effects of
long-term alcohol abuse.
21 List six withdrawal symptoms that occur when a person
is trying to quit smoking.
22 Use Figure 6.5.11 to list six effects of smoking.
Environmental hazards
23 List three types of environmental hazards and the
diseases they may cause.
Mental illness
24 List three examples of mental illness.

Think Fig 6.5.15

25 Compare the genetic origins of haemophilia and Down
syndrome. 34 Figure 6.5.16 shows a normal vein. Construct a
26 Distinguish between a benign tumour and a malignant diagram showing what you think a varicose vein might
tumour. look like.
27 State whether the following statements are true or false.
a Gene abnormalities are always inherited.
b Older women have less chance than younger women
of having a child with Down syndrome.
c Vitamin and mineral deficiencies can cause death.
d An imbalance of electrolytes is not a serious health
problem. direction of blood flow
e Heart disease is the leading cause of death in
Australian men over 35.
Fig 6.5.16 A normal vein
28 Contrast drug use with drug abuse.

219
 Non-infectious diseases >>>

[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Construct a poster warning people about a health risk.
Examples include heart disease, skin cancer, smoking,
drug abuse or something else you find interesting.
2 Research what exercises are recommended by airlines
to minimise the risk of getting DVT.
3 As the head of the local health care service, you have
$1 000 000 to spend per annum.
a Explain how you will distribute this money.
b Justify your choices. Remember: all age groups must
be catered for.
c Discuss this with your class.
Surf
4 Explore smoking, alcohol and drug use/abuse further by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 6
and clicking on the destinations button.
a Produce a list of reviewed websites that could be
recommended to someone who needs support to
quit their habit.
b Present your reviewed sites as a web page for
people looking for help in this area.

6.5 [ Practical activity ]

UNIT

TEACHER DEMONSTRATION
Effects of smoking
Prac 1
Unit 6.5 Equipment Questions
Glass tubes, cigarette, cotton wool, sink vacuum
1 Describe your observations as the cigarette was being
pump, matches
‘smoked’.
Method 2 Identify what the cotton wool represented.
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 6.5.17. 3 State one poisonous substance produced as a result of
2 Turn the pump on and light the cigarette. cigarette smoking.

tap

bosshead
rubber and clamp
hosing
glass tube cigarette

cotton wool retort

stand
vacuum
pump

Fig 6.5.17

220
Chapter review
[ Summary questions ] 21 Explain why fungi are called opportunistic pathogens.
22 Explain how immunity is achieved as a result of
1 Outline how health is different from disease.
vaccinations.
2 List three types of nutrients.
3 State an example of a psychosomatic illness.
4 Specify an example of a disease and its symptoms.
5 Clarify what is meant by ‘virulence’.
[ Interpreting questions ]
6 Use an example to clarify what is meant by a 23 Use Figure 6.1.2 to assess whether the people shown
‘pathogen’. have good health.
7 List the types of micro-organisms that cause disease. 24 Contrast the effect on health of the activities shown in
8 Describe ways in which natural control of disease Figures 6.1.6 and 6.1.7.
occurs in our bodies. 25 From Figure 6.2.1 it is possible to say that many
9 Describe ways in which artificial control of disease is diseases have common symptoms. State one symptom
achieved. that all diseases have in common.
10 a Outline the role of chromosomes. 26 Use the table on page 196 to state the name of the
b Describe what a mutation is. pathogen that causes:
c List factors that may cause a mutation to occur. a cholera
b thrush
11 List the diseases that can occur in the circulatory
system. c food poisoning
12 Distinguish between benign and malignant tumours. 27 Look at the
diagram opposite.
13 Outline the results of metastasis. Specify what
14 Recreational drugs often have long-term effects on is acting as:
health. Identify the effects caused by marijuana. a the host
15 Identify three heavy metals. b the vector
16 Outline the effects of lead poisoning.

[ Thinking questions ]
17 Identify the correct words needed to complete this
statement.
The study of disease is called _________. A plant or an
animal is an ________. A very small ________ is called
a _________. An _________causes disease. Parasites
use a ________ for food and _________. _________ is
a measure of how much a disease damages the host. 28 Identify the types of things vaccines can be made of.
Another name for an epidemic is an _________.
29 Construct diagrams showing the shape of bacteria
18 Explain why pathologists carry out autopsies. that cause:
19 Describe how the spread of a disease can be prevented a syphilis
if it is: b sarcina
a water-borne c gonorrhoea
b air-borne
20 Some very old bacteria have been found still alive, Worksheet 6.6 Health and disease crossword
trapped in ice in polar regions. Explain how they have
survived for so long. Worksheet 6.7 Sci-words

221
 Evolution
Key focus area
>>> The history of science
7
By the end of this chapter you should be
Outcomes
5.1, 5.8.3

able to:
explain natural selection, the theory of
evolution and their relationship
describe the contributions that Buffon,
Lamarck, Wallace and Darwin made to our
ideas of evolution
explain how organisms change when their
environment changes
explain why organisms with different
ancestry might look similar
describe alternative theories on how life
came to be
describe evidence that supports the theory
of evolution
trace the development of modern humans.

1 What was the first life on Earth like?

Pre quiz

2 How did giraffes get their long necks?

3 The bright colours of some animals make
them easy-to-see prey. Why aren’t they
camouflaged instead?
4 What does ‘survival of the fittest’ mean?
5 Charles Darwin is only famous because
Darwin was named after him. True or
false?
6 Dolphins and sharks have very similar
features despite being very different
creatures. Why?
7 What is a fossil and what can it tell us?
8 How many different types of ‘humans’
have there been?
UNIT

7.1
context

Nearly two million different kinds of plants,
animals and micro-organisms are known to
be currently living on Earth. More are being
found each year. Many more have come and
gone, with the average time that a species
lasts on Earth being about four million
years. Some, like the dinosaurs, are long extinct,
and the extinction of others is far more recent.
How did this tremendous diversity of life come to exist
on our planet? Evolution suggests that all forms of
life stem from the same remote beginnings and that
the different species we now know have developed
gradually over millions of years.

Surviving in different
environments
Adaptations
Organisms survive
and breed in their
environments because
they have characteristics
suited to that
environment. Specific
structures, functions and
behaviours increase their
chances of surviving, at
least until the organism
is able to reproduce.
These characteristics
are called adaptations.
They are inherited and
are passed from parents
to offspring. Adaptations
take many forms and can
be classified as either
structural (where the
adaptation is physical) or
behavioural (where the
adaptation controls the
way they act).
Structural adaptations:
• Many animals blend
with their background
so that they cannot be
seen by predators.
Cuddles the furry shark
New species are usually found in
wild and unexplored places, but
in 2004 a radically new species
of shark was found in a fish tank!
Cuddles the shark is a 70 cm
female that looks much like other
sharks, except that it is covered
in red bristles, has bigger nostrils
and an extra gill. Cuddles doesn’t
swim, but instead hops along
the floor of the tank by ‘clapping’
together its shorter-than-normal
and more muscular fins. Cuddles
now lives in the Sea Star aquarium
in Coburg, Germany, but it is
thought that Cuddles probably
originally came from southern
Africa, where, it is suspected,
it lived in dark ocean caves. Its
bristles are thought to be an
adaptation that gives it increased
sensitivity to water movement
that might suggest food or prey.
Cuddles won’t get a mate, however,
until scientists find out exactly
where it came from. It is very likely
that this newly discovered species
of shark will ‘disappear’ when
Cuddles eventually dies.
Fig 7.1.1 The shingleback skink or two-headed lizard will
wave its tail around to try to distract the predator.
If the tail is bitten off, it will slowly grow back.
• A few change colour to blend with changing
backgrounds.
• Others resemble non-living objects such as leaves,
twigs or even bird droppings.
• With some animals it is difficult for a predator to
tell which end is which. The predator attacks the
wrong end, giving the prey a chance to escape.
• Some extremely colourful animals look like they
would be easy prey. Their bright appearance,
however, warns predators to stay away, because
these animals usually sting, taste bad or are
poisonous.
• A tricky variation on this is the ‘mimic’. The mimic
is not dangerous to predators, but has copied
the colourings and shape of another animal, so
predators avoid it.
• Some animals have features that make them look
larger and more frightening to predators. For
example, the neck frills of some lizards can be
opened to make the head seem like that of a much
larger lizard.

223
 The evolution of a theory
The wings of the owlet moth have bright yellow
Fig 7.1.2 and black eyespots that mimic the eyes of an owl.
Behavioural adaptations:
• Some animals have learned to sit very still or move
slowly to avoid predators.
• Others are active only at certain times of the day
or year to avoid unfavourable conditions such as
extremes of heat or cold.
• Some have learnt to use tools to access difficult
food. For example, chimpanzees commonly use
broken twigs to extract termites.
Chimpanzees have learnt to use a stick to get to Fig 7.1.3
the tasty termites without destroying the nest.
224
>>>
• Some collect and store food for future use.
• Many larger animals form herds to provide
protection from predators.
Adaptations serve many purposes. Arctic fish
contain a kind of antifreeze in their blood, allowing
them to survive in waters that would freeze the blood
of other fish. The long mane of a male lion makes it
appear larger to opponents. This kind of adaptation for
intimidation is common. Intimidation also involves
behaviours such as puffing out the chest and standing
up as tall as possible.
Plants also have adaptations. One orchid achieves
pollination by imitating the shape, colour and smell of
a female bee. When a male bee attempts to mate with
the orchid, pollen is transferred from flower to flower.
The silvery coloured, narrow-shaped leaves of the
wattle tree help reduce water loss by evaporation.
All organisms have adaptations that assist their
survival in their environment.
Fig 7.1.4 To a male bee this orchid looks and smells like
a female bee—what happens when the bee tries
to mate with the orchid?
Variation
Although individuals within a species are very
similar, they are not identical. Variation occurs
within all species. Much of this variation comes
 7.1

UNIT
from the differences in genes and chromosomes that observable, measurable and testable. Like all theories,
each individual inherits from their parents. These it is constantly subject to scrutiny, re-evaluation and
differences are the result of the random assortment of change.
chromosomes during meiosis, and the combination
of gametes (sex cells) during fertilisation. Alternatives to evolution
Further genetic variation occurs as a result of The theory of evolution is not the only explanation
mutations. Other variations come from environmental for the existence and diversity of life on Earth. Most
factors such as the amount of exposure to the Sun and societies have stories about the origin and
differences in diet. diversity of life. Creation is the view that
regards the world and everything in it as
Variation and survival
having been made by supernatural means, by
The survival of a species relies on
a god or gods.
at least some individuals producing
Dreamtime The ancient Greeks suggested that the
offspring. The organisms best adapted
world grew out of Chaos, a dark mass where
to their environment are the most
everything was hidden. From Chaos emerged a
likely to produce offspring. These are
god and/or a goddess. The ancient world was
the organisms that have favourable Some Australian peopled by them, producing other gods and
characteristics, enhancing their Aborigines view the Earth
at the beginning of time
goddesses, and then mortal men and women.
ability to survive and reproduce. Their
as a flat, featureless plain.
offspring will inherit these favourable
Later, in the Dreamtime,
characteristics. Over several generations, creatures partly resembling
individuals with favourable characteristics humans arose out of this
plain. They suddenly
will become the most common. In
disappeared, but left their
contrast, those with less favourable mark as mountains, rivers,
characteristics will find the environment animals, plants and all the
inhospitable. They will be more likely to other features of Earth.
die before they get a chance to reproduce
and so will become less common. We can
say that favourable characteristics are ‘selected’.
Variation in a species is particularly important if
environmental conditions change. Some individuals
will have characteristics that are favourable, allowing
the species to survive the change.

The theory of evolution

The theory of biological evolution states that life
on Earth has changed over time. Although the
idea of a gradual unfolding of life goes back to the
ancient Greeks, the modern theory of biological
evolution has only been developed in the past 200
years. This gradual development of different species
from a common ancestor is called evolution. The
word ‘evolution’ is derived from the Latin evolutus,
Fig 7.1.5 A rock painting showing dreamtime figures
meaning unrolled.
It is important to remember that the theory of
evolution is just that—a theory. In scientific terms a The Biblical account includes stories of the
theory is not just a guess or a piece of speculation. creation of the Earth and all life on it in six days.
It is a collection of hypotheses that have been tested There is also an account of the first man, Adam, being
and supported consistently by available evidence. created from clay and the first woman, Eve, being
Scientific theories are concerned with what is created from his rib.

225
 The evolution of a theory >>>

A busy week
in 3928 BC
In 1642–1644, Dr John
Lightfoot of Cambridge
University in England wrote
that the world was created on
Sunday, 12 September
3928 BC and that man
was created on Friday
17 September 3928 BC at
9 am. In 1650, an Irish
Archbishop, James Ussher,
counted the generations of
the Bible, adding them to
modern history, and fixed the
date of Biblical creation as
Monday 23 October
4004 BC.

Fig 7.1.6 Most societies have stories about the origin of life. This painting (1508–1512)
by Michelangelo is called The Creation of Adam and is part of the ceiling of the
Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.

A major problem arises when one species could change to another, but he had no
considering these accounts of evidence to support his ideas.
creation. Are they to be seen as The first detailed account of how species could
ET and me?
factual? Some people believe the change and evolve came from French naturalist Jean
There have been various
suggestions that life on events happened exactly as stated. Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829).
Earth originated ‘somewhere Other people interpret these
out there’. In his 1969 book accounts as stories with symbolic
Chariots of the Gods, Erik Fig 7.1.7 Jean Lamarck, French naturalist
von Daniken proposed
meaning, as teachings about the
that beings from outer relationships between God or gods,
space visited Earth and the universe and humans. The
created human intelligence
whole question of the origin of life
through deliberate genetic
mutation. These visits then becomes bound to religious
were supposedly recorded belief.
and handed down through
religion and myths, and in a
few physical signs, such as Early theories of
the Nazca lines in Peru. In
more recent times, a well- evolution
known astronomer, Sir Fred
Until the late 1700s most scientists
Hoyle, also proposed that
believed that the different types of
life originated from outer
space. organisms and their characteristics
had been fixed for all time. This
idea of the ‘fixity of species’ was
questioned in the late 1700s by the French naturalist
Georges Buffon (1707–88), who suggested that
species could change. Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802),
grandfather of Charles Darwin, also suggested that

226
 7.1

UNIT
Lamarck, a tutor of Buffon’s son, spent many years
classifying plants and invertebrates. He thought that
Darwin’s theory
the similarities and differences between living things Charles Darwin (1809–82) abandoned his studies in
made sense only if species were evolving. In the medicine and theology (religion) to follow a career as
1800s he published several works arguing the case for a naturalist. In 1831, aged 22, he took a position as
evolution. naturalist on the HMS Beagle, a ship commissioned
Lamarck believed that organisms were guided to survey and chart the coast of South America. For
through their lives by a creative force that enabled the next five years Darwin observed the geographical
them to overcome adverse environmental conditions. distribution of plants, animals, fossils and rocks
Organisms adapted through their struggle to survive. in various parts of the world. He puzzled over the
In 1809 he wrote Zoological Philosophy, where he enormous variety and adaptations of the organisms
stated two ‘laws’: he saw, and became convinced that species could
• Organs are improved with repeated use and develop from a common ancestral type.
weakened by disuse.
Charles Darwin, 18 years
• Any improvements in or weakening of organs due
after his famous voyage on
to the environment ‘are preserved by reproduction Fig 7.1.9 the HMS Beagle
[and pass] to the new individuals which arise’.
These changes are acquired characteristics, which
Darwin in Australia
Lamarck thought were then passed on to the offspring.
Darwin visited Australia
Giraffes, for example, stretched their necks to reach aboard HMS Beagle in
food high in the trees. This acquired characteristic (a January 1836. His journal
longer neck) was passed on, so that offspring inherited states that ‘The climate
is splendid, and perfectly
the characteristic of a longer neck. Lamarck pictured healthy; but to my mind
evolution as a ‘ladder of life’ from the simplest to the its charms are lost by the
most complex organisms. uninviting aspect of the
country’. ‘My opinion is
Lamarck had no experimental evidence for such that nothing but rather
his ideas. Modern genetics shows his ideas to be sharp necessity should
wrong. Acquired characteristics cannot be inherited. compel me to emigrate.’
Darwin in the Northern
Inherited characteristics come from the chromosomes
Territory was named in
passed to the offspring via the gametes. These honour of Charles Darwin
chromosomes are not altered by changes that occur when the Beagle made a
during the life of the organism. further voyage to Australia
in 1839.

Fig 7.1.8 Lamarckian evolution of the giraffe’s long neck

Cut off their tails with

a carving knife …
Experiments have been
conducted to test whether
acquired characteristics
can be inherited. In one
experiment, the tails of mice
were removed. The offspring
of these tail-less mice were
all born with tails. The
experiment was repeated for
twenty generations. All mice
were born with tails. The
acquired characteristic was The stretched neck (acquired
not inherited. Ancestral giraffes with short necks characteristic) was inherited Continual stretching and inheritance
stretched to reach the tree tops. by the offspring. produced the modern giraffe.

227
 The evolution of a theory >>>
Darwin’s finches
2 2
Some of the most significant of Darwin’s observations 10 1
were of the wildlife on the Galapagos Islands, about 3
warbler finch
1000 km off the coast of Ecuador. These islands were woodpecker (one species)
of volcanic origin, and much of the wildlife, including finch
(one species)
flowers, tortoises and birds, differed in small but 1 4
significant ways from island to island. The islands
were effectively isolated from one another by strong 3, 4, 5 vegetarian
5
ocean currents and a lack of winds blowing from one tree finch
island to another. Darwin marvelled at the diversity of (one species)
insectivorous 6
forms on these islands. He also noted some similarity
tree finches 10
between island organisms and mainland organisms. (several species)
Perhaps the most famous of the island’s organisms 7
6, 7, 9
are the finches, now known as ‘Darwin’s finches’.
Darwin found 14 species of finches, all with similar
colourings, calls, nests, eggs and courtship displays. 8
cactus ground
They differed, however, in habitat, diet, body size finches
(several species) 8
and beak shape. Darwin believed these 14 species 9
large ground
had come from a common ancestor, and proposed the finch
process of natural selection to explain it. (one species)
He suggested that a few finches had arrived on
the islands at some time in the past. These finches
showed natural variation in their beak shape. On one Fig 7.1.10 Darwin’s finches. This evolutionary tree shows
island, those with beaks of one shape were better how different beaks might have been ‘selected’
for the food available on each particular island.
able to feed on the cacti found there. Finches with
other beak shapes found it difficult to survive. On Over many generations, the birds on different islands
other islands, other beak shapes gave some finches became sufficiently different from each other to be
a feeding advantage. The birds most suited to their recognised as a different species.
island survived to produce offspring, which inherited
that beak shape. This is sometimes called ‘survival of Challenging Darwin
the fittest’. The ‘fittest’ were the birds that were able Darwin spent 20 years collecting and sorting evidence
to feed and reach breeding age. The characteristic that for his natural selection theory of evolution. He used
gave some beak types an advantage were ‘selected for’. artificial selection techniques to breed various types

Darwinian evolution of the giraffe’s long neck Fig 7.1.11

Who said that?

The phrase ‘survival
of the fittest’ is usually
attributed to Darwin but
was first stated by the
philosopher Herbert
Spencer in 1867, eight
years after Darwin first
published his theory.
By natural selection, those with longer
Ancestral giraffes had necks of necks survived and produced offspring
various lengths. with long necks. Eventually all giraffes had long necks.

228
 7.1

UNIT
of fancy pigeons. It was not until 1858 that Darwin Darwin completes his work
presented his ideas to the scientific world. He was Darwin’s major work, titled
prompted to publish his work by the publication of On the Origin of Species
a paper by another naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace by Natural Selection or
(1823–1913). Preservation of Favoured Races
Wallace, unlike Darwin, was raised in poverty and in the Struggle for Life, was Surely these are not
had no formal higher education. Instead he had gained published in 1859. Although all my relatives!
his knowledge of biology through extensive fieldwork Although Darwin did not
1250 copies of the first edition
initially state that humans
in the Amazon and East Indies. Wallace developed sold out within a day, much were descended from apes,
his theory of evolution while suffering from a severe of the reaction did not support it was implicit in his theory.
malarial fever in the Malayan jungles. him or his theory. Throughout There was much shock
and alarm at this idea.
England, religious leaders Newspapers and magazines
Fig 7.1.12 Alfred Russel Wallace denounced his work as heretical printed cartoons showing
or against the word of God. The the shock of people (and
apes) at the idea of being
biblical account held that man related. Religious opposition
was formed in the image of God. to Darwin’s ideas has not
How then could he have apes as disappeared. Even today,
some US states require equal
ancestors? Although the Church
time to be given in science
opposed his theory, Darwin classes to the teaching of the
was given a state funeral in biblical story of creation and
Westminster Abbey in 1882. to evolution.

‘During one of these fits, while again considering

the problem of the origin of species, … it suddenly
flashed upon me that this … process would
necessarily improve the race, because in every
generation the inferior would inevitably be killed off
and the superior would remain—that is, the fittest
would survive.’ In 1855 Wallace published his first Caricature of Charles Darwin’s theory of Fig 7.1.13
evolution: a pig transforms into a bull, then into
paper on the origin of species. This made Darwin Darwin himself.
realise how close Wallace’s research was to his own.
Based on his observations, Wallace had reached a Neo-Darwinism
conclusion similar to Darwin’s—that evolution occurs Although Darwin was not the first to suggest evolution,
by natural selection. His second paper on evolution he was the first to give a scientific explanation for it.
was presented jointly with Darwin’s in 1858. Darwin’s explanation that evolution occurs through

229
 The evolution of a theory
natural selection is one of the most important theories
of science and is still regarded as being essentially
correct. Darwin formulated his theory with no
knowledge of heredity or genetics as there was no
understanding of inheritance at that time. Darwin was
therefore unable to explain the source of the variation
in species that was central to his theory.
7.1 [ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
Surviving in different environments
1 Use an example to help you outline what is meant by
an ‘adaptation’.
2 Identify one example of an adaptation that involves the:
a structure of the organism
b behaviour of the organism
3 State two reasons why individuals within a species are
not identical to one another.
The theory of evolution
4 Explain what a theory is.
5 Outline why evolution can only ever be considered a
theory.
Alternatives to evolution
6 Clarify what is meant by a ‘creationist’ view of the origin
of life.
7 Creation accounts can be interpreted in a variety of
ways. Present two examples.
Early theories of evolution
8 Use an example to demonstrate the failure of
Lamarck’s theory of evolution.
Darwin’s theory
9 Darwin observed 14 species of finches on the
Galapagos Islands. Propose two possible explanations
for this large number of species.
Adaptation
Body colour that blends with the background
Production of small volumes of concentrated urine
Hooks and suckers on the head end of the organism
Broad, flat, bright green leaves
Live underground by day, and are active at night
230
>>>
Darwin’s theory can be restated in terms of modern
genetics. This is sometimes called neo-Darwinism.
Evolution is natural selection based upon the natural
genetic variation that appears in all populations.
Worksheet 7.1 Evolution crossword 1
10 Copy and complete the following statements regarding
Charles Darwin by identifying the correct alternative.
a Darwin (was/was not) the first to think of the idea of
evolution.
b Darwin was the first to explain how evolution
occurred by (natural selection/use or disuse of certain
characteristics).
c Darwin believed that the evolutionary process involved
(inherited/acquired) characteristics being passed on to
offspring.
d Darwin published his theory (immediately/many years
after) he returned from his five-year voyage on HMS
Beagle.
11 Explain how the work of Alfred Wallace affected that of
Darwin.
12 State what is meant by ‘neo-Darwinism’.
Think
13 Identify whether the red bristles on Cuddles the shark
are an adaptation to its tank environment or its original
environment of dark ocean caves.
14 Jack rabbits, bilbies and fennec foxes all live in desert
habitats, have very large ears and are nocturnal.
Explain how their adaptations allow them to live in their
environment.
15 Like the males of many bird species, male peacocks
are very colourful and carry out spectacular displays
with their tail feathers. Propose how these displays and
colours allow them to continue their species.
16 Identify the adaptations that match their survival value
and the habitat in which they are likely to occur.
Survival value Habitat
Avoidance of the hottest parts of the day Saltwater
Avoids dislodgement by moving fluids Desert
Enables waste removal with minimal water loss Rainforest
Avoidance of predators Intestines of a sheep
Maximum absorption of sunlight Any

17 State which of the following are likely to be inherited
characteristics.
a a good suntan
b black hair
c the athletic ability of a gymnast
d high resistance to a bacterial infection
e blue eyes
18 Explain what is meant by ‘biological evolution’.
Analyse
19 Describe what the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’ means
when used in connection with Darwin’s theory.
20 Draw and label a series of sketches to demonstrate how
the long-legged, tree-grazing animal shown in Figure
7.1.14 evolved, according to
a Lamarck’s theory
b Darwin’s theory
21 Present the main objection to Darwin’s theory by religious
leaders when it was first published.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Research the significance of the ‘Wallace Line’. Write a
journal article summarising your findings.
2 Research the Latin name for shark and propose a
scientific name for Cuddles.
3 The ‘steady state’ theory proposes that species did
not have a beginning at all but have always existed.
Research this theory and write a report evaluating any
evidence available.
4 Investigate extraterrestrial theories for the origin of life
on Earth. Write a report summarising any evidence for
such theories.
5 Research the unique wildlife of the Galapagos
Islands and construct a poster showing the variety of
organisms. This could be a class project with groups
working on different aspects.
Action
6 Even if Darwin had not proposed his theory of evolution
by natural selection, he would have been remembered
as a renowned biologist.
a Work in small groups, each choosing a different
aspect of Darwin’s work and research what he did.
b Present your information in a five-minute talk
summarising Darwin’s other achievements.
7.1
UNIT
Ancestral form Long-legged
tree-grazing form
Fig 7.1.14
22 Darwin was unable to explain the natural variation that
existed within a species.
a Explain how we account for this variation.
b Propose reasons why Darwin was unable to explain
it as we do.
7 Read about ‘religious’ views on evolution and hold a
debate on whether religion or science is correct about
evolution.
Surf
8 Complete the following activities on evolution by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 7
and clicking on the destinations button.
a Complete the interactive activity on the peppered
moth.
i Record observations for the changes in the
peppered moths.
ii State your deductions about the observations
made.
b Complete some tutorials and quizzes on the history
of the theory of evolution, and construct a time line
showing the development of these theories.
Creative writing
What did Darwin see?
Trace the voyage of HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836.
Write a page of Darwin’s journal for one place that he
visited. Describe the plants and animals he may have
seen, and how his observations might have influenced
his ideas on natural selection and evolution.
231
 UNIT
7. 2
context
How can rabbits survive a virus designed to
kill them? How do bacteria become resistant
to antibiotics? Why does a dolphin look like
a shark, when one is a fish and the other a
mammal? How could a bat, a whale and a
Natural selection at work
Natural selection is the process in which the
environment ‘selects’ favourable characteristics,
reducing the frequency of unfavourable characteristics.
This means that after many generations of selection, a
species will become better adapted to its environment.
Individuals will become highly adapted
if their environment doesn’t change. Except
for mutations, each individual will be very
similar, because the amount of variation
Prac 1
will have declined. Environments are rarely p. 238
constant, however!
Suppose the environment suddenly got colder for
a couple of generations of a particular animal. Some
individuals within the species may naturally be better
Fig 7.2.1 Will alpine species such as the mountain pigmy
possum evolve quickly enough to survive our
predicted warmer climate, or is their extinction
imminent?
232
>>>
wolf all come from one ancestor? These questions
may be answered by looking more closely at how
evolution works.
able to tolerate the cold, having thicker coats or some
other favourable characteristic. They are better suited
to the new, colder conditions than the rest of their
species. Over time, natural selection would increase
the proportion of individuals with this tolerance of
the cold and decrease the proportion of those who
don’t. Natural selection takes several generations to
become obvious and so it is extremely difficult to
observe in large plants and animals. It is more obvious
in organisms that reproduce quickly. Bacteria and
insects are two organisms in which natural selection
can occur quickly enough to be observed.
Selection of peppered moths
Over the past 150 years, dramatic changes have
been seen in the populations of peppered moths in
England. In the mid-1800s, scientists noticed that
populations of the peppered moth, Biston betularia,
were changing from mostly light-coloured (typica) to
mostly dark-coloured forms (carbonaria).
Two colour varieties of the peppered moth
Biston betularia. In nature the light-coloured
form, called typica, is the most common. Fig 7.2.2

Fig 7.2.3 (Left) Peppered moths on a lichen-covered tree trunk. (Right)
peppered moths on a soot-blackened tree trunk. Which form
of the moth would be ‘selected for’ in each situation?
The change occurred during the Industrial
Revolution, when coal-burning factories produced a
lot of pollution in the form of soot.
When on the soot-darkened trees, the light-
coloured form of the moth was easily seen by birds,
their main predator. The dark-coloured moth blended
with the blackened background, increasing its
chances of survival. The dark colour is an inherited
characteristic. Hence, more dark-coloured moths
survived to produce dark-coloured offspring.
After clean-air regulations were implemented,
lichen began to regrow on tree trunks and the
trees returned to their original paler colouring.
nearly all dark
mixed light
and dark
nearly all light
Manchester
London
Peppered moth populations in England in 1950. Fig 7.2.4
The moths were nearly all dark in industrial
areas, and nearly all light in rural areas.
7.2
UNIT
Moth populations in many of these areas
have shifted back towards the light-
coloured forms. Natural selection seems
to have taken the moths from light to dark
and back to light again.
Selection and rabbit control
In Australia, rabbits overran the land for
many years, digging burrows, stripping
vegetation and causing erosion. The
myxoma virus, carried by fleas and
mosquitoes, was released in Australia
in December 1950 to control the rabbit
population. Within two months, 90% of rabbits in
certain areas had died. Ten years later over 99% of
infected rabbits were dead. This means less than 1%
of rabbits infected with the virus survived. Ten years
later, only 25% of rabbits in those same areas would
die as a result of the virus, and around 40% of those
infected with the virus would survive. These dramatic
changes were the result of natural selection acting on
both the rabbits and the virus.
Consider what would occur if only one rabbit in
every thousand had a natural, genetic resistance to
the myxoma virus. These resistant rabbits would have
survived the initial myxoma spread, and produced
offspring with an inherited resistance. A healthy
rabbit may produce seven or more litters of young
per year, and therefore within a few
years the number of resistant rabbits
would have increased dramatically.
The myxoma-resistant rabbits were
‘selected for’ survival. Superbugs
Natural selection also works on When penicillin was
the virus. The highly virulent form of first introduced it was
very effective in treating
the virus (the one most able to kill) infections caused by
kills the rabbit within 6–10 days of Staphylococcus aureus,
infection. A less virulent form might known as golden
take 3–4 weeks to kill the rabbit. staph. Now, MRSA
(methicillin-resistant
Since the virus can multiply only Staphylococcus aureus)
within a live rabbit, it is beneficial to is resistant to penicillin
the virus for the rabbit to live longer. and around twenty other
substances, including
The less virulent form was therefore antibiotics, antiseptics and
‘selected for’ survival. disinfectants. Recently,
several strains of MRSA
Selection and diseases have become resistant
to the drug of last
There have also been several well-
resort—vancomycin. If
documented cases of populations vancomycin fails, the death
acquiring resistance to introduced rate from MRSA will rise
dramatically.
chemicals. Mosquitoes, which
carry the diseases yellow fever and
233
 Evolution unravelled >>>
malaria, were treated with chemical pesticides. By and the occasional genetic mutation. Eventually
natural selection, populations of mosquitoes with the two rabbit populations would have their own
a natural resistance to the pesticides developed characteristics, sufficiently different from each other
over the 20-year period following the introduction to be called a variety, or subspecies. Subspecies
of the pesticides into their environment. Similarly, appear different but are still capable of interbreeding.
many bacteria are now resistant to certain types of
antibiotics. Reproductive isolation
If the isolation of the populations
Speciation was long enough, the change
might be sufficient to make them
A species is defined as a group of organisms that
incapable of interbreeding. They Will the cheetah
normally interbreed in nature to produce fertile survive?
would then have reproductive
offspring. The formation of a new species is called There is very little genetic
isolation. At this point a new
speciation. Natural selection over long periods of variation among cheetahs.
species has emerged. The differences are about
time, combined with other factors such as isolation
Factors that might cause the same as are found in
and mutations, can lead to new species forming. brothers and sisters in
reproductive isolation are:
Speciation occurs over long periods of time, too long other species. It is thought
• a change in colour patterns that at one time all but one
to watch in a lifetime, or even in the recorded history
so that mates are no longer mating pair of cheetahs
of humans.
recognised died. This means that
all cheetahs are closely
Geographic isolation • seasonal differences in mating
related. Interbreeding
The first step in speciation is geographic isolation of times between close relatives
the populations. Suppose a particular population of • a changed chromosome which usually results in the
prevents the sperm of one population becoming
rabbits was divided, as shown in Figure 7.2.5. If the homogeneous, with very
environments differed on each side of the river, each group from fertilising eggs of little genetic variation.
population would change through natural selection the other. Such a population is
Will the cheetah become less likely be able to
extinct from a lack of respond to environmental
Fig 7.2.6 genetic variation? change, and could easily
become extinct.

!NCESTRAL
POPULATION

'EOGRAPHIC
ISOLATIONOF
POPULATIONS

-UTATIONSAND
NATURALSELECTION
OPERATETOFORM
TWOSUBSPECIES

2EPRODUCTIVE
ISOLATION
PRODUCES
TWOSPECIES

Fig 7.2.5 Stages in speciation—geographic isolation

leads to different evolutionary paths and
eventually reproductive isolation.

234
 7.2

UNIT
Types of evolution Adaptive radiation among mammals. The mammals
shown are all thought to have evolved from the shrew-like
Divergent evolution Fig 7.2.7 ancestor in the centre.
The Galapagos Island finches and the
geographically isolated rabbits illustrate bear
the idea that many new forms can evolve antelope

from a single ancestor. This is known as

divergent evolution. The idea is that new
environments are inhabited, causing the wolf
evolution of new species. deer
Divergent evolution results in a shrew
phenomenon known as adaptive radiation.
As the ancestral organisms adapt and
evolve in their different environments,
they take on new forms. The various bat

pentadactyl limbs shown in Figure gopher

7.3.10 in the next unit are an example of
seal
adaptive radiation. Australia’s marsupial flying
ancestors have evolved and radiated into squirrel
many different forms, from tree-dwelling,
fruit-eating possums to blind, meat-eating
underground moles, and the more familiar beaver
kangaroos and koalas. sea cow

monkey
Australia’s marsupial ancestors sloth whale
have evolved into many different
forms including the spotted cuscus
Fig 7.2.8 and the red kangaroo.

Convergent evolution
Evolution can produce similar structures in organisms
of quite different origins. For example, even though
they are not closely related, Australia’s different
marsupials show resemblances to cats, wolves, moles,
mice and squirrels.
Convergent evolution, or convergence, occurs
when organisms evolve and end up having similar
adaptations. This is due to:
• living in similar environments, and
• having similar habitats and lifestyles.

235
 Evolution unravelled
In similar habitats the same types of characteristics
are ‘selected for’, resulting in organisms that look
similar despite having very different genes. These
organisms may have analogous structures, structures
that look similar but which have come from different
ancestors. One example is the gliding membrane
found between the front and rear limbs of Australia’s
gliding possums. Similar membranes are found in the
flying squirrels of North America, Europe and Asia,
Placental mammals Marsupial mammals
the extinct
Tasmanian
wolf
‘wolf’ (tiger)
>>>
and in the flying lemurs of South-East Asia. These
three animals are similar in their lifestyle—they are
nocturnal herbivores.
Parallel evolution
A third type of evolution is parallel evolution,
which occurs where related species evolve similar
features while separated from each other. The result is
organisms that look alike and have common ancestry,
but are found in different locations. Old and New
World monkeys share many features. New World
monkeys like the vervet have prehensile tails to hold
onto branches, whereas Old World monkeys lack
prehensile tails since they have evolved to live on the
ground.
Parallel evolution. (Top) This monkey can
use its prehensile tail to hold onto a branch.
(Bottom) Old World monkeys like the mandrill
Fig 7.2.11 lack a prehensile tail.

flying flying
squirrel phalanger

Fig 7.2.9 Convergent evolution—Australian marsupials and

placental mammals of other continents have many
similarities, but are not closely related.

shark
(cartilagenous fish)

ichthyosaur
(extinct reptile)

dolphin
(mammal)

Convergent evolution—despite having quite different Fig 7.2.10

ancestors, the shark, ichthyosaur and dolphin have
evolved a similar set of characteristics (streamlined
body, bilobed tail, fins and flippers). Worksheet 7.2 Natural selection

236

7.2 [ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
Natural selection at work
1 Define the term ‘natural selection’.
2 State the main advantage of natural selection.
3 Using the peppered moth example, explain what is
meant by:
a natural variation
b natural selection
4 Following its release to control rabbits, propose a
reason why the less virulent strain of the myxoma virus
was naturally ‘selected for’.
5 List two examples of where natural selection is a
disadvantage.
Speciation
6 Propose two reasons why isolated populations of a
species might evolve differently from one another.
7 Present the following events in the order in which they
occur during the process of speciation:
reproductive isolation, natural selection, formation of a
species, further natural selection, geographic isolation,
formation of a subspecies
8 Describe three events that might lead to geographic
isolation of a population.
9 State the criteria needed for two subspecies to be
classified into two different species.
Types of evolution
10 Identify three different types of evolution.
11 Define the term ‘divergent evolution’.
12 State the conditions required for divergent evolution to
occur.
13 With the aid of examples, explain what is meant by
‘adaptive radiation’.
14 Use an example to define what is meant by ‘analogous
structures’.
15 Use an example to define what is meant by ‘parallel
evolution’.
Think
16 Propose a definition for the word ‘virulence’.
17 Explain how natural selection can give rise to a
population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
18 Mosquitoes carrying the disease yellow fever have
an acquired resistance to chemical pesticides once
sprayed to kill them. Propose ways in which the gene
for the chemical resistance might have originated.
7.2
UNIT
19 Humans have developed new breeds of domestic
animals by artificial selection in a relatively short time.
Explain why natural selection takes so much longer to
develop new breeds or subspecies.
20 Contrast convergent, divergent and parallel evolution.
21 Predict which species are most likely to become
extinct if a dramatic change in environmental conditions
happens.
22 The African aardvark and the South American anteater
have similar feet and tongues, but they are not closely
related.
a Identify the type of evolution that gives rise to these
similarities.
b Propose ways in which these similarities are
explained.
Analyse
23 In Figure 7.2.3, which form of the moth will be ‘selected
for’ in each situation? Justify your answer.
24 Discuss whether alpine species such as the mountain
pigmy possum are likely to survive in the warmer
climates caused by global warming.
25 Discuss whether the cheetah will become extinct
because of a lack of genetic differences.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 Examine the special problems posed by living in a
rainforest, a desert, the ocean or the tundra.
a Research the adaptations of plants and animals
living in your chosen habitat.
b Construct a poster showing your findings. (A good
place to start would be David Attenborough’s The
Living Planet.)
2 Extensive studies have been made of populations of
brown-lipped snails, Cepaea nemoralis.
a Gather evidence from these studies.
b Describe how changes in these snail populations
illustrate the process of natural selection.
3 a Research the use of DDT and other chemicals in
programs to control mosquito populations.
b Write a report to assess how the problem of the
acquired immunity of mosquitoes is being tackled.
>>
237
 Evolution unravelled >>>
4 a Investigate the use of artificial selection to develop www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 7
breeds of cattle or dogs. and clicking on the destinations button.
b Write a report comparing artificial selection with a Record observations for the changes in the
natural selection. peppered moths.
b State your deductions about the observations
Surf made.
5 Complete the interactive activity on the
peppered moth by connecting to the
Science Focus 4 Companion Website at

7.2 [ Practical activity ]

UNIT

Natural selection
Aim To model natural selection 4 Record the number of each colour toothpick
Prac 1 Equipment collected.
Unit 7.2
100 green toothpicks (to represent green worms), 5 Gather up all the toothpicks.
100 reddish-brown toothpicks (to represent brown 6 Repeat the procedure until five ‘feedings’ have
worms), a grassy area and a brown earth area occurred.
Method 7 Repeat the procedure on the brown earth area.
1 Draw up a results table. 8 Total the numbers of each type of worm in each area.

Feeding 1 Feeding 2 Feeding 3 Feeding 4 Feeding 5 Total

Green worms on grass
Brown worms on grass
Green worms on brown earth
Brown worms on brown earth

2 Scatter the 200 toothpicks on the grassy area. Questions

3 Allow your partner (acting as a predator of the worms)
30 seconds to pick up (feed on) as many toothpicks as
possible, picking up one at a time between the thumb
and forefinger.
1 Account for the differences (if any) between the
numbers of ‘worms’ caught in each area.
2 This experiment is testing one factor that might affect
the ability of a ‘worm’ to survive.
a Describe this factor.
b State three other factors that affect the survival of
worms in their normal habitats.
3 Discuss the relevance of this experiment to the study
of natural selection.

238
UNIT

7. 3
context

The theory of biological evolution is the scientists, and provokes strong disagreement from
most widely accepted scientific explanation some religious groups. What is the evidence for the
of life on Earth. It is also one of the most theory, and why is there still disagreement?
controversial scientific theories ever
presented. It still causes arguments among
changes in life forms from over 3500 million years ago
until the present. Fossils are the preserved evidence of
past life usually found in sedimentary rocks.
The fossil record Fossils may be the:
Direct evidence for evolution comes from • actual remains of organisms (e.g. mammoths frozen
palaeontology, the study of fossils. The fossil record in ice, insects trapped in a type of sap called
from all over the world provides evidence of continual amber)
• hard parts of organisms (e.g.
shells, teeth and bones)
• impressions of organisms (e.g.
EPOCHS
Recent
hollowed casts, moulds where
0 Pleistocene
substances have replaced the
1.8 Pliocene
5.5
organism) or
PERIODS • evidence of the presence of
Miocene
Quaternary organisms (e.g. footprints).
1.8 22.5 The ages of fossils, and
Tertiary Oligocene the rocks in which they are
65
Cretaceous
37 found, can be estimated using
ERAS
141 Eocene radioisotope-dating techniques.
Cenozoic Jurassic
0 195 54
These techniques have enabled
65 Mesozoic Triassic
248
248 Palaeocene
scientists to devise a geological
Palaeozoic Permian
570 280 65 time scale, dividing the history
Carbon-
iferous of the Earth into eras. These eras
345
Devonian are subdivided into periods,
395
Silurian which are further subdivided into
435
Ordovician epochs.
500
Cambrian Using the fossil record
Pre- 570
Cambrian The fossil record allows us
to trace major events in the
history of life on Earth. Life
seems to have begun around
3500 million years ago. The
first organisms were probably
Formation of
4500 Earth's crust simple, single-celled, anaerobic
(no oxygen was available)
bacteria which fed on organic
Fig 7.3.1 The geological time scale. Ages are shown in millions of years before
the present.
compounds in the primitive

239
 Evidence for evolution
seas. Later, photosynthetic bacteria and blue-green
algae appeared, releasing oxygen into the atmosphere.
This oxygen release allowed ozone (O3) to form and
accumulate, screening out some of the ultraviolet (UV)
radiation. This gave some safety to the newly evolving
organisms.
An explanation for the appearance
of life?
One hypothesis to explain the initial appearance
of life was put forward by a Russian scientist,
A.J. Oparin, in 1924. The early atmosphere is thought
to have consisted of gaseous methane (CH4), ammonia
(NH3), hydrogen (H2) and water vapour (H2O). Energy
from lightning, ultraviolet rays or gamma rays split
some of these gas molecules. New bonds formed to
create complex organic molecules, which collected
in pools to form an ‘organic soup’. Over millions of
years this ‘organic soup’ became concentrated, more
complex molecules formed and the first cells appeared.
In 1953, S. Miller and H. Urey tested the idea in a
laboratory experiment at the University of Chicago.
Electric sparks were passed into a gas mixture that was
thought to be similar to the early atmosphere of the
Earth. Organic molecules were produced! While the
electrodes
to vacuum spark
pump mixture
of
NH3
CH4
H2
H2O condenser
mixture containing
amino acids and
other complex
organic molecules
The Miller/Urey experiment. Given suitable Fig 7.3.2
conditions, molecules can combine to form
organic molecules.
240
>>>
gases used in the experiment are no longer believed
to represent the atmosphere of early Earth, later work
using a more accurate composition of gases produced
similar results. No experiments, however, produced a
living cell.
More complex life evolves
Around 1500 million years ago, organisms with
more complex cellular structure appeared. Sexual
reproduction appears to have begun at around this
time. Organisms recognisable as animals appeared
around 600 million years ago. Thousands of
specimens of these invertebrates have been collected
from sandstone deposits at Ediacara, in the hills north
of Adelaide. They are possibly related to present-day
jellyfish and earthworms.
Ediacarans are life forms that appeared 600 million
years ago. Were they the first animals? The fossil
Fig 7.3.3 shown is of Dickinsonia, a primitive flatworm.
From bacteria to humans
An abundance of fossils from the Palaeozoic era
(570 to 248 million years ago) show the existence
of bacteria, algae, soft-bodied invertebrates and
representatives from all the major animal groups we
know today. Characteristic organisms from the earliest
Palaeozoic era were the trilobites. The earliest known
land organisms (vascular plants) appeared around
400 million years ago. The first land vertebrates
(amphibians) appeared slightly later. At this time
the greatest diversity and number of species lived
in the sea.
 7. 3

UNIT
A fossil of the Composognathus, one of the
Fig 7.3.5 smallest known dinosaurs
Years before Cenozoic
present (millions) (modern
life)
0
65 Mesozoic
DIVERSITY (middle life)
248
First OF Palaeozoic
land LIFE (ancient
organisms life)
570
First
animals

1000

Organisms
with
complex
cellular
structure

2000
Life begins
JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL
Pre-Cambrian S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S
(primal and 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
primitive life) 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30
Oxygen
builds up
3000
in the
atmosphere MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST
S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S

First 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4
organisms ORIGIN 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
(single- OF 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
celled)
LIFE 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31
Organic
compounds
form First complex cells
4000 SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER
S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Origin of the Earth 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 30 31

Fig 7.3.4 The evolution of life on Earth Pre-Cambrian

First animals First land Dinosaurs First human-like
Palaeozoic
Mesozoic organisms extinct ancestral organisms
Cenozoic

Worksheet 7.3 When am I?

The Mesozoic era (248 to 65 million years ago)
is often called the age of the reptiles because of the
abundance and diversity of reptilian forms (including
dinosaurs) that lived in this era.
The earliest mammals, flowering plants and birds
also appeared in this era. Fossils from the most recent
era, the Cenozoic era (from 65 million years ago),
show the increasing dominance of mammals and the
appearance of humans (around 200 000 years ago).
The history of life on Earth recorded as a one-year period. Fig 7.3.6
Each day represents approximately 10 million years. The
recorded history of humans is less than one minute.
A changing record
The fossil record provides evidence of continual
change. A vast number and variety of species have
emerged from the earliest life forms. Whole groups of
organisms have appeared, become abundant and then
disappeared. Some of these changes include:

241
 Evidence for evolution
• Dramatic climate change and altered sea levels
may have caused the disappearance of 50% of all
shallow-water marine invertebrates around 225
million years ago.
• The impact of a large asteroid, and consequent dust
storms, are thought to have caused the extinction
of the dinosaurs around 65 million years ago.
>>>
• Other organisms, like clubmosses and jawfish, have
appeared, been abundant, but now survive in small
numbers only.
• Others, like the flowering plants, insects, mammals
and birds, were present in small numbers for some
time, then became abundant.
• Mammals increased dramatically after the demise
of the dinosaurs.

Fig 7.3.7 A living fossil. Coelacanths, the ancestors of which
are thought to have given rise to amphibians, have
remained unchanged for 400 million years. Why didn’t
they evolve further?
An incomplete record?
The fossil record is, however, far from complete. Only
a small proportion of the plant and animal species
thought to have existed are preserved as fossils. While
the fossil history of aquatic organisms is extensive and
detailed, the fossil history of land animals is far less
so. Fossilisation is a rare occurrence. Organisms must
‘fall’ into conditions where decay does not occur. The
soft tissues of organisms usually do not form fossils.
Fossilisation is more likely in seas, lakes, swamps and
caves, but unlikely on land. Geological processes, and
human activity, are constantly moving and destroying
the sedimentary rocks that contain fossils.
Fossil evidence shows an excellent record for the
evolutionary development of some organisms such as
the horse.
Worksheet 7.4 Evolution of the horse

Structure of Structure of
Recent Equus forefeet molar teeth

An eye problem Pleistocene 1.6 m

from 1 mya
Major adaptations such 2 4
as the lens in the eye 1.0 m
of vertebrates present a Pliocene
from Pliohippus
problem. The eye would
10 mya
be of use only when fully 3
developed. The eye lens
and retina must coexist to
be of any use. It is hard Miocene 5
to see any sequence of from 1.0 m Merychippus
evolutionary development 30 mya
in which each one is
separately of adaptive 2 4
3
value. How then did such
an intricate organ come Oligocene
into existence? from 0.6 m Mesohippus crown
40 mya enamel

Eocene
from grazing horses Hyracotherium 5
0.4 m
60 mya browsing horses (Eohippus) 2 4
3 cement

The evolutionary history of the horse, showing reconstructions of the fossil species. Fig 7.3.8
Many branches have left no modern descendants (mya = million years ago).

242
 7.3

UNIT
Transitional forms Evidence from other studies
For major groups of organisms, transitional forms have
been found in their evolutionary pathway. Modern Anatomical studies
vertebrates appear to have evolved first as jawless Comparisons of the anatomy of
fish, then bony fish, then amphibians, reptiles, birds various plants and animals provide
and finally mammals. Transitional forms provide the indirect evidence of their evolution
links between them all, including the air-breathing from common ancestors. The front Useless structures
crossopterygian fish, and the bird-like reptile, flipper of a seal, a cat’s paw, a A number of structures
Archaeopteryx. horse’s front leg, a bat’s wing and such as your appendix
and the muscles near your
your own hand all look different
Transitional fossil forms in the evolution ears have no apparent
and perform different functions. function. They are called
of vertebrates. (Top) An air-breathing fish
(400 million years ago). (Bottom) Archaeopteryx, However, they all consist of the vestigial organs. Why
a small dinosaur with feathers (170 million same number of bones, muscles, do we have these useless
Fig 7.3.9 years ago) structures? It is thought
nerves and blood vessels arranged that they had some
in a similar basic pattern. The function in our ancestors,
basic pentadactyl limb (a limb but that evolution has
reduced these structures
with five digits) can be traced back so much that they are no
to the fins of certain fish from longer functional. Since
which the first amphibians are there is no evolutionary
disadvantage to these
thought to have evolved. These
structures, they remain
fundamentally similar structures today.
are called homologous structures.

1 monkey
bat (grasping)
(flying)

2
5
3 4 1
2 34 5

pig (walking)

5
whale
4 (swimming)
1
5
1 2
For many groups of organisms there are large gaps 3 3 4
2 2 45
in the fossil record, often with no transitional forms 3
being found. This lack of transitional information
may possibly be explained by considering the process anteater horse
(tearing) (running)
of speciation. Speciation is most likely to occur in a 1 5
small, isolated population. Environments where the 4
2
conditions are changing are the most likely sites for 3 3
natural selection to operate and ultimately give rise
to new species. Speciation may therefore occur in
Fig 7.3.10 Homologous structures—all limbs have the
too small a group and in too small an area for fossil same basic structure but have been modified
records of the transitional stages to be seen. for different uses.

243
 Evidence for evolution >>>
This 49 million year old fossil of a monkey hand The differences seen in the structures may
Fig 7.3.11 shows a basic pentadactyl limb. reflect adaptations to different environmental
conditions. Their similarity strongly suggests Prac 1
a common ancestor. p. 248

Embryonic
development
The development of embryos
provides further evidence of
evolution. One of Darwin’s
contemporaries, German
biologist Ernst Haeckel,
proposed that by examining
an embryo you could see its
entire evolutionary history
as it developed from one
stage to another. Although
there are similarities present,
Haechel’s original drawings
evolutionary history, and indi
exaggerated the embryonic
similarities between species.
Humans with gills!
The early stages of all vertebra
te
embryos are very similar. The
early human embryo resembl
es a
fish embryo with gill slits, a
tail
and a ‘fish-like’ heart and kidn
ey.
The later human embryo has
a
‘reptile-like’ heart and kidney.
Later again, the seven-month
embryo is covered with hair
and
has the body proportions of
a
baby ape. These developmen
tal
stages are thought to reflect
cate
common ancestry.

shark lizard chicken chimpanzee human

Fig 7.3.12 Comparison between the embryos of five chordates. What similarities can be seen?

244
 7. 3

UNIT
The relationship between Studies of DNA show the emu to be most closely
A bird with teeth?
evolution and embryonic related to the cassowary, with the kiwi a second
Birds do not have teeth and
development is more complex have not had them for the cousin. The rhea and ostrich are more distantly
than was once thought. past 60 million years. In an related.
experiment, tissue from the One hundred and thirty-five million years ago,
The distribution of mouth of a mouse embryo
was placed near the mouth Africa, India, South America, Antarctica, Australia
plants and animals tissue of a chicken embryo. and New Zealand were all part of one southern
Biogeography is the study After incubation, the chicken supercontinent, Gondwana. Around 80 million years
of the distribution of plants began to grow teeth, not like
mouse teeth, but like those
ago, this large southern continent started to move.
and animals, both now and of the oldest known fossil First Africa separated from South America. India
in the past. As Darwin saw with feathers. Although drifted northwards, and New Zealand separated from
in the Galapagos Islands, the modern birds do not have
the eastern edge of Australia. The ancestral ratites
teeth, they still have genes
organisms found on oceanic that code for making them. evolved in isolation in each of the separated southern
islands resemble those living All they appear to lack is continents. The order of separation of the continents
on the nearest mainland, yet the mechanism to ‘switch suggests the same degree of relatedness among the
include species found nowhere on’ these genes. Are these
‘teeth-making genes’ different birds as the genetic information.
else. As oceanic islands have evidence of the evolutionary Mechanism 2: Migration followed by divergent
never been attached to the past of the bird?
evolution
mainland, their inhabitants
The fossil record of the camel family is relatively
are thought to have somehow
complete. Distribution of fossils suggests that the first
arrived from the mainland, to then evolve in isolation.
camels developed in North America. Some of these
There are two main mechanisms involved, as
migrated to Asia across an ancient land bridge, and
described below.
then into Africa. Others migrated to South America.
Mechanism 1: Isolation followed by divergent Once isolated, the ancestral camels evolved, giving
evolution rise to the llama in South America, the dromedary
This is shown by Australian flora and fauna. Modern- camel in Africa, and the bactrian camel in Asia.
day monotremes (the platypus and the echidna) are
found only in New Guinea and Australia. Fossils have
How can the southern distribution of the flightless birds
been found only in Australia, known as ratites be explained? Fig 7.3.13
not in Asia. This suggests
that monotremes probably
evolved in Australia and
diversified here. Many
groups of organisms found ostrich
cassowary
in Australia are distributed Africa
only across the southern
hemisphere.
An example is the group
of flightless birds known as South
the ratites, which occur in: America Papua New
• New Guinea (cassowary) Guinea
• Australia (emu and kiwi

cassowary)
• New Zealand (kiwi)
• South America (rhea) Australia

• Africa (ostrich). rhea

emu

New Zealand

245
 Evidence for evolution >>>

Europe Asia
North Human mice
America The genetic make-up
of mice is very similar
to that of humans. In
Africa South fact it is so similar
America llama that mice are one of
the best animals to
Australia use for testing medical
techniques before
applying them to
humans. The results
bactrian shown in tests with
Probable point of mice are very similar
dromedary origin
to results gained with
Past distribution humans.
Current distribution

Fig 7.3.14 The distribution of members of the camel family can be explained by migration and then
independent evolution.

Genetic evidence
The structure of DNA and the genetic code provide
us with more evidence for evolution. The code is
universal. Apart from some viruses, all organisms
use the same basic code. This supports the idea that
all living things are related and have evolved from
common ancestors. Comparisons of DNA are used
to provide evidence of how closely different species
are related. For example, the genetic make-up of a
chimpanzee is 98.5% identical to that of a human.
Gorilla DNA matches human DNA except for the last
2.6%. The genetic make-up of other primates is also
similar to our own.
Gene duplication
Scientists are examining the idea of gene duplication,
where an organism may have an extra gene for a
particular characteristic. For example, an essential
difference between reptiles and mammals is milk
production by mammals. One protein in mammalian
milk is very similar to a protein (protein X) present
in reptile eggs, and in some mammalian fluids such
as tears. Mammals produce both the milk protein
and protein X. It is possible that an error in meiosis
produced an organism with a duplicated gene for
production of protein X. While one gene continued to
code for the usual protein, the extra gene mutated and
began to code for milk production.
Biochemistry
The biochemistry of different organisms is very
similar. Chemicals such as the energy-carrying
molecule, ATP, and organelles such as mitochondria,
are almost universal. Chemical reactions, such as
respiration, are very similar in all animals and plants.
Biochemical evidence for evolution comes from
studies of amino acid sequences of the same protein in
different organisms. Proteins are large molecules made
up of small units called amino acids. The longer ago
two species had a common ancestor, the more likely
it is for gene mutations to have occurred to produce
small changes in their protein structure.
Studies have been made of protein in haemoglobin.
A particular sequence of 340 amino acids is identical
for humans and chimpanzees. Gorillas are different by
two amino acids, and monkeys are different by twelve.
Similar results are obtained for other protein studies.
This supports the idea of evolution due to mutation
and natural selection.

246
 7. 3

UNIT
7.3 [ Questions ] 17 Propose a reason why it is unlikely that the first
UNIT

organisms on Earth were able to carry out photosynthesis.

Checkpoint 18 Stromatolite fossils help date evolution. Explain how
they do this.
The fossil record
19 Present two reasons why fossils are relatively rare.
1 Define the term ‘palaeontology’.
20 Identify the times of occurrence that match the events.
2 a Define the term ‘fossil’.
b Use examples to demonstrate two different types of
fossils. Event Time
3 Identify the time (millions of years ago)
that matches its Era Time (millions
of years ago) Life on Earth begins 0.2
era.
Cenozoic 248–65 First land organisms appear 4500
4 List three gases
thought to be Pre-Cambrian 570–248 Humans first appear 1500
present in the Mesozoic 65–present Complex cellular structures appear 3500
early Earth’s
atmosphere. Palaeozoic 4500–570 Dinosaurs become extinct 600

5 Coelacanths are Earth forms 65

considered to be First animals appear 400
living fossils. Explain why.
6 Outline why Archaeopteryx is considered to be a trans-
itional form in the evolutionary pathway of vertebrates.
Analyse
Evidence from other studies
7 List three types of evidence for evolution that come 21 Figure 7.3.6 shows the history of life on Earth as a
from other studies. calendar year. Explain why the history of humans is
less than one minute.
8 Use an example to demonstrate how anatomical
studies can provide evidence of evolution. 22 Use Figure 7.3.14 to account for the worldwide
distribution of members of the camel family
9 a Outline what is meant by ‘homologous structures’.
23 The map in Figure 7.3.15 shows the distribution of
b State how homologous structures are useful in the
members of the family Proteaceae, a group of plants
study of evolution.
that includes banksias and proteas. Species of the
10 Explain how vestigial organs are used as evidence of genus Banksia are found only in Australia and New
evolution. Guinea. Species of the genus Protea are native only to
11 Describe how embryological studies support the idea of South Africa.
evolution.
Genetic evidence
12 Describe how DNA supports the theory of evolution.
13 a Clarify what is meant by ‘gene duplication’.
b State how gene duplication could arise.
c Propose a way in which gene duplication contributes
to the evolution of organisms.
14 Based on DNA studies, identify the organism that:
a humans are thought to be most closely related to
b humans would be least closely related to
15 Use one example to present evidence of how Proteaceae
distribution
biochemical studies other than DNA support the theory
of evolution.
Fig 7.3.15 Distribution of the family Proteaceae
Think >>
16 Contrast analogous with homologous structures.

247
 Evidence for evolution
a Explain why the family Proteaceae has the southern
distribution shown.
b Explain why different types (Banksia and Protea) are
found on different continents.
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 a Investigate how scientific theories are proved or
disproved. You might start with the ideas of Karl
Popper and Thomas Kuhn.
b Assess whether the evidence for evolution actually
proves the theory.
2 a Examine the origins of Australia’s marsupials.
b Write a report to account for the fact that
marsupials are widespread in Australia but almost
non-existent elsewhere.
3 The ear bones of mammals seem to have evolved from
the jaw bones of reptiles! Fossils have been found that
document the steps.
a Research this strange evolutionary story.
b Write a report analysing the information, and
identifying problems with this story.
7.3 [ Practical activity ]
UNIT
Investigating fossils
Design an activity or series of activities to
Prac 1
investigate fossils. Bones are a good way to begin.
Unit 7.3 You can prepare bones by following these steps:
1 Thoroughly cook a chicken or a rabbit (a
pressure cooker is handy for this).
2 Remove the meat from the bones.
DYO 3 Soak the bones overnight in detergent to help
remove any remaining meat pieces.
4 Bleach the bones by soaking overnight in a
bleaching liquid like White King.
5 Dry the bones in the sun.
6 Using your prepared bones, ‘design’ a fossil.
For example, you might bury some bones
in ‘rock’ using plaster mix and an ice-cream
container.
248
>>>
24 Use diagrams to explain how homologous structures
can support the theory of evolution.
25 Draw diagrams to demonstrate how comparative
embryology can be used to support the theory of
evolution.
4 Research gene frequencies and how they change as
a result of natural selection. You might start with the
Hardy–Weinberg principle, and the idea of genetic drift.
a Gather information on an inherited characteristic.
b Analyse your information using the Hardy-Weinberg
principle.
Surf
5 Complete the activities on evolution of the
horse by connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
chapter 7 and clicking on the destinations button. View
the ‘Amazing Feets’ link to learn about the evolution
of the horse. Using illustrations, account for the
evolutionary adaptation of horses’ feet.
Questions
1 Can the bones be ‘unearthed’ without breaking them?
Justify your answer.
2 Can a skeleton be reconstructed from a set of bones?
Justify your answer.
3 Evaluate whether a mixture of bones from different
animals can be sorted effectively to reconstruct their
skeletons.
4 Compare your activities with the work of
palaeontologists.
UNIT

7. 4
context

Evidence from the fossil record and other
studies supports the theory that modern
humans evolved from a common ape-like
ancestor. However, not everyone agrees with
this theory. The evidence suggests that there
have been many species of humans, some of which
have become extinct, while others evolved into modern
humans. Among scientists there is ongoing debate
regarding the details of human evolutionary pathways,
and even the mechanisms of evolution.

Primates
Humans belong to the order Primates and have
many of the features of the primate group. Primates
(including us) have:
• forward-facing eyes that allow binocular vision
• pentadactyl digits (five fingers/toes on each limb)
• four upper and four lower incisor teeth
• opposable thumbs (for grasping things)
• nails (not claws) on the fingers and toes
• large brains for their body size
• a flexible skeleton, with arms that rotate in the Prosimians New World Old World Apes Humans
shoulder socket to allow them to reach behind e.g. lemurs monkeys monkeys
0
their body (great for swinging in trees!). 2
4
Humans are unusual, as we also: 6
8
• walk upright (are bipedal) 10
• have fewer and smaller teeth than the apes
• have a flattened face 15

• have a very large skull capacity, and large brain,

Millions of years ago

20
about three times larger than that of apes
• make and use tools 25
• use various verbal and visual
languages to communicate 30

• are self-aware.
35
Fossil evidence suggests Old is new and new
that primates arose from tree- is old! 40

dwelling, shrew-like insectivores Figur e 7.4.1 might be a

around 50 million years ago.
This group soon split into
several divergent evolutionary
lines, giving rise to the modern-
day primates. These are the
prosimians (pre-monkeys,
similar to lemurs), New World
monkeys, Old World monkeys
and hominoids.
little confusing since it has 45
the New World monkeys
being older than the Old 50
World monkeys! Here, Old
World refers to those areas Ancestral tree-dwelling
of the world long known to shrew-like insectivores
the Europeans, i.e. Europe,
parts of Africa and of Asia.
The New World is those
areas discovered later by
Europeans (predominantly Fig 7.4.1 A possible evolutionary tree for primates
North and South America).

249
 Human evolution >>>
Fig 7.4.2 Typical primates—can you see any similarities?

Dryopithecus Ramapithecus
(appeared approximately (appeared approximately
25 million years ago) 15 million years ago)

Fig 7.4.3 Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus—possible

ancestors of modern apes and humans

The Southern ape

Although apes and humans had similar ancestors in
the past, the Homo line diverged from the apes. The
first true ‘human-like’ fossils belong to the genus
Australopithecus (meaning ‘southern ape’, after the
first fossils found in South Africa).The oldest known
fossils, Australopithecus afarensis (A. afarensis), are
around 4–5 million years old.
A. afarensis is most likely to have evolved into
a number of new species, including A. africanus,
A. robustus and A. boisei. These species were fully
Evolution of humans bipedal, walked on two legs, and had a brain size of
400 cm3, less than one-third that of modern humans.
The most recently evolved group of primates is called
All fossil australopithecines have been found in
the Hominoids. The hominoids include the lesser
Africa. One of the most famous is a 40% complete
apes (gibbons), great apes (gorillas, chimpanzees and
skeleton of a female named Lucy.
orang-utans) and humans. The earliest humans almost
certainly arose from the same common ancestor that
Fossil hominoid skeleton known as Lucy Fig 7.4.4
produced the other hominoids. Although they have
similar ancestors, apes and humans are very distantly
related, taking different evolutionary pathways
millions of years ago.
Relatively few human fossils have been found,
and the human evolutionary process is not definitely
known. There is no accurate record of the emergence
of modern humankind, and the exact relationships
linking the few existing fossil remains to today’s
humans are controversial.

Our distant relatives

A picture of the common ancestor of modern
apes and humans is based largely on the fossils of
Dryopithecus, an ape-like animal that first appeared
25 million years ago. Ramapithecus, another ape-like
animal, appeared 14–16 million years ago and lasted
another 6 million years. Some believe Ramapithecus
to be the ancestor of the Asian orang-utan, while
others see a relationship to other apes and humans.
There are significant gaps in the fossil records of 5 to
8 million years ago.

250
 7. 4

Recent finds indicate that some australopithecines
lived alongside the early members of the genus Homo
(the genus to which modern humans belong). This
suggests that A. afarensis is the ancestor of both the
Homo and australopithecine lines.
UNIT
areas, such as Asia and Africa. Others maintain that
Homo sapiens evolved in Africa, and spread from
there some 200 000 years ago. This would mean that
all present-day variation in humans has arisen in the
past 200 000 years.

-ILLIONS %XTINCTION
OFYEARS (OMONEANDERTHALENSIS
 The seven daughters of Eve
(OMOSAPIENS Mitochondrial DNA is a peculiar form of DNA
. It
that is passed directly from mother to child
%XTINCTION e
can therefore be used to trace a chain of femal
 this meth od, Bryan Sykes , a
!USTRALOPITHECUS ancestry. Using
sed
BOISEIAND (OMOERECTUS geneticist at Oxford University, has propo
Europ eans can trace their mater nal
!USTRALOPITHECUS that 90% of
 e the
ROBUSTUS ancestry to one of only seven women (henc
Eve).
title of his book, The Seven Daughters of
(OMOHABILIS The most distant of these seven lived 45 000
 years ago, and the most recent 10 000 years
ago. Sykes supports the idea of a relatively
recent expansion of Homo sapiens from its
use of
 African origin. Despite these findings, the
rial DNA is now being quest ioned .
!USTRALOPITHECUS mitochond
AFRICANUS


 Other fossil humans

!USTRALOPITHECUS
AFARENSIS

Fig 7.4.5 A possible family tree for humans
More recent ancestors
The first clear representation of the Homo line is
Homo habilis (‘handy man’). Fossils found in East
Africa dating to 1.5–2 million years ago reveal
major anatomical and behavioural changes from
Australopithecus afarensis. The brain size was 50%
larger, and they used tools.
Homo erectus (‘upright man’) came next. Although
fossils have been found in Europe, China and Africa,
Homo erectus is often called ‘Java man’, after the
initial discovery site. The oldest fossils are 1.5 million
years old. Homo erectus had an average brain size of
1000 cm3, lived in caves and used fire.
The evolution of Homo erectus into Homo sapiens
(‘intelligent man’) is the subject of considerable
debate. Some maintain that Homo erectus evolved
worldwide into Homo sapiens but retained local
features. This gave rise to different forms in different
Other species of the Homo line
have also been identified. These
include Homo neanderthalensis
(‘Neanderthal man’), which is thought
to be approximately 35 000–100 000
years old. The Neanderthals were
cave dwellers who used tools and buried their dead,
indicating some religious beliefs. They are thought
to have become extinct due to a change in climate
or through competition with other human species
in Europe. The common ancestor of humans and
Neanderthals probably lived in Europe around 600 000
years ago.
‘Cro-Magnon man’ (10 000–40 000 years old)
was a nomadic hunter-gatherer who used tools and
developed art. Anatomically Cro-Magnons were similar
to modern humans, but more robust. Cro-Magnons
lived in Europe and the exact reasons for their
extinction are not known.
Anatomical changes
While the exact details are the subject of debate,
there are a number of identifiable changes in the
evolution of Homo sapiens from an ape-like ancestor.
Anatomically, the various forms have walked more

251
 Human evolution >>>
A convincing hoax
The skull of ‘Piltdown man’ upright than their ancestors.
was discovered in a grave
They have also developed
pit in southern England in
1912. It had an ape-like smaller teeth, reduced eyebrow
jaw, with a large, modern- ridges, shorter arms, flatter feet,
looking cranium. The non-opposable big toes, flatter
scientific world was excited
by the find, particularly the faces and a progressively larger
English, who thought that brain size.
the first human was one of
them! It was not until 1955
that the skull was revealed
Cultural evolution
as a forgery—a human
Humans have changed in many
skull joined to an orang-
non-physical ways. We have
utan’s jaw and treated to
learned how to use tools, and
give an aged look.
have developed speech, forms
of writing, artistic creativity,
reasoning powers and a sense of right and wrong. It is
these changes that most distinguish modern humans
Fig 7.4.6 Fossil human skulls. The three skulls from bottom left
to top centre are Australopithecus africanus, Homo from their ancestors. Humans have highly complex
habilis and Homo erectus. The black skull in the upper social structures, and an accumulation of learning
right is from a ‘modern’ human, Homo sapiens, around and knowledge. This stored experience is passed from
92 000 years old. The pale skull at the front is from a
Cro-Magnon human about 22 000 years old. Note the generation to generation, and affects survival—that is,
changes in face shape and brain capacity. a type of cultural evolution occurs.

Modern
Homo
Homo
sapiens
neanderthalensis
Homo
erectus
Homo
habilis
Australopithecus
afarensis

proconsul
(hypothetical
African ape)

Fig 7.4.7 Human form during the stages of evolution

252
 7. 4

UNIT
Cultural evolution—stored experience is
Fig 7.4.8 passed from generation to generation.

Fire starter

It is estimated that of all the animal species

that have ever existed, only 1% are alive now. The Fire is probably the most
ultimate fate of most species appears to be extinction. important tool that humans
have learned how to control
Homo habilis lasted for around 1 million years, and use. Aborigines in
Homo erectus around 1.5 million. Modern humans Australia traditionally used
have existed for about 200 000 years. With cultural Fig 7.4.9 Cultural evolution—the fire to hunt and manage
knowledge of fire is passed the land. The knowledge
evolution, humans continue to acquire knowledge, from one generation to the of using fire, and the skill
enabling them to exert more control over their next through practice and of starting a fire, is passed
environment than any other species ever has, but we observation. from one generation to the
next. This is an example of
have probably done more damage also. What does this
cultural evolution.
mean for the future of Homo sapiens? Worksheet 7.5 The ‘Hobbit’

7.4 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint
Primates
1 List the characteristics of primates.
2 List the following primates in correct order of evolution:
Old World monkeys, apes, humans, prosimians, New
World monkeys
3 Primates are thought to have a common ancestor.
Outline what this ancestor was like.
4 State the name of the genus (group) to which the first
true ‘human-like’ fossils belong.
5 List two examples of non-physical features that
distinguish humans from other primates.
Evolution of humans
6 State two evolutionary trends that have occurred in
primates.
7 Use examples to clarify the meaning of the term
‘hominoid’.
8 List the following in their probable order of evolution
from earliest to most recent:
Ramapithecus, Neanderthal, Australopithecus afarensis,
Homo habilis, Dryopithecus, Cro-Magnon
9 State three physical changes that have occurred in the
evolution of humans from an ape-like ancestor.
>>

253
 Human evolution >>>
Cultural evolution Analyse
10 Clarify what is meant by ‘cultural evolution’. 17 Use Figure 7.4.1 to compare the two typical primates.
11 List three examples of cultural evolution. 18 Propose an order in which you think the skulls shown in
Figure 7.4.10 evolved. Justify your choice.
Think
12 Contrast humans with primates.
13 Bipedalism was a major development in
the evolution of humans.
a Define the term ‘bipedalism’.
b Propose two reasons why bipedalism
would be an advantage to an organism.
14 Contrast Homo habilis, Homo erectus
and Homo sapiens in relation to what they
were capable of doing.
15 Larger brain sizes allowed early human-
A B C
like forms to develop rapidly. Explain the
advantages of a larger brain.
16 Contrast cultural evolution with
Fig 7.4.10
Lamarckian evolution.
19 Use Figure 7.4.3 to answer the following questions.
a Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus looked very
different. Contrast their appearances.

[ Extension ] b Propose reasons for the differences in appearance.

1 Research the work of the Leakey family in searching

for hominoid fossils in Africa. Write a biography to
summarise their discoveries.

Action
2 When anthropologists study fossils to determine
whether they are ape or human, they look particularly
at the teeth and jaw, and at skeletal modifications for
bipedalism.
a Research the structural differences and similarities
between apes and humans.
b Work in small groups to construct various models
of examples that demonstrate your research.

254
 Science focus:
Putting flesh on old bones:
archaeology and Australia today
Prescribed focus area: The history of science
The landscape we know in Australia today was very discovery sparked a major archaeological program.
different during the last ice age, from about 100 000 Bowler named this previously unknown lake as Lake
to 10 000 years ago. How does science discover and Mungo. Lake Mungo is one of a series of lake basins
tell us just how the land has changed during ice age formed by a channel of the ancient Lachlan River,
events? known as the Willandra Creek. The bones proved to be
We would expect more ice on the mountains of the cremated remains of a young woman, now known
south-eastern Australia and in Tasmania during an as Mungo Lady.
ice age. But what happened to the dry inland areas at Four years later and just 400 metres away on the
this time? How did they change? Were people actually same beach sands where Mungo Lady was found,
living there during such times? Bowler noticed the tip of a cranium being uncovered
In 1967, geologist Jim Bowler was studying ancient by natural erosion. Excavation by archaeologists
inland lake basins in western New South Wales. revealed this to be the fully articulated skeleton of a
Though these basins are now completely dry, in the human male, now known as Mungo Man.
past they acted as giant rain gauges, filling when
the climate was wet, and drying and forming dunes
during dry phases.
In 1969, while mapping evidence of ancient
shorelines in the dry basins of western New South
Wales, Bowler discovered some burnt human bones
Mungo Man
buried in the beach sands of an ancient lake. This

B og
an Mungo Lady
a r li n g River

illan d ra Billab o
R
W

Bathurst
River
an
Lake Mungo chl Katoomba
La
D

Mildura Griffith Sydney

M urrumbidgee Goulburn
Riv
Cr er
Yanco
Wagga Wagga Fig SF 7.2 Mungo Lady and Mungo Man were discovered
Canberra
Albury 400 metres apart on the same beach sands of
Echuca rray Rive ancient Lake Mungo.
Mu r

How old are Mungo Lady and

Mungo Man?
Melbourne The Mungo discoveries changed our understanding
of when the earliest Australians arrived, and of
the changing landscape in which they lived. Before
the Mungo discoveries, the oldest known evidence
Lake Mungo is located in western Fig SF 7.1
New South Wales. of human occupation in Australia was from about

255
 20 000 years ago. Suddenly at Lake Mungo that
evidence was nearly doubled.
Mungo Lady was first thought to have been buried
about 26 000 years ago, and Mungo Man about 30 000
years ago. Following additional work on the geology
of beach and dune sands, Bowler later revised Mungo
Man’s burial age to near 44 000 years ago.
Fig SF 7.3 Mungo Man being unearthed approximately
44 000 years after being buried
256
How does science actually provide burial ages?
Grave sites can be dated by two different methods:
• by dating the actual bones or human remains, or
• by dating the age of the layers below and above the
grave.
Dating is a complex business and often provides
only approximate answers. Because some doubt
remained about the age of Mungo Man, a group
of scientists at the Australian National University
attempted to date the bones. Their results ranged from
50 000 to 70 000 years, and from this they estimated
the most probable age as near 62 000 years.
As this disagreed markedly with earlier estimates,
a team from four universities used a second dating
method—dating the age of the sand layers below and
above the grave. The results provided firm evidence
that both the Mungo Man and Mungo Lady burials
had occurred between 40 000 and 44 000 years ago.
An ancient people in a now
dry land
During the recent drought, landholders even on large
properties in this now dry region of western New
South Wales had great difficulty making a living
from the parched, dry landscape. It was too dry for
wheat and there was not enough water for sheep.
The occupants experienced extreme financial and
psychological stress.
By comparison, the occupants of that same
land 40 000 to 50 000 years earlier had enjoyed an
abundance of water and food, including fish and
freshwater mussels. Animals were abundant and
stone tools readily available. People lived and died on
sandy lakeshore beaches. The environment was almost
certainly able to sustain a larger population per square
kilometre than it supports today.
But the period of abundant water was not
permanent. The ice age, which had entered its early
phase of cooling 80 000 years ago, involved gradual
further cooling of the Earth as the ice caps expanded
in the northern hemisphere, particularly in North
America and Scandinavia. As temperatures dropped,
evaporation from the oceans decreased. Less water
was available for atmospheric transport, and so less
rainfall was available on the continents. In this way,
cold climates became drier.
By 40 000 years ago, the once abundant water had
begun to diminish. Some basins across Australia dried
completely and the dune fields expanded. People
gathered close to drying water bodies, living on the
remaining beaches and burying their dead there. At
about this time, large numbers of animals disappeared
completely from the land. This included giant
kangaroos, the giant lizard (Megalanea), the marsupial
lion (Thylacaleo) and many other
megafauna.
Many people believe this may have
been due to excessive hunting by
Aboriginal people. Others think it
may have been due to climate change.
It may have been aspects of both,
but certainly something of major
importance happened to the Australian
large animal populations at about
that time.
For the next 20 000 years the climate
oscillated between wet and dry. By
20 000 years ago, in the coldest part
of the ice age, the Willandra basins
had dried completely. Under these
conditions Bass Strait was dry and
dunes extended even as far as north-
east Tasmania. People adapted, learning
to live in these cold, harsh,
dry conditions.
Much of this story of landscape
change and human occupation has
emerged from Lake Mungo—this is
such an important site that it was
declared a national park in 1979. In
1981 it was listed as one of Australia’s
first World Heritage areas, known as
Willandra Lakes World Heritage area.
The significance of the
Lake Mungo area
Lake Mungo has national and
international significance, as it
provides us with a new understanding
of two important aspects of Australia:
• how the Australian landscape
evolved during dry ice age
conditions
• the antiquity and cultural patterns
of the earliest inhabitants of this
land.
We now know that, like Lake Mungo, every part
of Australia was affected by ice age conditions,
which were sometimes wetter, sometimes drier than
today. We now have a picture of people doing battle
with droughts and floods, just like us, only some
40 000 years ago.
A 60–40 000 years ago
N S
Golgol
B Earliest dune sands Lower Mungo quartz sand dune
in excavations Mungo man burial
Soil formed in Carbonate soil formed
earliest dunes over burial site
Gravel beach to Joulni
Golgol
C About 40 000 years ago
Dust
D About 32–25 000 years ago
Lake Mungo
E 20–18 000 years ago
Dust
Final dune layer
Joulni
A North-south diagram through Lake Mungo shoreline near the Mungo Man
burial site. Lake flooding extends north and south of the dune ridge.
B Shoreline enlargement shows vegetated beach and dune sands on
margin of freshwater lake with fish and shellfish used as human food
resources. Mungo Man was buried here as the lake began to dry near
44,000 years ago.
C Dry lake generates dust clouds sweeping across dry land adding to the
growth of Lake Mungo dune.
D Water returned briefly to the lake system approaching the time of maximum
glaciation in the upland catchments.
E Cold dry period of maximum glacial phase. Clouds of dust and salt were
swept from the dry lake floor.
Fig SF 7.4 Australia’s landscape at Lake Mungo has changed dramatically
over the past 40 000 years. People had to adapt to the changing
conditions in order to survive.
257
 Scientists and Aboriginal
communities at Mungo devised a
way of working together. In 1992,
on the sands at Mungo where
Mungo Lady had been buried
so long ago, her remains were
ceremonially handed back to the
tribal community. Politicians also
introduced laws that recognised
Aboriginal ownership of all
artefacts of indigenous cultural
heritage, and such ownership
remains with the traditional
owners of the appropriate region.
Lake Mungo today is affected by droughts. Fig SF 7.5 Today it is illegal to remove
Dunes and erosion can be seen clearly. or interfere with any object of
archaeological significance,
The discoveries at Lake Mungo took on new including stone tools, shell middens, ancient fire
significance in the early 1970s during the early battle places and, of course, human remains.
for Aboriginal land rights. The Aboriginal people’s This has resulted in a new relationship between
claim that they have been here for more than 40 000 Aboriginal people and the scientific community. At
years was enshrined in their banners of protest, and Lake Mungo and other places, members of indigenous
was supported by science. Their claim later gained communities must approve any scientific investigation
political recognition. of their past. Entire tribal communities now work
side by side with scientists in ongoing investigations,
Cultural battles exploring and expanding our understanding of
The contributions of science to Aboriginal Australia’s past, with its important implications for all
people have not always been so positive. For many Australians about the dignity and cultural status of the
years through the early twentieth century, human original occupants of this land.
biologists collected large numbers of Aboriginal
skeletons, trying to prove that the dark-skinned races Handing back the remains of Mungo Lady
were inferior to whites. They did this by measuring to the tribal community was a step towards
brain size from human skulls. Hundreds of graves ongoing collaboration between Aboriginal
Fig SF 7.6 communities and scientists.
were robbed, and the bones collected and sent to
universities and museums around the world. In this
way science had been used as a partner in committing
a great injustice against the Aboriginal people—
reverence for the dead had been forgotten and the
feelings of living descendants had been completely
disregarded.
Following the discoveries of Mungo Lady and
Mungo Man, the Aboriginal people of the region
protested that science, by once again disturbing their
dead, was committing a great offence against their
cultural traditions. At the same time some Aboriginal
people acknowledged the value of documenting their
own history, as this proved to the world their long-
established rights of occupancy.

258

Jim Bowler on the Lake Mungo dunes Fig SF 7.7
[ Student activities ]
1 a Outline some methods that might be used to
explore and develop our understanding of ice age
Australia.
b Propose reasons why such information is important
today.
c Compare life in arid regions of Australia today with
that of the people at Lake Mungo 40 000 years ago.
d Describe how the land near where you live may
have been affected by conditions in the last ice age.
2 Research your local area to answer the following
questions.
a Who are the traditional owners of the area in which
you live?
b What archaeological research has been carried out
near where you live?
3 Where did the first Australians come from and how did
they get here?
There are many theories about how people came
to occupy Australia. Conduct research to answer the
above question, and then share your findings with others
through an interactive presentation or display.
More information
Special thanks go to Jim Bowler for writing this
feature. Jim’s dedication to understanding Australia’s
past, present and future has also led him to produce
an interactive CD that covers geology, archaeology and
scientific history, including:
• Australia’s natural history and evolution
• swings in Australia’s ice age climate and
environment
• how ice age Australians lived
• early human–land relationships essential to
understanding the present
• more about the tensions between science and
indigenous traditions.
To obtain a copy of this CD, connect to
the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, select chapter 7
and click on the Destinations button.
4 a What is the relationship between Aboriginal
people and your own family’s ancestry?
b Where do you think your ancestors may have
been 40 000 years ago? Describe what their life
would have been like.
5 Lake Mungo National Park has tourist facilities to
allow people to explore the area.
a Investigate the features of the Mungo area that
make it an interesting tourist destination.
b Produce an information brochure, website or
display for tourists. Your brochure should outline:
• some of the attractions that may interest
tourists
• the cultural history of the area
• the discovery of Aboriginal remains at the site
• the importance of the scientific research that
has been done at Lake Mungo.
259

Chapter review
[ Summary questions ]
1 A whale has many adaptations that make it suited
it to its marine environment.
a Define the term ‘adaptation’.
b List some of the whale’s adaptations.
2 Natural selection is the process whereby the
environment selects favourable characteristics.
a Outline the meaning of the term ‘favourable
characteristics’.
b State the main outcome of natural selection acting on
a species.
3 Specify the events that are missing in the following
process:
Geographic isolation, ……..… …………., formation
of a subspecies, r…………. i…………., further natural
selection, formation of a species
4 Fossils can support the theory of evolution. Describe
how they do this.
5 a Clarify what is meant by ‘homologous structures’.
b Identify the type of evolution that gives rise to
homologous structures.
c Clarify what is meant by ‘analogous structures’.
d Identify the type of evolution that gives rise to
analogous structures.
6 Natural variation can occur within species. Identify two
sources of this.
7 Describe two ways in which knowledge of genetics has
improved our understanding of Darwin’s theory.
8 a Define the term ‘biogeography’.
b State one example of how biogeography provides
evidence of evolution.
9 Identify three anatomical features that distinguish
humans from primates.
10 List two ancestors of Homo sapiens.
11 Homo sapiens have undergone much non-physical
evolution. State a general term for this.
260
>>>
[ Thinking questions ]
12 Two scientists who have contributed to our understanding
of evolution are Lamarck and Darwin. For each idea
below, identify the scientist who developed it.
a evolution by inheritance of acquired characteristics
b adaptive radiation of the Galapagos Island finches
c evolution by natural selection
d organisms are guided through their struggle for
existence by a creative force
13 a Describe how Lamarck would account for the
evolution of an elephant’s trunk.
b Describe how Darwin would account for it.
c Compare the theories of Darwin and Lamarck.
14 List the following statements in sequence to explain the
process of natural selection.
i Rabbits with a gene for cold resistance survive, while
other rabbits die.
ii Over several generations the number of rabbits with
cold resistance increases.
iii Members of a rabbit population show variation in their
resistance to cold.
iv Offspring of the surviving rabbits inherit the gene for
cold resistance.
v The rabbits’ habitat becomes colder due to a major
climate change.
15 a State two ways in which a population may become
geographically isolated.
b Propose ways in which a geographically isolated
population would be likely to evolve differently from the
remainder of the species.
c Identify two factors which might cause a population to
become reproductively isolated from the remainder of
the species.
16 Chemical reactions are thought to have formed the first
living things on Earth. It is not possible for these reactions
to occur on Earth today. Explain why.
17 Present three possible reasons for the ‘gaps’ in the fossil
record of life on Earth.
18 a State two similarities between an early human embryo
and a fish embryo.
b Explain how these similarities may have come about.
19 Identify the description that matches the correct term.

Term Description
Parallel evolution Results in structurally similar but unrelated organisms
Convergent evolution Evolution that results in adaptive radiation
Divergent evolution Produces structurally similar, closely related organisms that live in different places

20 Use the theory of evolution to account for the following

observations. [ Interpreting questions ]
a The scales on a bird’s legs are similar to the scales on 24 Identify the fossil names that match the correct
a reptile’s body. classifications and approximate times of appearance.
b The ocelot (a placental cat found in South America)
and Australia’s marsupial cat are not genetically similar,
but have many similar features. Name Classification Time of appearance
c Many plant-eating mammals have a large, useful Upright man Homo sapiens (years ago)
appendix. Humans have a small, useless appendix. Cro-Magnon Homo habilis 40 000
21 Describe two changes which are thought to have Handy man Homo erectus 1.5 million
occurred in the evolution of Neanderthal Australopithecus 5 million
a Australopithecus afarensis to Homo habilis Lucy Homo sapiens 100 000
b Homo habilis to Homo erectus 2 million
c Cro-Magnon to modern humans
22 Copy the following statements and modify each to make
them correct. 25 Suppose the approximate 3600 million year history
a Adaptations are inherited characteristics. of life on Earth were condensed into a 24-hour day.
b Speciation usually involves reproductive isolation Select proposed times to match the events listed.
followed by geographic isolation of a population. Each hour would represent approximately 300 million
years.
c Charles Darwin was the first to think of the idea of
evolution.
d DNA testing shows that the closest species to humans Event Time
is the chimpanzee. Complex cells first appear 10.40 pm
e The fossil record shows clearly that all organisms have Australopithicines first appear 11.47 pm
evolved slowly and gradually. Dinosaurs become extinct 7.00 am
f A bat’s wing, a seal’s flipper and a human arm are all The Palaeozoic era begins 11.59 pm
homologous structures. Land organisms first appear 10.00 pm
g Modern humans evolved from modern apes.
h Most of Darwin’s ideas regarding evolution are now
thought to be incorrect. Worksheet 7.6 Evolution crossword 2
23 Present three alternative explanations for the existence
and diversity of life on Earth. Worksheet 7.7 Sci-words

261
 >>>
Global issues
Key focus area
>>> The implications of science
for society and the environment
8
By the end of this chapter you should
Outcomes
5.4, 5.6.5, 5.10, 5.11.1, 5.11.2, 5.12

be able to:
explain how greenhouse gases
cause global warming
explain how certain chemicals can
deplete the ozone layer
predict the consequences of
both global warming and ozone
depletion, and describe ways to
reduce these
identify commonly used fuels
describe the effects of different
energy sources
explain what happens when an
atom emits nuclear radiation
list some of the properties, uses
and problems of nuclear radiation
describe how energy is released
in a nuclear fission reaction
describe alternative energy
sources.

1 Most people like warm weather,

Pre quiz

so why is global warming a

concern?
2 Is El Niño a type of Mexican food
or a change in weather patterns?
3 You probably have some very
radioactive material in your home.
Where is it?
4 Radiation can both cause cancer
and be used to treat it. How?
5 What is an ‘alternative energy’?
UNIT
8.1
context
In the movie The Day After Tomorrow
extreme blizzards and colossal storm waves
devastate New York, tornadoes rip apart Los
Angeles, and huge hail pounds Tokyo. While
all this made a good film plot it’s not what
we can really expect from global warming.
The greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is caused by the gas carbon
dioxide (CO2) together with other trace gases in
the atmosphere. These gases, commonly called
greenhouse gases, provide a ‘blanket’ that keeps the
Earth warm. Too little carbon dioxide, and the planet
would be too cold to sustain life. Too much, and the
resulting high temperatures would also be unsuitable
for life. The greenhouse effect is natural and is
required for the continued survival of all Earth’s
species.
The hot car effect
A car left in the sun on a fine day can become very
unpleasant inside. The temperature can easily reach
50°C even when the temperature outside is only
between 20°C and 30°C. Heat enters the car easily
but much of the heat cannot escape. For this reason,
a b
Fig 8.1.1 a The surface temperature on Mars is –100°C. Its atmosphere is too thin to produce a life-sustaining greenhouse
effect. b The Earth’s atmosphere is just the right thickness to keep its average temperature at around 22°C. c A massive
greenhouse effect caused by Venus’s thick carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere causes surface temperatures of 500°C.
Scientists have investigated climate change for several
decades. It is only recently that they have looked at
its likely impact on specific locations. Will it be as
devastating as the events portrayed in the movie?
animals and young children should not be left in cars:
these high temperatures can kill. The greenhouse
effect could well have been called the ‘hot car effect’,
but it is named after greenhouses that trap heat from
the Sun to help plants grow more quickly.
How does it work?
Carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere
behave like the glass in a greenhouse or car
windows. Energy from the Sun reaches the Earth
as electromagnetic waves with a short wavelength.
These waves are able to pass through the atmosphere
(and glass). The energy is absorbed by the Earth and
re-emitted into the atmosphere as long-wavelength
radiation. Carbon dioxide (and glass) effectively
blocks the transmission of long-wavelength radiation,
stopping it from reaching space. Much of this energy
is therefore trapped in the atmosphere, warming the
Earth to a temperature suitable for life. If not for the
greenhouse effect, the Earth would be about 30°C
colder on average!
c
263
 Global warming
The enhanced greenhouse effect
Over the past century the levels of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide, have
increased. The blanket of greenhouse gases in the
Earth’s atmosphere has effectively become thicker.
>>>
This results in the enhanced greenhouse effect, where
the same amount of heat energy is coming
in from the Sun, but less is escaping back
into space. The enhanced greenhouse effect
is leading to global warming, increasing the Prac 1
p. 271
average temperature of Earth.

Greenhouse gases:
3HORTWAVELENGTHRADIATION )NNERLAYEROF
where do they come
PENETRATESATMOSPHERE GREENHOUSEGASES
INATMOSPHEREACTS from? Emergency!
LIKEAGREENHOUSE
The main greenhouse gas is Have you ever noticed
those green and white
carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide exit signs in cinemas and
-OSTENERGY
ISTRAPPEDIN is naturally cycled through shopping malls? There
THEATMOSPHERE the environment during are lots of them and they
WARMINGTHE all need electrical power.
%ARTH
photosynthesis and respiration. It is estimated that in New
3OMEENERGY
ESCAPESBACK Over Earth’s history the amount South Wales alone they
INTOSPACE of carbon dioxide in the generate 126 000 tonnes of
greenhouse gases (mainly
atmosphere has stayed fairly CO2), equivalent to the
stable since it is both absorbed output of 25 000 cars!
into living systems and released Self-illuminating signs
that draw their power from
back into the atmosphere.
sunlight or from other light
%ARTHABSORBSRADIATION
sources are available, but
ANDEMITSLONGER CO2 revolution make up only 1% of the
WAVELENGTHRADIATION
The factories, steamships and world’s exit signs.
a locomotives of the Industrial
Revolution needed fuel to
fire their boilers. This came mainly in the form of
3HORTWAVELENGTHRADIATION
timber or coal. The modern world also needs fuel. In
)NNERLAYEROF
PENETRATESATMOSPHERE GREENHOUSEGASES mainland Australia, coal is still used, mainly to fire
INATMOSPHEREACTS the boilers of electrical power stations.
LIKEAGREENHOUSE
Coal, and the other main
fuels, gas, petrol and oil, are
termed fossil fuels, since they
-OREENERGYIS
,ESSENERGY TRAPPEDINTHE are made from the fossilised
ESCAPESBACK ATMOSPHERE remains of long-dead plants
INTOSPACE You’ve got gas! and animals. Carbon dioxide
If we spread Australia’s
yearly produ ction of is released whenever fossil
CO2 over the surface of fuel is burnt. In effect, burning
mainland Tasmania (area ‘unlocks’ carbon that has been
64 103 km2) it would form
a three-metre high blanket
stored in the Earth for millions
over the island. of years, producing CO2 as it
%ARTHABSORBSRADIATION Each year Australia does so. Car exhausts, coal
ANDEMITSLONGER
produces 542 600 000 and gas power stations and
WAVELENGTHRADIATION
tonnes of greenhouse
gases, of which 70% is industry are leading producers
b CO2. One tonne of CO2 of carbon dioxide. The clearing
occupies 556 000 litres or of land (deforestation) by
556 m3 (about the volume
a The ‘natural’ greenhouse effect b The enhanced Fig 8.1.2 burning forests has a double
of a four-bedroom house).
greenhouse effect will lead to global warming. effect. Not only are greenhouse

264
 8.1

UNIT
Fig 8.1.3 a Burning fossil fuels is a leading source of excess CO2 in the atmosphere. b Land clearing releases stored CO2 into the air.

a b

gases released when forests burn, but the destroyed

trees are no longer available to store carbon dioxide. 
With our modern demand for fuel and electricity, 
humans are making more carbon dioxide—around 
27 billion tonnes per year—than ever before. Some is

absorbed, but the rest builds up in the atmosphere. Of

this 27 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide output, about:
• 7 billion tonnes are absorbed by oceans 
#/PPM

• 7 billion tonnes are taken up by forests 

• 13 billion tonnes accumulate in the atmosphere 
each year.

Other gases 
Although carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas, 
others include the following:

• Methane (CH4) is produced when vegetation      
breaks down in the absence of oxygen—e.g. in 9EAR
rice paddies and rubbish tips, and when cattle
(or you!) burp or pass wind. Methane is 21 times 
more effective than carbon dioxide in blocking the

escape of radiant heat from Earth. Luckily, less
methane than carbon dioxide is produced. 
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) is produced from burning

forests, car exhausts and artificial fertilisers.
#(PPM

• CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons were, until recently, 

used in aerosol spray cans, refrigerators and
air conditioners, to clean circuit boards and 
)CECORESAMPLES
in the manufacture of polyurethane foam used 
in packaging. They are now banned in many
countries and are becoming less commonly used 
     
worldwide. 9EAR
• Surface ozone is generated as part of Source: CSIRO
photochemical smog, produced by the action of
sunlight on motor vehicle and industrial pollution. Fig 8.1.4 Concentrations of carbon dioxide and
methane between the years 1000 and 2004

265
 Global warming >>> CO2 and temperature over 420 000 years
650
Predicted level CO2 in 2100
600

Australia produces 550

Australian greenhouse approximately 1.4% of 500
gas production
the world’s greenhouse 450
(excluding land clearing)

CO2 (ppm)
gases—per person this
Carbon dioxide 60% 400
makes it one of the world’s
Current level
Methane 26% worst greenhouse-polluting 350
20

Temperature (°C)
Nitrous oxide 6% countries. 300

Other 8% 10 250
Hanging around
200
Greenhouse gases remain 0
Source: CSIRO 2002 National Greenhouse in the atmosphere for many 150
Gas Inventory, released April 2004.
years. Carbon dioxide –10 100
400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 now
persists for more than 100 years, and methane remains
Years before present Predicted
for 11 years. You can see why we need to take action temperature
now to reduce emissions. rise by 2100
CO2 Temperature

Evidence in the ice Fig 8.1.6 Carbon dioxide levels over the past 420 000
Scientists collect ice cores from Antarctica by drilling years. The graph shows a prediction for the
into the ice. The deeper you go into the ice, the older year 2100 if humans keep increasing carbon
dioxide levels at the current rate.
the ice is, as new snow falls on top each year. When
the snow falls, air bubbles are trapped in the ice.
to go up and down, but the
Analysis of these trapped gases reveals the amount of
amount of carbon dioxide in the
carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere in the past.
atmosphere is now at its highest
So far scientists have drilled down 3.27 kilometres,
level ever. Notice that the Earth’s Killing Kyoto
which means we have data about carbon dioxide
temperature changes when the In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol
levels going back roughly 900 000 years.
amount of carbon dioxide in called for developed nations
The graph in Figure 8.1.6 shows carbon dioxide to reduce emissions of
the air changes. The troughs on
levels in the Earth’s atmosphere for the past 420 000 greenhouse gases by 5%
the temperature graph represent by 2012. The Australian
years. It is normal for the level of carbon dioxide
the ice ages, when average Government has decided not
temperature was up to six to ratify the Kyoto Protocol
Part of an Antarctic ice core showing because it is not in Australia’s
Fig 8.1.5 hundreds of tiny trapped air bubbles degrees lower than today. The economic interest to do so.
peaks are when warmer periods The government is committed,
occurred on Earth. however, to Australia’s target
level agreed under the Kyoto
Protocol. Over the period
The future 2008–2012, greenhouse gas
emissions will be limited to
Predicting the only 8% more than the levels
temperature rise emitted in 1990. To achieve
this, all Australians will need to
Over the past 100 years or so, conserve energy.
the Earth’s average surface
temperature has increased
by about 0.5°C and a further increase of between 1°C
and 4°C is expected by the end of this century. Such
a rise, though seemingly small, is enough to raise sea
levels by an estimated half a metre—possibly up to a
metre—and cause flooding of low-lying coastlines due
to the increase of water in the oceans and melting of
land ice. Many of the island nations in the Pacific and
Indian Oceans would virtually disappear.

266
 8.1

UNIT


YEARMEAN


4EMPERATUREANOMALIES#

n

n

2EFERENCEPERIOD

n
         
9EAR
Source: Bureau of Meteorology

Fig 8.1.7 Temperatures in Australia compared to the

1961–1990 average

5
Temperature change (°C)

4 range due to emissions

See us while we’re still here! uncertainty and climate
a little above the waters
The island nation of the Maldives is only 3
response uncertainty range due
constructed in the past
of the Indian Ocean. Breakwaters have been to emissions
capita l, Mali, from rising waters. In 2004, the uncertainty
ten years to protect its
rectan gular artificial island 2
Maldives completed construction of a
te the popu lation of Mali, which is expected to
that will accommoda marketing
t board is now
‘go under’ in the next 40 years. The touris visit in the
1
ation that will be impo ssible to
the Maldives as a destin ns (USA ),
as New Orlea
future. Some cities around the world, such 0
sea level. Other s, such as Lond on (UK) and
are already below 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
are threatened with every
Venice (Italy), are just above sea level and Year
tide. Barrie rs to prote ct them have been built for
storm surge or king-
ed for Venice. Will this be
New Orleans and London, and are plann
future ? Imag ine a wall betwe en Sydney Heads!
commonplace in the Predicted global warming compared to 1990 Fig 8.1.8

Australian scientists predict that some of the

Predicting local effects following changes may occur:
We do not fully understand the implications of • The melting of much of the polar ice caps will
global warming for society and the environment. raise sea levels, flooding coasts, cities and some
Some regions will be drier, some wetter, some cooler entire island countries.
and most will be hotter. We can also expect more • Liquid water expands slightly when warmed and
storms, droughts, floods, hurricanes and temperature so the oceans will expand, also raising sea levels,
extremes. causing further flooding.

267
 Global warming >>>
• Increases in the numbers of wild storms and
cyclones. Cyclones could move further south.
• More droughts and heatwaves
• More bushfires
• Less rain and snow. Managing and saving water
will become more important.
• Habitats will change, causing the extinction of
some animals and plants.
• Increased temperatures may cause bacteria to grow
faster, causing more disease in humans and other
organisms.
• Some plants may grow faster with higher Fig 8.1.10 Antarctica covers twice
temperatures. This would be good for farmers, but the area of Australia.
less rain may mean fewer plants grow and fewer
varieties can survive.
El Niño Antarctic meltdown
If all the ice in Antarctica
• Increased heat may cause more Another factor adding to weather were to melt, sea levels
extremes, possibly blurring the would rise by 61 metres!
heat stroke and illness.
If the rest of the ice in
Prac 2 effect of global warming, is the the world were taken into
p. 271
El Niño effect. The water of the account, the rise would
Pacific Ocean is warmer than be 68 metres, with many
inland areas becoming
other oceans. In a normal year,
beachfronts!
trade winds push this warmer
Antarctic statistics
water west towards the east coast
An angry beast Area: 14.2 million square
Historical records show that abrupt clima of Australia, where high levels kilometres or 10% of Earth’s
te change is not only
possible—it is the normal state of affairs. of evaporation cause normal surface (double that of
The present warm, stable
climate is a rare anomaly. Scientists need Australia)
to learn as much as they can amounts of rainfall. Every few
about the climate system to enable them to Ice thickness: average
predict when the next abrupt years, the El Niño effect occurs,
shift in climate will come. In the words of 2.5 kilometres, maximum
geochemist, Dr Wallace S.
Broecker, ‘the climate system is an angry
beast, and we are poking it’. in which trade winds weaken or 4.7 kilometres
reverse, allowing warmer water Elevation: average
to move towards the west coast of 2300 kilometres (Australia’s
average elevation is
Worksheet 8.1 Temperature change predictions South America around Christmas 340 metres)
time (El Niño means ‘Christ Ice content: 90.6% of the
Worksheet 8.2 Global warming revision
child’ in Spanish). The result world’s ice
is that Australia experiences Fresh water: 70% of the
world’s fresh water
Will this become a more common sight in the future? Fig 8.1.9 drought and South America
experiences increased rainfall.

%VAPORATIONOFWARM
4RADEWINDSFAILTOKEEP WATERPRODUCES
WARMWATERINTHEWEST STORMCLOUDSOVER
3OUTH!MERICA

0ACIFIC/CEAN

WATERCOOLER #URRENTHELPSTOPUSHWARM WATERWARMER

THANUSUAL WATERTOWARDS3OUTH!MERICA THANUSUAL

COLDWATERTRAPPEDUNDERWARMWATER

The El Niño effect Fig 8.1.11

268

8 .1 [ Questions]
UNIT
Checkpoint
The greenhouse effect
1 State the name of the main gas responsible for the
greenhouse effect.
2 Explain why greenhouse gases are useful to the Earth.
3 Explain how greenhouse gases trap heat from the Sun.
4 Without greenhouse gases outline how the temperature
of Earth would change.
The enhanced greenhouse effect
5 State the cause of the enhanced greenhouse effect.
6 Describe how the enhanced greenhouse may affect
Earth’s climate.
Greenhouse gases: where do they come
from?
7 List two causes of carbon dioxide build-up in the
atmosphere.
8 Clearing land can enhance the greenhouse effect.
Explain how.
9 State the amount of carbon dioxide now being released.
10 List all the greenhouse gases.
11 Use an example to clarify how long greenhouse gases
persist in the atmosphere.
Evidence in the ice
12 Scientists use ice cores to determine the levels of
greenhouse gases in the past. Explain how air becomes
trapped in the ice.
13 Outline how the levels of carbon dioxide in air bubbles
in ice cores have changed in the past 420 000 years.
14 Describe the relationship between the level of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and the Earth’s temperature
over the past 420 000 years.
The future
15 Identify the average temperature rise during the past
100 years.
A 0.3°C
B 1.0°C
C 0.5°C
D 5°C
16 The effects of global warming on the weather are largely
uncertain. List three possible effects.
El Niño
17 Clarify what is meant by the term ‘El Niño’.
18 Outline two effects of El Niño on Australia.
8.1
UNIT
Think
19 Methane blocks the escape of radiant heat much more
than carbon dioxide. Explain then why carbon dioxide
and not methane is considered the main greenhouse
gas.
20 Imagine that all greenhouse gas emissions stopped
today. What impact would this have on concentrations
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere? Justify your
answer.
21 Discuss how global warming might cause greater
rainfall.
22 Many believe that the technology exists to produce cars
that travel twice as far on each tank of fuel. Assuming
that such technology does exist, propose reasons why
such cars are not being manufactured.
Analyse
23 Given adequate rainfall and suitable temperatures,
wheat yields may actually increase in response to higher
CO2 concentrations. Assess why.
24 Analyse whether population control would reduce
global warming.
25 Permafrost is permanently frozen soil and is found in
many resorts and villages in European mountain ranges.
Predict a dangerous phenomenon that may occur in
these regions as a consequence of global warming.
26 Use Figure 8.1.1 to identify which planet near Earth has
a very enhanced greenhouse effect.
Skills
27 Copy and complete the following table to summarise
the main greenhouse gases, their chemical formulas
and sources.
Greenhouse gas Chemical formula Sources
28 The following question relates to the graphs of carbon
dioxide and methane concentrations in the atmosphere
in Figure 8.1.4.
a Describe atmospheric levels of each gas between
the years 1000 and 1400.
b Identify when the amount of carbon dioxide and
methane in the atmosphere suddenly increased.
>>
269
 Global warming >>>
c Estimate the rise in CO2 and CH4 concentrations 32 Use the temperature change graph in Figure 8.1.8 to
between the years 1800 and 2000. answer the following questions.
d Calculate as percentages your answers to part c. a There are two pairs of lines on the graph due to two
29 Construct a pie chart showing Australian production of factors affecting temperature rise. Describe what
greenhouse gases. they are.
30 A single cow emits an amazing 280 litres of methane b Assess the range of the global average temperature
as burps and farts every day. The number of cattle in rise (compared to 1990) in:
Australia (referred to as the ‘national herd’) is about i 2040 ii 2080
27 million. Estimate the volume of methane emitted by 33 There is roughly one car for every two people in the
the national herd: United States (population 293 million people). In China
a per day b per year (whose population is over 1300 million or 1.3 billion
31 Carbon dioxide emissions per person for several people) the figure is approximately one car for every
countries are listed below. 1400 people. There are currently about 500 million cars
a Construct a column graph showing this information. in the world.
a Estimate how many cars are in the United States.
b Use these figures to deduce which countries produce b Estimate how many cars are in China.
the most or least carbon dioxide per person. c Estimate how many cars would be in China if the
car-to-person ratio was the same as that in the
United States.
Country Carbon dioxide emissions per capita,
2003 (tonnes per 1000 people)
d Analyse the consequences for global warming if China
had the same car-to-person ratio as the United States.
Australia 18.9
United States 19.8
Canada 16.2
b Explain how each of these is thought to be linked to
New Zealand 8.3
global warming.
Germany 10.2 c Evaluate the impact of these phenomena on the
United Kingdom 9.3 Australian climate.
Japan 9.6
Surf
5 Use the Australian Greenhouse Calculator to
investigate the household gas emissions in your house by
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion Website at
[ Extension ] www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting chapter 8 and
clicking on the destinations button.
a Complete the investigation and write a report including
Investigate bar graphs to show your household emissions
1 Research the climate projections of organisations compared to ‘green’ and ‘typical’ household usage.
like the CSIRO and the United States Environment b Recommend actions that can reduce your greenhouse
Protection Agency and construct a poster that gas emissions.
summarises their findings.
2 a Research the Kyoto protocol in order to
summarise Australia’s position on this. Creative writing
b Write a letter to the government arguing whether or
not Australia should sign the Kyoto protocol. Back Greenhouse politics
your arguments with as much evidence as possible.
Several countries (including Australia) are reluctant to
3 Research and construct a map showing the
agree to definite targets for reduction of greenhouse gases
countries or islands most at risk of partially or totally
because their governments think this could harm their
disappearing due to rises in sea levels.
economies. What does this mean? What is your opinion?
4 a Research El Niño, La Niña and the North Atlantic
Oscillation (NAO).

270
 8.1

UNIT
8 .1 [ Practical activities ]
UNIT

The greenhouse effect

Aim To simulate the conditions 2 Turn on the lamp and measure the temperature at
Prac 1 required for the greenhouse effect regular intervals (e.g. every minute) for 10 minutes.
Unit 8.1
Equipment 3 Turn off the lamp, but continue to measure temperature
Small cardboard box (e.g. a shoebox), for another 10 minutes.
2 thermometers or temperature probes and 4 If time permits, investigate the effect of an additional
datalogging equipment, sheet of glass or polythene layer of glass or plastic.
plastic, lamp
Questions
Method
1 Construct a graph showing temperature versus time
1 Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 8.1.12.
for each section of the box.
2 Summarise any differences in the temperature patterns
Fig 8.1.12
in each section.
3 Describe what takes the place of the glass or plastic
light source sheet in the global greenhouse effect.
4 Identify what adding another layer of glass or plastic
represents if modelling the Earth.
glass or perspex sheet

temperature probe

mark water
to levels
datalogger

shoebox ice cubes

water

ice

Icebergs Fig 8.1.13

Aim To investigate the effect of melting ice on
Prac 2 water levels
Unit 8.1 3 Allow each beaker to warm enough so a significant
Equipment amount of ice melts in each.
Ice cubes (4–6), cold water, beaker, another identical beaker 4 Compare the water level to that initially marked on
containing frozen water as shown in Figure 8.1.13. each beaker.
Method
Questions
1 Place some ice cubes (representing icebergs) in the
empty beaker. 1 Deduce whether the melting of floating icebergs
2 Add the same amount of water to each of the two contributes to a rise in sea levels.
beakers and mark the water level on the outside of each 2 Deduce whether the melting of ‘land ice’ contributes
beaker. to a rise in sea levels.

271
 UNIT
>>>

8.2
context

The ozone layer acts as a shield, absorbing
around 90% of the harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the Sun. Though we need
some UV rays on our skin for production
of vitamin D for healthy bones, high levels
increase the likelihood of skin cancers and eye
damage. High UV levels also slow photosynthesis
in plants. The ozone layer is vital to life on Earth.
Its depletion poses a major threat to us all.

Ultraviolet light also splits ozone molecules, so

ozone is continually being created and destroyed, with
What is ozone? UV light being absorbed in the process. The region of
Ozone is a gas that occurs naturally in the stratosphere the stratosphere in which ozone is thinly distributed
at about 20 to 30 kilometres above the Earth’s surface. is called the ozone layer.
When people refer to oxygen, they usually mean the
oxygen we use when we breathe. This type of oxygen,
Ozone creation in the atmosphere Fig 8.2.2
O2, consists of molecules each made of two oxygen
atoms. Ozone, O3, is another naturally occurring form
of oxygen, the molecules being made of three oxygen
56LIGHT
atoms. Ozone is a colourless gas that has a very
pungent odour. Although ozone performs a vital role
OXYGENMOLECULES
in the stratosphere, at ground level it is a pollutant. It INATMOSPHERE
is poisonous, causing eye, nose and throat irritation
and lung damage, and has even been found to cause
asthma.
FREEOXYGENATOMS

NEWLYCREATED
OZONEMOLECULE

oxygen oxygen molecule ozone molecule

atom (used when we breathe)

Chlorofluorocarbons
Fig 8.2.1 Oxygen atoms, O, may combine with each other
to form oxygen, O2, or ozone molecules, O3.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were invented in the
1920s and were once called ‘wonder chemicals’
because they were non-poisonous, odourless, stable
The ozone layer and cheap to produce. Until recently they were used
Ozone is created when UV light splits oxygen extensively as propellants for aerosol sprays and as
molecules in the stratosphere into single oxygen coolant gases in refrigerators and air conditioners.
atoms. These single oxygen atoms then join other They also made the bubbles within polystyrene
oxygen molecules to form triplets of oxygen atoms, or and other foam packaging. We now know that CFCs
ozone molecules. are greenhouse gases and can destroy ozone. They
do this by drifting upwards into the stratosphere
O2 + O → O3
272
 8.2

UNIT
where they break down, releasing chlorine. Each • Volcanoes also release hydrogen chloride.
chlorine molecule released this way reacts with • Lightning causes reactions that split ozone
ozone molecules, breaking them apart into oxygen molecules.
molecules and oxygen atoms. The chlorine acts
as a catalyst and is not part of any new substance The hole story
formed. It is then free to go on and destroy more The ‘thickness’ of the ozone layer is measured in
ozone molecules! Dobson units or DU. Remember that the ozone is
spread throughout a region of the stratosphere, so
Common ozone-depleting gases and their average the term ‘thickness’ is somewhat misleading. In
life in the atmosphere considering ozone layer ‘thickness’, we imagine all the
ozone brought down to ground level and concentrated
Gas Chemical formula Average life in into a pure ozone layer. One hundred Dobson units
atmosphere (years) correspond to a layer of pure ozone one millimetre
CFC 11 CCl3F 65 thick at ground level. Remote-sensing satellites collect
CFC 12 CCl2F2 110 data on the amount of ozone in the stratosphere. If all
CFC 13 CClF3 160
the ozone molecules in the ozone layer were brought
to ground level, it would form a layer averaging only
Freon (Halon 1301) CF3Br 110
500 DU (5 mm) thick.
Nitrous oxide N2O 130 A value of less than 220 DU is considered to be an
Methane CH4 11 ozone ‘hole’. The ozone hole situated over Antarctica
was discovered by British scientist Dr Joseph Farman
in 1985. The Antarctic ozone hole appears at around
Chlorine atoms continue a cycle of the end of winter in August each year, and is most
Fig 8.2.3 ozone destruction. pronounced by the end of October, when the day
breaks after the Antarctic winter. At this time chlorine
ozone is very effective at breaking down ozone molecules.
molecule In November, winds carry ozone-rich air from other
regions over the Antarctic, repairing the hole, but
+ +
leaving lower ozone levels over Australia and New
chlorine oxygen Zealand.
monoxide molecule

chlorine atom
released by
CFC molecule 
that has drifted
into stratosphere chlorine released to attack 
another ozone molecule

4OTALOZONE$OBSONUNITS



Other ozone attackers 

CFCs are not the only ozone destroyers. 
• Nitrogen oxides also speed up ozone destruction.

These gases are produced when jet aircraft engines
burn fuel. Supersonic aircraft fly higher and inject  -ONTHLYAVERAGESFOR/CTOBER
these gases directly into the stratosphere.

• The space shuttle releases ozone-attacking     
hydrogen chloride when its boosters fire during 9EAR
launch. Each launch releases 68 tonnes of
hydrogen chloride gas (gaseous hydrochloric acid!) Fig 8.2.4 Ozone layer ‘thickness’ over Antarctica
into the atmosphere. in past years

273
 The ozone layer >>>




!REAMILLIONSOFSQUAREKM






AREAOF!USTRALIA


















9EAR

Fig 8.2.5 A graph of the size of the ozone ‘hole’ between 1979 A NASA satellite image of the recorded ozone Fig 8.2.6
and 2003, obtained from satellite-based instruments ‘hole’, taken on 9 September 2000. Blue
denotes regions of low ozone concentration.

The future
One hundred nations agreed in the Montreal Protocol Already there is some evidence that the reduction
of 1987 to either stop manufacture of, or limit their in the use of CFCs is starting to have an effect. Recent
use of, CFCs by 2000 or earlier. Despite most nations monitoring has indicated that the ozone hole is now
honouring their commitment to the protocol, levels not as big as the record hole in September 2000. It
of CFCs in the atmosphere are still rising, as it takes is hoped that international cooperation to repair the
10 years or more for them to reach the ozone layer. damage is working. Only time will tell the whole
Unfortunately, many developing countries still use story. Meanwhile, apply that sunscreen!
CFCs as they are cheap and easy to make. It is expected
that ozone levels will return to normal by 2045. Worksheet 8.3 Analysing ozone

8.2 [ Questions]
UNIT

Checkpoint
What is ozone? 9 List four ways in which CFCs have been used.
1 State where ozone can be found in the atmosphere. 10 Identify the element in CFCs that does the actual damage
2 Draw a diagram to demonstrate the difference between to ozone.
oxygen and ozone. 11 Identify two other sources of the element identified in
3 List two physical properties of ozone. Question 10.
4 Outline the harmful effects of ozone. 12 Apart from CFCs, describe other ways in which ozone
can be destroyed.
The ozone layer
The hole story
5 Use a diagram to demonstrate how ozone is formed in
the upper atmosphere. 13 State the name and abbreviation of the units for
measuring ozone.
6 Define ‘ozone layer’.
14 Clarify how much ozone is described by 100 DU.
Chlorofluorocarbons
15 Identify the level of ozone measurement that indicates an
7 List three properties of CFCs. ozone ‘hole’.
8 Use a diagram to describe how CFCs destroy ozone.

274

16 The Antarctic ozone hole varies throughout the year.
Identify the time of year when the ozone layer is the
thinnest.
The future
17 List the major outcome of the Montreal Protocol.
18 CFC levels in the atmosphere are still rising. Explain
whether the levels will ever reduce.
Think
19 Contrast the effects of ozone in the stratosphere with
ground level ozone.
20 List some harmful and beneficial effects of UV radiation.
21 A thinner ozone layer could affect food supplies. Propose
reasons why.
22 The ozone layer occupies a space between 20 and 30
kilometres above the Earth. This is a layer 10 kilometres
thick. Account for it also being described as 5 millimetres
thick.
23 The term ‘ozone hole’ is not entirely correct. Explain why.
24 The ozone hole is not directly over Australia but we are
still concerned about it. Discuss why.
25 High levels of UV can reduce the number of plankton
(microscopic plants and animals in the oceans). Predict
some possible consequences of this.
26 Identify a way of telling whether a spray can is ozone
friendly.
Analyse
27 Use Figure 8.2.5 to identify:
a the largest area of the ozone hole recorded.
b when this record-sized hole occurred.
28 Explain why there are short lines extending on each side
of the points on the graph in Figure 8.2.4.
29 Analyse Figure 8.2.5 to clarify the following:
a the area of the ozone hole (in millions of square
kilometres):
i in 1982
ii in 1995
b when the ozone hole first measured:
i 20 million square kilometres
ii 150 DU
c when the ozone hole became larger than Antarctica
(which has an area of about 14 million square
kilometres)
Skills
30 If all the ozone in an ozone layer that measures
220 Dobson units were brought to ground level, calculate
the thickness of this pure ozone.
8.2
UNIT
31 Construct a graph to estimate the ozone thickness
we could expect if:
a CFC use stopped immediately
b CFC use continues at the present rate
c CFC use increases
[ Extension ]
Investigate
1 a Investigate specific types of eye damage caused
by UV radiation.
b Produce a brochure aimed at increasing the
public’s awareness of the risk of UV exposure to
the eyes.
2 TOMS is an instrument carried by a satellite to
measure the ozone layer.
a Conduct Internet research into TOMS
measurements.
b Examine the data presented and produce a news
report commenting on the current status of ozone
over Australia.
3 a Research details of the Montreal Protocol.
b Summarise Australia’s participation in the
agreement.
Action
4 a Construct and report on a survey of chemicals
used as propellants in spray cans.
b Assess whether the ozone layer is at risk from
these products.
c Ozone-friendly chemicals are being used in place
of CFCs. Investigate two of these chemicals and
evaluate their effectiveness.
Creative writing
Ozone hole—fact or fiction?
Articles have appeared in the press suggesting
that the ozone hole is part of a natural cycle, and
will disappear without the need for humans to take
corrective action. Write an article in response, either
supporting or arguing against these articles. Include
an attention-grabbing headline and scientific evidence
to back your opinions.
275
 UNIT
>>>

8.3
context

Sunlight is a form of radiation, as are radio

waves. The term ‘radiation’ refers to energy
in the form of fast-moving particles or
electromagnetic waves. Nuclear radiation,
as the name suggests, is radiation that radioactive. Uranium and most of the elements after it
comes from the nucleus of an atom. in the periodic table (atoms of higher atomic number)
Controlled nuclear radiation can be very useful. It are radioactive.
can treat medical conditions like cancer and can be
used to generate electricity. It can also be extremely Atoms and isotopes
dangerous if it leaks accidentally from nuclear Atoms with the same number of protons belong to the
waste from medical use or from power plants. same element. Isotopes are atoms of the same element
that have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.
For example, all lithium atoms have three protons.
Ninety-three per cent of all lithium atoms have three
Radiation and radioactivity neutrons. The rest have four. Hence lithium has two
isotopes, which we can write as:
There are 92 protons in the nuclei of uranium atoms.
They are all positively charged and each one repels MASS NUMBER = number of protons + neutrons
the others. Logic says they should fly apart and the 6 7
nucleus should disintegrate into 92 parts. But this 3 Li and
3 Li
doesn’t happen. Protons in a nucleus stay together
because of another more powerful force, called the ATOMIC NUMBER = number of protons
nuclear force. Nuclear force acts Uranium atoms always have 92 protons. The
between all particles in most common isotope has 146 neutrons, a less
a nucleus and is more common isotope has 143 neutrons and a few have
than sufficient to hold 142 neutrons. Hence we can write them as:
the nuclei of small atoms 238 235 234
92 U 92 U 92 U
together. When a nucleus A radioactive
becomes very large, discovery Not surprisingly, a radioactive isotope is called a
however, the nuclear When French scientist radioisotope. When referring to a radioisotope, we
Henri Becquerel placed
force might not be strong some uranium in a dark often give just its mass number. Because all uranium
enough to hold the nucleus drawer containing some atoms are radioactive, the radioisotopes of uranium
together and bits might wrapped photographic could be written as uranium-234, uranium-235 and
plates in 1896, he was
break off. In doing so, uranium-238. Actinium, astatine, carbon, francium,
surprised to find later that
the nucleus gets smaller the plates had become thorium, protactinium, polonium, radon and radium
and more stable. Nuclear foggy . He deduced that they are all radioactive elements and, like uranium, occur
must have been affected by
radiation is the energy naturally. Many synthetic or ‘artificial’ elements are
something coming from the
and the particles that are uranium, something able to also radioactive.
released from the nucleus penetrate the wrapping. He Hydrogen has three isotopes. Approximately 99% is
in its break-up. An element had observed one effect of ‘normal’ (stable and not radioactive), 1% is deuterium
radioactivity.
whose atoms emit nuclear (stable but toxic in high doses) and a few are tritium.
radiation is said to be Tritium is unstable—it is a radioisotope.

276
 8.3

UNIT
Three isotopes of hydrogen Fig 8.3.1 Three types of nuclear radiation
When a radioisotope emits radiation, it usually
transforms into another element. We say it has
undergone radioactive decay. There are three main
types of radioactive decay, each emitting a different
type of radiation:
HYDROGEN  HYDROGEN  HYDROGEN 
HYDROGENOR DEUTERIUM TRITIUM • alpha radiation
PROTIUM • beta radiation
  
 (  (  ( • gamma radiation.
+EY 0ROTON .EUTRON %LECTRON Alpha radiation
One way in which radioactive nuclei can get smaller
and more stable is by throwing out a cluster of two
protons and two neutrons. This cluster is known as
an alpha particle (denoted by α), but is really just a
helium nucleus, 42He.
Uranium-238 emits an alpha particle and in doing
Marie and Pierre Curie so decays into thorium-234, as shown in Figure 8.3.3.
n husband Pierre
Polish-born Marie Curie and her French-bor
ering work with uranium and
Curie are famous for their pione
mittin g eleme nts. Marie was first to use the term Fig 8.3.3 Alpha decay
other radiation-e element
us the name for the
‘radioactivity’, her birthplace gave
and the Curie s’ surna me becam e the name for
polonium, Po,
Nobel Prize for physics alpha
curium, Cm. The couple shared the 1903 uranium-238 thorium-234
uerel . In 1911 , Marie becam e the first person to particle
with Henri Becq
award ed the Nobel Prize for
win two Nobel Prizes when she was
her disco very of radiu m and polon ium. Pierre was
chemistry for
n vehic le in 1906 and Marie
killed in an accident with a horse-draw
in 1934 , proba bly as a resul t of worki ng so closely
died of leukemia 238 234 4
with radioisotopes for most of her life. U Th + α
92 90 2

The equation is balanced, with the same number

of protons and neutrons on each side. You can check
by adding up the mass numbers on the product side
of the reaction: they add up to 238, the same as we
started with. Likewise, the atomic numbers add up to
92.
Alpha particles move at speeds of up to one-tenth
the speed of light. Alpha decay can be thought of as
nuclear fission, since a parent nucleus splits into two
daughter nuclei.

Beta radiation
When there is an imbalance of neutrons and protons
in a nucleus, a neutron may change into a proton and
an electron. The newly created electron is called a
beta particle (denoted by β), which is then emitted
from the nucleus.
Carbon-14 is a radioisotope that decays into a
new element, nitrogen, by emitting a beta particle
from its nucleus. We can represent this decay as in
Fig 8.3.2 Marie Curie
Figure 8.3.4.

277
 Nuclear radiation: good or evil? >>>
Beta decay Fig 8.3.4

alpha
carbon-14 nitrogen-14 particle
+ beta particle beta
particle

gamma
14 14 0
6C 7 N + –1
β ray

An extra proton has been created from a neutron,

so the atomic number of the atom increases from 6 to
7, meaning that a new element has been formed. The thick sheet
of paper
mass number of the beta particle is zero since it really
is just an electron, and they have negligible mass. The
–1 at the bottom indicates the negative charge on a 1 mm sheet
of aluminium
beta particle. Once again, the atomic numbers give the
same total (6 = 7 + –1).
several centimetres
Beta particles move at speeds of up to nine-tenths of lead or concrete
the speed of light and so pass through materials better
than alpha particles.
Fig 8.3.6 The penetration abilities of alpha, beta and
gamma radiation. Alpha particles are stopped
Gamma radiation by a thick sheet of paper or human skin;
Both alpha and beta radiation consist of particles. beta particles are stopped by a thin sheet of
Earlier it was mentioned that radiation may also be in aluminium; and most gamma rays are stopped
by a thick layer of lead or concrete, though
the form of electromagnetic waves or rays. Sometimes some still get through.
when an alpha particle or beta particle is emitted from
a nucleus, the new nucleus is still unstable, and emits Worksheet 8.4 Uranium decay series
extra energy in the form of a gamma ray to become
more stable. A gamma ray (denoted by γ) is a burst of
high-frequency electromagnetic radiation that has no Half-life
mass or charge. Gamma rays are more powerful than The time required for half of the atoms in any given
X-rays. quantity of a radioactive isotope to decay is the half-
The beta decay of iodine-131 is accompanied by life of that isotope. Each particular isotope has its own
gamma emission as shown in Figure 8.3.5. half-life.
Like all electromagnetic radiation, gamma rays
move at the speed of light (300 000 km/s). Their Some common radioisotopes and their half-lives
incredible speed means they penetrate materials even
more than beta particles.
Radioisotope Half-life
Radon-222 4 days
Fig 8.3.5 Gamma decay
Iodine-131 8 days

iodine-131 xenon-131 Cobalt-60 5.3 years

+ beta particle Americium-241 460 years

gamma ray Carbon-14 5730 years

Plutonium-239 24 000 years
131 131 0 0
53
I
54
Xe +
–1
β +
0
γ Uranium-238 4.5 million years

278
 8.3

UNIT
Effects of radiation
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation
are sometimes called ionising
radiation because of their ability to
ionise (knock electrons off) atoms or
molecules, causing them to become
charged. Charged atoms or molecules
are called ions. Alpha particles have
after 1 after 2 after 3
half-life half-lives half-lives high ionising ability, while beta and
gamma radiation have low ionising
ability. Because ions attract other
Fig 8.3.7 The number of atoms of a radioactive element in a sample halves
after each half-life. How many radioactive atoms would you expect atoms and molecules, they are more
to remain after one more half-life? likely to become involved in chemical
reactions. If these radiations hit body
A 1 kg sample of pure uranium-238 would decay cells, they may cause chemical reactions that can:
over time to leave the following amounts: • destroy cells—this may appear as
a ‘burn’. Cells on that site may not
be replaced.
Time Mass of U-238 in sample • cause abnormal cell growth—this
0 years 1 kg may appear as a tumour or Radioactive water
4.5 million years 500 g
cancer. In Fujian province in
China, millions of people
9 million years 250 g Measuring radiation obtain drinking water
13.5 million years 125 g Nuclear radiation may be detected from wells in granite rock.
Radon-222 leaches from
18 million years 62.5 g using a Geiger counter. Gas the granite into the water,
Prac 1
p. 284 molecules within a tube are ionised making it 150 times more
by any radiation that enters. The radioactive than water in
more developed counties.
resulting ions produce a pulse of Not surprisingly, cancer
Sources of nuclear radiation electrical current that is fed to a rates in the region are the
small speaker and counter. The highest in China.
Nuclear radiation may be produced artificially by
speaker makes a clicking sound
bombarding atoms with neutrons or other subatomic
with each pulse of current. The
particles. Most radiation we receive comes from
activity of a radioactive sample is the number of
natural sources, however. The Earth is continually
disintegrations per second, and gives an indication of
being struck by solar radiation and cosmic radiation
the number of radioisotopes present.
produced, for example, by collapsing stars. Terrestrial
People working in areas of high radiation levels,
radiation originates from substances in the Earth’s
such as at nuclear facilities or medical staff, wear
crust. The decay of natural underground uranium
special detectors called dosimeters.
produces radioactive radon gas, which we inhale in
the air we breathe.

Source Approximate percentage of

annual radiation received
Terrestrial (from natural radioactive underground deposits) 75%
Solar and cosmic (from space) 13%
Medical (from medical procedures and X-rays) 10%
Manufactured (from burning coal, electromagnetic devices, fallout from weapons testing) 2%

279
 Nuclear radiation: good or evil? >>>
Uses of nuclear
radiation
Nuclear medicine
Nuclear radiation is not
always bad. Radioisotopes
can cause cancers but are also
used in nuclear medicine
to diagnose and treat them.
Radiotherapy involves
directing high, localised doses
of radiation to cancer sites
by using an external focused
beam or a surgical implant, or
by swallowing a radioactive
medicine. Rapidly dividing
cells such as cancerous cells
are more sensitive to nuclear
radiation than other cells—
Radioactive money!
Between 1945 and 1989
Germany was divided into
two separate countries (East
and West Germany). As part
of the ‘cold war’, East German
secret police used radioactive
scandium-46 to invisibly label
political opponents so they
could be tracked using hidden
Geiger counters that vibrated
in response to radioactivity.
Labelling occurred in a variety
of ways. Floors were treated,
as were documents and
money. This practice exposed
victims and anyone near
them to dangerous levels of
radioactivity, since scandium-46
is both a beta and a gamma
emitter. Radioactive cash in your
pocket would both give you
away to the secret police and
very likely reduce your fertility!

This device directs gamma rays from cobalt-60

Fig 8.3.9 onto cancerous growths within the body.

Fig 8.3.8 A researcher using a Geiger counter

to monitor radiation

There are several units for measuring nuclear

radiation doses. One of the main units is sieverts (Sv).
The table below refers to millionths of a sievert, or
microsieverts (µSv).
A dose measured in sieverts or microsieverts takes
into account the energy per kilogram ‘delivered’
by nuclear radiation and its ability to ionise. You
receive a dose of about 300 µSv annually from cosmic
radiation, and 1400 µSv from terrestrial radiation.

Biological effects of nuclear radiation

Dose (µSv) Short-term effects Long-term effects

Less than 10 000 None Possible effect on unborn babies
10 000 to 100 000 None Unborn babies likely to contract leukemia
100 000 to 500 000 Cell damage Increased likelihood of cancer (including leukemia)
500 000 to 1 000 000 Radiation sickness—symptoms include nausea, vomiting, Greater likelihood of contracting cancer
diarrhoea, hair loss, internal bleeding; white blood cell
count drops
1 000 000 to 8 000 000 Severe radiation sickness, possible death within a month Very high probability of developing cancer

280
 8.3

they self-destruct if their DNA
is damaged. Unfortunately,
some nearby healthy cells are
also killed, leading to short-term
illness and side-effects.
Nuclear medicines are also
used to give images of internal
organs, blood vessels and bones.
Gamma-emitting radioactive
tracers are swallowed or injected
and tend to collect in particular
parts of the body. They are then
detected by a gamma ray camera
placed outside the body. The
gamma rays coming from inside
the body are then converted to an
image. For example, iodine-123
concentrates in the thyroid gland and so may be used
to help diagnose thyroid conditions.
UNIT
Carbon dating
Golden poo! All living things contain radioactive carbon-14.
The source of the balls It is continually decaying but is constantly being
of matter washing up
on Sydney beaches was replenished. While the organism is alive the percentage
uncertain. Did they come of carbon-14 it contains will remain constant.
from sewage or another
source such as waste
from a passing tanker?
Scientists ‘labelled’
outgoing sewage with
radioactive gold-198, a
radioisotope with a half-life
of 2.7 days. Soon after,
the balls washing up on
beaches were found to be
radioactive, showing that
they indeed came from
discharged sewage.

Smoke detectors
Smoke detectors contain a
small amount of americium-
241. Alpha particles emitted by
the americium ionise the air and
create a small current, which
keeps the alarm from sounding.
When smoke enters, the ions
are attracted to the larger smoke
particles, and move more
slowly. The reduced current is
then unable to stop the alarm
sounding, and a high-pitched
sound is emitted.
Industrial
applications
Nuclear radiation can be
added to liquids or gases
flowing in pipes to trace
leaks or check for fractures.
The thickness of metal or
rubber sheets can be verified
by measuring the amount of
radiation transmitted through
the material.
Radiation may
be used to check
the thickness of
materials. Fig 8.3.10
Fig 8.3.11 Samples of bone being prepared for
radiocarbon dating
When an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14
reduces due to its continuous beta decay into nitrogen-
14. In contrast, the amount of normal non-radioactive
carbon (carbon-12) stays constant. The approximate age
of once-living matter can be determined by comparing
the amounts of both types of carbon in it and then
using the graph shown in Figure 8.3.12.
110
100
Carbon–14 atoms remaining (%)

90
80
sheet beta or
70
of metal gamma
source 60
50
40
30
rollers radiation
detector 20
10
0
Time (years) 5730 11460 17190 22920 28650 34380 40110 45840
roller
Half-lives 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
control

Decay graph for carbon-14 Fig 8.3.12

281
 Nuclear radiation: good or evil?
Dirty bombs
A dirty bomb is not a traditional nuclear bomb. It
is basically any bomb that has radioactive material
such as nuclear waste in it. This radioactive material
is spread as very fine particles across large areas
when the bomb explodes, floating in the air and
contaminating water and food. It would be impossible
to clean up the radioactive material and it could cause
contamination problems for hundreds of years. There
has been talk of terrorist organisations using dirty
bombs and therefore it is important that radioactive
waste is tightly controlled to ensure it does not fall
into the wrong hands.
8 .3
[ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
Radiation and radioactivity
1 Copy and modify the following statement so it is
correct.
Radiation can be fast moving ________ or
electromagnetic ________.
2 State the type of force that acts on particles in the
nucleus of an atom to:
a hold them together
b push them apart
Atoms and isotopes
3 Define ‘radioisotope’.
4 List four radioactive elements.
5 Explain why large atoms are more likely to be
radioactive than small ones.
6 Identify which atom is an isotope of atom 40
20X. Is it atom
42 42
22Y or atom 20Z?
Three types of nuclear radiation
7 List the three main types of radiation.
8 Identify the type of nuclear radiation that:
a is the same as in a helium nucleus
b can pass through paper but not aluminium
c is not made of particles
d requires the conversion of a neutron into a proton
and an electron.
e is the product of nuclear fission.
9 Contrast the speeds and penetrating abilities of the
three radiation types.
282
>>>
Other uses
Food that has been exposed to gamma radiation
lasts much longer than normal, without becoming
radioactive itself. Bacteria and fungi are killed by the
radiation, but vitamins may also be destroyed and
new chemicals might be created within the food. For
this reason, many consumers are uncomfortable with
the idea of food irradiation.
Nuclear radiation is also used to sterilise medical
and surgical equipment. Needles used by diabetics are
sterilised in this way.
Radioisotopes can be injected into or fed to
animals in order to trace their movement using
radiation detectors, or to trace the movement of
nutrients through the food chain.
Fertilisers with added radioisotopes are used to
study the uptake of nutrients by crops.
Radioactive material left over from nuclear power
generation is used to make nuclear bombs and
ammunition that can pierce the heavy armour of tanks.
Half-life
10 Clarify the meaning of ‘half-life’.
11 Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days. Calculate the amount
left from a 2 kg sample after:
a 8 days
b 16 days
c 24 days
Sources of nuclear radiation
12 List two natural ways in which radiation is produced.
13 Radon gas is present in our atmosphere. Outline how it is
produced.
Effects of radiation
14 Explain why ions produced by radiation are more likely to
affect our cells than other atoms.
15 Nuclear radiation may be detected in several ways.
Describe two of these.
16 State the size of the radiation dose you are likely to
receive over the next year.
Uses of nuclear radiation
17 List two uses of nuclear radiation in industry.
18 State an advantage and a disadvantage of food
irradiation.
19 Describe what is meant by a ‘dirty bomb’.
 8.3

UNIT
Think 29 Evaluate the danger of the following doses of
radiation:
20 Gold-198 does not exist naturally. Describe how it can
a 1 microsievert received in a short burst
be made.
b 500 microsieverts received over the course of a
21 Radioactive decay of uranium in the ground produces year
radon gas, which bubbles up through the ground
c 100 000 microsieverts received in a short burst
to reach the air. Radon in turn decays to produce
polonium, an alpha particle emitter. Although alpha
Skills
particles cannot penetrate the skin, uranium-miners are
at increased risk of radiation diseases. Account for this 30 Copy the following table and summarise the details
increased risk. for each of the main types of nuclear radiation.
22 Explain why
radiotherapy harms Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays
cancer cells more than
healthy cells. Sketch

23 Outline how nuclear Charge

radiation is used to Mass
obtain images of
Speed
internal organs.
Penetration ability
Analyse (High, medium or low)

24 Would an alpha particle Stopped by

emitter be suitable Ionising ability
for measuring the
thickness of cardboard
in a packaging manufacturing plant? Justify your
answer. 31 Modify the following nuclear reactions so that they are
25 Propose two reasons why alpha particles are never complete:
injected for medical diagnosis.
84Po → ___ Pb + 2α
a 218 4

26 Propose a reason why hair cells are often damaged b 11Na → ___ Mg + –10β
24

during radiation therapy.

54Xe → ___ Xe + γ
c 133
27 In the Gulf War, ammunition made of depleted uranium d 26Fe → ___ Co + –10β + γ
59

was used to pierce tanks. Burning uranium from such
ammunition forms tiny particles that may be inhaled.
Explain why this is of concern even today, more than
ten years after the war.
28 Explain why young children are more likely to be
affected by radiation doses than adults.
[ Extension ]
32 Calculate the fraction of a sample of pure radon-222
that would remain after 12 days.
33 Assess whether the radioactivity of a sample of
plutonium would be very different after 10 years.
34 Construct a pie graph, a stacked bar graph or a
column graph showing the percentage of radiation we
receive from major sources.
35 A fossil is found to contain one-sixteenth of the
amount of carbon-14 of a living specimen. Calculate
the age of the fossil.

Investigate
1 Research the lives of the Curies and use a time line to
summarise key events in their lives.
2 a Research other methods of nuclear radiation
detection such as film badges or cloud chambers.
Use a labelled diagram to explain the workings of
one method.
b There are a large number of units for measuring
nuclear radiation including gray, rem, rad, curie,
becquerel and roentgen. Explain what one of these
really means, and give the abbreviation for the unit.
3 Choose one example where a PET scan is used. With
the aid of a diagram, explain how it works.
>>

283
 Nuclear radiation: good or evil? >>>
4 a The Shroud of Turin has been claimed to be the burial Action
cloth of Jesus Christ. Explain how carbon dating has
been used to date the Shroud. 5 Simulate decay of a radioisotope using computer
software or a model to present your information in
b Use this evidence to make your own deduction
visual form.
about the age and authenticity of the Shroud.
6 a Arrange an excursion to ANSTO to investigate the
5 a Investigate dirty bombs and how they work.
products made there.
b Discuss whether this type of terrorist attack is likely,
b Working in small groups, give oral presentations on
supporting your information with evidence.
a range of ANSTO products.

8 .3 [ Practical activity ]
UNIT

Half-life of polonium-218
The table below shows the activity of a sample of 4 Assess how long after this it took for the activity to
Prac 1 polonium-218 measured at 1 minute intervals for halve again.
Unit 8.3 20 minutes. 5 Assess how long after this it took for the activity to
halve a third time.
Questions
6 Calculate the average of the half-lives determined in
1 Construct a graph showing activity (vertical axis) versus questions 3, 4 and 5 above.
time (horizontal axis).
7 Predict the count rate at the end of another
2 Draw a curve of best fit through the data. 30 seconds.
3 Use your graph to calculate the time it took for the
initial activity to halve.

Time (mins) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Activity
(counts 200 161 127 115 86 67 56 33 31 22 17 15 13 11 7 7 5 4 3 2 2
per minute)

284
UNIT

8. 4
context

The world has an impending ‘energy crisis’. Australia has no nuclear power stations it is one of
We need to quickly find alternative sources the biggest suppliers of uranium for them. Nuclear
of energy, as fossil fuels will run out in energy is an alternative energy source to fossil fuels.
the next 50 years if we Although not a renewable resource, it provides vast
continue to use them amounts of energy from a small amount of fuel. For
at current rates. Many example, 1 kilogram of uranium ore can produce as
countries have invested heavily much energy as 100 kilograms of coal and does so
in nuclear power, and although Comparing wastes with far less of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide
Australian consumption
of electrical energy is
being released. Is nuclear power the future of energy,
about 8000 kilowatt-hours or should we be investing in other alternatives?
per person every year.
Generating nuclear To generate this much
electricity, 3000 kg of
energy black coal is required. Einstein predicted that nuclear energy could
This produces wastes Fig 8.4.2 be calculated using the equation E = mc2.
Fission including up to 500 kg of
When uranium-235 absorbs ash as well as 8000 kg
of carbon dioxide and
a stray neutron, it becomes sulfur dioxide—enough
extremely unstable, and to fill three Olympic-sized
something very interesting swimming pools. In
comparison, only 30 to
happens. Instead of emitting an 70 kg of uranium ore is
alpha or beta particle or a gamma required to generate the
ray, the uranium-235 isotope same amount of electricity,
producing just 0.006 kg
splits into two smaller atoms or 6 grams of highly
along with two or three neutrons. radioactive waste.
Heat energy is released in the
process. The splitting of an atom
is called fission. Lone or ‘stray’ neutrons are produced
this way in the atmosphere by cosmic rays.

fission fragments +
heat energy
E = mc 2
neutron Einstein’s famous equation
is often quoted, but what doe
absorbed s it
really mean?
In normal chemical reaction
s, mass always stays the sam
Not so in nuclear fission, how e.
ever! During nuclear fission,
there is a slight loss of mas
s. Einstein found that this lost
neutron
mass is converted to energy,
and that the amount of energy
created (E) is equal to the lost
mass (m) multiplied by the
speed of light (c) squared. Alth
235
U very unstable ough only around 0.1% of
each tiny nuclear mass is con
nucleus verted to energy, the energy
released quickly builds up due
to the incredibly large number
of atoms in any radioactive
sample (1 gram of uranium-23
contains 2.5 billion trillion atom 5
s!), and the fact that the
Fig 8.4.1 Nuclear fission speed of light equals 300 000
000 metres per second.

285
 Energy crisis
Chain reaction
Normally the extra neutrons released by the fission of
uranium-235 escape the sample or are absorbed by the
more stable and more numerous uranium-238 atoms
(natural uranium contains only about 0.7% uranium-
235).
A chain reaction will occur, however, if these
neutrons strike other uranium-235 atoms. This causes
more fission and more neutrons, which then hit more
uranium-235 atoms, which then release even more
neutrons ... and so it goes on and on. Huge amounts
of energy are released in a fraction of a second. For a
chain reaction to ‘take off’, the uranium sample needs
careful preparation by either:
• enriching it so that it contains 2.5% or more
uranium-235
• forming it into a shape to prevent too many
neutrons escaping without first interacting with
other atoms (spherical is good), or
• making it large enough (the required mass is called
the critical mass).
A fission chain reaction Fig 8.4.3
fission
fragments
uranium-235
neutron
heat energy
released
Nuclear bombs
A nuclear bomb uses uranium enriched so that over
90% of the sample will be uranium-235. A massive
and uncontrolled chain reaction results. The bomb
dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on
6 August 1945, nicknamed ‘Little Boy’, contained two
half-spheres of 90% pure uranium-235.
286
>>>
A fatal slip
On Tuesday 21 May 1946 during a critical
mass experiment
in a secret laboratory in New Mexico, USA,
Louis Slotin
was gradually moving two halves of a beryl
lium-coated
plutonium sphere closer together, using a
screwdriver to stop
them coming suddenly too close. Tragically
the screwdriver
slipped, allowing the two masses to come
together. The
plutonium went supercritical, causing a mass
ive increase in
fission. There was a blue flash as air in the
room was ionised
by gamma and neutron radiation and Slotin
’s Geiger counter
went ‘off the scale’. He knew he had receiv
ed a lethal burst of
radiation, and heroically shielded his nearb
y colleagues while
he quickly separated the two plutonium mass
es. He died a
few days later.
12.5
R
12
R
6.3
R
9
7.
R
Fig 8.4.4 A sketch used by doctors to determine
the radiation doses received by those near
Slotin’s accident
Each piece by itself was smaller than the critical
mass needed for a chain reaction, but when forced
together by an explosive charge, they formed a
supercritical mass which then exploded.
Nuclear reactors
A nuclear reactor is like a controlled nuclear bomb,
but uses uranium that has been enriched to about
2.5% uranium-235. To prevent an uncontrolled chain
reaction, control rods made of neutron-absorbing
boron or cadmium are used to ‘soak up’ neutrons so
that on average only one escapes from each fission to
go on to cause another fission.
Heat generated by nuclear fission in a reactor core
is used to generate steam, which spins a turbine and
produces electricity in the same way as conventional
electricity generators (see Unit 3.1).
Nuclear reactors currently provide around 17%
of the world’s electricity. Several countries obtain
about half their electricity from nuclear power plants.
Submarines and space probes often use on-board
nuclear reactors.
 8.4

Unit
High pressure water transfers heat
to a separate water system where it
Control rods forms steam to spin a turbine.
absorb neutrons to prevent an
uncontrolled chain reaction. pump
turbine

Fuel rods contain uranium

oxide fuel pellets.

Water surrounding the fuel rods slows down

neutrons so they are more likely to be absorbed reactor core
and cause fission. Neutrons that are not slowed
down tend to ricochet off uranium atoms.
A substance that slows neutrons is called a moderator.

Another water circuit acts as a coolant to remove

excess heat and turn steam back into water.

Fig 8.4.5 A nuclear reactor, showing the

main components

Country Electricity generated by

nuclear power plants
Australia 0%
Britain 21%
USA 22%
Japan 24%
South Korea 48%
Sweden 52%
France 73%

Australia’s only nuclear reactor—the HIFAR

reactor at ANSTO in southern Sydney—is a small
reactor used for the production of nuclear medicines
such as those discussed in the previous unit.

Nuclear dangers
Nuclear power at one time seemed like the
answer to the world’s energy needs, but the initial
enthusiasm has been tempered by a series of
accidents and the problem of how to safely store
deadly waste products. Australia’s nuclear research reactor at ANSTO Fig 8.4.6
(the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
Organization)

287
 Energy crisis
Nuclear accidents
There have been several well-documented accidents
at nuclear power plants in which radiation has been
released into the environment. The most dramatic
occurred at Chernobyl in the Ukraine (then part of
the USSR, now an independent country) on 25 April
1986. Automatic safety systems were turned off during
a test of reactor number 4, to measure the turbine’s
power output as it slowed after its steam supply had
been shut off. When power levels fell dangerously
low, engineers withdrew most of the control rods.
Fuel rods then heated up and turned the moderator
water into steam. The steam absorbed fewer neutrons,
causing a power surge that heated the fuel rods even
more.
The super-heated fuel rods then exploded, and in
turn caused a steam explosion which lifted the 1000
tonne steel-and-concrete lid off the top of the reactor.
>>>
Radioactive coal
A five-kilometre-high plume of A coal-fired generator
debris released more radioactivity releas es more radioactivity
into the environment than
into the atmosphere than 100 a nuclear power station—
Hiroshima bombs. The explosion unless there’s an accident!
started a fire that burned for five
days. There were 31 immediate
casualties. Nearby Belarus lay downwind of Chernobyl
and much of it remains uninhabitable. Cancer rates
there have also risen dramatically and the long-term
toll may reach many thousands. A gigantic concrete
structure called a sarcophagus was built around
the damaged reactor to help contain the radiation,
although this structure itself is now decaying and
needs replacement.
Nuclear waste disposal
Nuclear waste is classified into three levels.
• Low-level waste does not require a great deal of
protective covering and includes things like air
filters and gloves used by people such as nuclear
power plant workers and hospital staff who handle
radioactive substances. Low-level waste may be
incinerated, stored in strong containers or buried at
special sites.
• Intermediate-level waste is more radioactive and
includes things like reactor parts. It is typically
packaged inside cement within steel drums and
buried in deep trenches.
• High-level waste is lethal and consists of wastes
from either used fuel rods or generated from
reprocessing the rods to obtain uranium and
plutonium. Used fuel rods are stored under
water for several years while they cool and their
radiation levels drop before being reprocessed or
disposed of. High-level waste is
melted to form glass blocks and
may be stored underground in
stainless steel drums.

Two sides of the story Deadly speck

Fig 8.4.7 The Chernobyl nuclear power station shortly
after disaster struck in 1986—many clean-up
workers, photographers and their pilots died
in the years after the accident from cancers
caused by massive doses of radiation received
as they worked around the devastation.
If inhaled, a pinhead-sized
Because nuclear waste products speck of plutonium-239
can remain radioactive for is enough to cause lung
many thousands of years (the cancer!
half-life of plutonium is 24 000
years), there is plenty of time
for something to go wrong. Deterioration of storage
containers or natural disasters could both cause
leakage into the environment. Many people argue that
the consequences of potential accidents involving

288
 8.4

UNIT
nuclear waste or nuclear power plants are just not Australia also needs to consider its involvement
worth the risk. Others argue that damage being in dealing with nuclear waste. As we supply much
done to the environment (e.g. pollution and global of the world’s uranium, should we be responsible for
warming) from the use of fossil fuels is greater than helping to deal with the waste produced? How much
that resulting from the use of nuclear energy. Coal Australian uranium has already been used for illicit
miners suffer more ill-health as a result of their work purposes such as nuclear weapons?
than nuclear workers. Oil spills
from supertankers regularly kill Worksheet 8.5 Nuclear devastation
huge numbers of marine and bird
life. There are risks associated with
both fossil fuels and nuclear power. Maralinga meltdown
Alternative energy sources
What do you think? Between 1952 and 1957 There are many alternatives to fossil fuels and
the British government nuclear energy that will meet our energy needs in
conducted a series of the future.
tests, setting off twelve
major nuclear explosions Fusion
and hundreds of smaller
ones at Maralinga in One of those alternatives is in fact another form of
South Australia, forcing nuclear energy! Nuclear fusion is when two small
the relocation of the nuclei combine or fuse, releasing an enormous
local Aboriginal people.
Britain assured Australia amount of energy as they do so. An example of
that it had cleaned up the nuclear fusion is the combination of a deuterium
Maralinga site by 1967. In nucleus and a tritium nucleus to form helium.
1984 Australian scientists
measured radiation more
widely spread and at levels An example of a nuclear fusion reaction Fig 8.4.10
10 times higher than
predicted. The clean-up
tritium (13H)
of the site was finally
completed in 2000 with
financial contributions
from Britain. One process helium (42He)
used in the clean-up,
in-situ vitrification
(ISV), involved generators heat
Fig 8.4.8 A nuclear explosion providing up to 5 released
at Maralinga in South megawatts of power to
Australia in 1956. electrodes implanted in
Dangerous levels of nuclear waste pits to melt
radioactivity remain. waste into huge glassy
deuterium (12H) neutron (01n)
masses. This prevents
nuclear waste from
leaching into surrounding
soil and eliminates the
need for excavation or Nuclear fusion has a couple of big attractions—no
removal of hazardous
material.
radioactive waste products are created, and there is a
vast supply of deuterium in the ocean. But there’s a
catch! Temperatures of millions of degrees are needed
to force two positively charged nuclei together and
temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees are
needed to keep it going. It is nuclear fusion reactions
that power the Sun. Even if we could generate a
sustained fusion reaction, how could it be contained?
Current research involves the use of a powerful
Four giant electrodes can be seen at the top Fig 8.4.9 toroidal (doughnut-shaped) magnetic field within
of the in-situ vitrification equipment. The large
pipe connected to the truck channels exhaust a device called a tokamak to hold the superheated
gases from the melt for analysis. deuterium. The word ‘tokamak’ is from the Russian

289
 Energy crisis >>>
An experimental tokamak fusion reactor Fig 8.4.11

Fig 8.4.12 Spherical ball of plasma (pink) inside a tokamak

Other alternatives
Other alternative sources of energy that offer potential
superheated deuterium for the future include:
contained within a
magnetic field
• solar
• wind
• hydro-gravitational, wave or tidal
• geothermal
word for toroidal. If the costs and difficulties involved • fuel cells
in sustained fusion generators are overcome, fusion • bio-batteries.
may provide the bulk of the world’s energy in the
future. Some alternative energy sources for the future.
A: hydro, B: wind, C: geothermal, D: solar Fig 8.4.13

A B

C D

290

8 .4 [ Questions ]
UNIT
Checkpoint
Generating nuclear energy
1 Use a diagram to explain the term ‘nuclear fission’.
2 In a chain reaction, huge quantities of energy are
released. Outline how this happens.
3 Describe how a nuclear bomb works.
Nuclear reactors
4 Compare a nuclear bomb with a nuclear reactor.
5 Describe how an uncontrolled chain reaction is
prevented in a nuclear reactor.
6 Nuclear fission reactors produce lots of energy.
Identify three situations where a nuclear reactor may
be used.
7 Identify which part of a nuclear reactor:
a slows down neutrons to speeds at which they are
more likely to cause fission
b absorbs neutrons to prevent them causing other
atoms to split
c transfers energy to a turbine
Nuclear dangers
8 Describe two dangers of using nuclear energy.
9 Outline how high-level nuclear waste is stored.
10 There are risks involved in storing nuclear waste.
Describe some of these risks.
Alternative energy sources
11 Use a diagram to demonstrate how nuclear fusion
occurs.
12 State the main advantage of nuclear fusion.
13 Explain why using nuclear fusion is technically
difficult.
14 List three other types of alternative energy.
Think
15 Copy and modify the following statements so they are
all true.
a Uranium provides much more energy per kilogram
than coal.
b Unstable atoms absorb radiation.
c Natural uranium contains 93% uranium-235.
d A critical mass of uranium-235 is one that will not
start a chain reaction.
e Fission is the splitting of an atom.
f One type of fusion reactor is a tomahawk.
8.4
UNIT
16 With the aid of diagrams, demonstrate why a sphere
is a more effective shape than a flat sheet for a critical
mass of enriched uranium.
17 Identify a word that means ‘less than critical mass’.
18 Identify two countries that would be most affected if
uranium ceased to be mined and processed.
19 Explain why Australia has a nuclear reactor.
20 Propose a meaning for the term ‘magnetic bottle’.
Analyse
21 The following questions relate to the Chernobyl nuclear
accident.
a Propose ways in which the disaster could have
been prevented
b Propose how Swedish scientists became aware of
a nuclear accident in Russia.
c The likely death toll will be far greater than the initial
31 people killed. Explain why.
22 Predict whether waste plutonium would be safe in:
a 100 years
b 1000 years
c 10 000 years
23 Explain how fallout from the Chernobyl accident could
result in children drinking radioactive milk.
24 Explain why the air pressure inside nuclear reactors is
kept lower than the outside atmospheric pressure.
25 Classify each of the following as low-, intermediate- or
high-level nuclear waste:
a spent fuel rods
b gloves used by nuclear reactor technicians
c a non-fuel-rod reactor part
26 Discuss whether we should be investing in nuclear
power or other alternative energy sources for the
future.
291
 Energy crisis
[ Extension ]
Action
1 There are many alternative energy sources apart from
nuclear power. Work in small groups, with each group
selecting a different type of alternative energy source.
a Describe how energy is produced in this way.
b Assess the efficiency of this energy source.
c Outline the advantages and disadvantages of your
alternative energy source.
d Evaluate whether this energy source would be
suitable for use in the future.
e Present your information as an oral presentation.
2 Have a class debate to discuss whether nuclear
energy should be used.
Investigate
3 a Research a significant nuclear accident such as
Chernobyl, the Three Mile Island disaster in the
United States or the leak at Britain’s Windscale
(now called Sellafield) plant.
b Propose a set of safety rules that would prevent
this type of accident in the future.
4 So-called ‘fast breeder’ nuclear reactors use
plutonium and produce more fuel than they consume.
Use chemical equations to demonstrate how this is
achieved.
5 Research an Australian invention called SYNROC
designed to store radioactive waste. Use a diagram
to explain how the waste is stored.
6 Construct a poster that shows where uranium is
mined in Australia and the steps in the process
needed to produce ‘yellowcake’.
292
>>>
Creative writing
Wasteland
Some people have suggested that outback Australia
(even the interior of Uluru!) be used as a long-term
storage site for the world’s nuclear waste. This is
because of the area’s geological stability. Write two
letters/e-mails to a newspaper—one supporting and
one opposing the proposal.
Creative writing
Four futures
You may have read a novel in which the reader has a
choice of paths for the story to follow. Write an essay
describing life in the future when reserves of fossil
fuels finally run out. You must write four different
‘endings’ that are based on the following scenarios:
1 The world becomes totally reliant on nuclear
energy.
2 Both fossil fuels and uranium reserves run out,
and the world concentrates on the development of
renewable energy sources such as wind, wave and
solar energy.
3 Nuclear fusion technology improves to the point
where fusion reactors become the most economical
source of energy.
4 A totally new and plentiful energy source is
discovered.
Chapter review
[ Summary questions ]
1 List three main greenhouse gases.
2 List three ways in which greenhouse gas emissions
could be reduced.
3 List some possible future consequences of continued
global warming.
4 Use a diagram to identify the location of the ozone
layer.
5 Identify an ozone-unfriendly element.
6 Four types of radiation may be emitted from a nucleus.
List them.
7 Identify the subatomic particles emitted during fission
that cause a chain reaction.
8 State the lethal dose of radiation in sieverts.
9 Outline how each of the following work:
a Geiger counter
b smoke detector
c radioactive tracers
d radiotherapy
e carbon dating
10 Construct a simplified sketch showing the main parts
of a nuclear reactor.
[ Thinking questions ]
11 There are many older refrigerators still in use that
contain CFCs. Explain how these CFCs could still end
up being released into the atmosphere.
12 Propose reasons why it is more difficult for less-
developed countries to comply with the Montreal
protocol.
13 Identify the type of radiation that would be suitable for
measuring the thickness of a sheet of
a metal
b thin rubber
14 It has been calculated that a lump of nuclear reactor
fuel the size of a bowling ball would provide enough
energy for one person for their lifetime. Estimate how
many bowling balls of coal would be needed.
15 Contrast nuclear fission with nuclear fusion.
16 Explain why uranium ore in the ground does not
explode.
17 A so-called ‘fast breeder reactor’ uses plutonium fuel
and does not require a moderator to slow the neutrons
hitting it. Contrast the ability of plutonium to absorb
neutrons with that of uranium.
18 One older method of disposing of nuclear waste was to
simply dump it in the ocean in sealed drums. Discuss
why this is not desirable.
19 Propose reasons why fusion reactors are currently not
economical.
[ Interpreting questions]
20 Australia releases about 320 million tonnes of carbon
into the atmosphere each year by burning fossil fuels.
Given that our population is approximately 18.5 million
people, estimate Australia’s carbon emission per
person.
21 Sulfur has an atomic number of 16. Calculate the
following numbers for the atom formed after sulfur-35
undergoes beta decay:
a atomic number
b mass number
22 Radium (atomic number 88, mass number 226)
undergoes radioactive decay and changes into radon
(atomic number 86, mass number 222). Assess the
type of radiation that radium emits.
23 Construct a balanced equation for the chemical
reaction for Question 22 (the symbol for radium is Ra,
and for radon is Rn).
24 Xenon-133 has a half-life of 2.3 days. Calculate how
much would be left of an 8 gram sample of xenon-133
after almost a week.
25 It has been estimated that the world’s oil reserves may
run out in 45 years, gas in 60 years and coal in 300
years. Construct a graph to show this information.
Worksheet 8.6 Global issues crossword
Worksheet 8.7 Sci-words
293
 >>>
Individual
research
project Key focus area
9
>>> The nature and practice of science

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

Outcomes
5.2, 5.13, 5.14, 5.18, 5.22.1

identify different types of investigations, then

independently plan and carry out one of these
describe different types of skills required for
working independently
gather information from first- and second-hand sources
plan and carry out a controlled experiment
analyse, present and evaluate information and data
collected
draw conclusions based on the information gathered in
an investigation
solve problems creatively as they arise
work to planned time lines and goals
communicate the findings of an investigation through
various media, including a written report.

1 Do you prefer to work by yourself or as part of a team?

Pre quiz

Why?
2 Identify a complex task you completed predominantly
by yourself.
3 What task have you done in the past that you are
particularly proud of?
4 Apart from a written report, how else can you pass on
information to others?
5 What skills would you need in order to construct a
model in science?
6 What should be included in a report on an experiment?
7 Research can take you to interesting places. What do
you think the diver in the photo is trying to find out?
UNIT
3.1

UNIT
9.1
context

Everyone is good at something: each one of
us has certain skills that we excel at. When
we work as a group, the different skills of
each group member can be used. When you
work as an individual, however, you need
to have all those skills yourself. Individual
research can be very demanding. You need to be
able to take an idea, put it into practice and see it
through to completion. Working by yourself does
not mean you are alone, though. Finding people to
support you and offer advice is one skill that may
get you through when your ideas run low. Let’s look
at some of the skills that are needed for success in
individual research.

Independent work skills

Performing and assessing a science investigation is
like any other task you undertake in life. Decisions
need to be made, plans need to be set out and good
organisation is required. This project will allow you
to apply and develop important skills, some being:
• setting suitable time lines
• designing, conducting and evaluating an
investigation
• working safely with a variety of equipment in
different environments
• developing and applying scientific thinking and
problem-solving techniques
• identifying problems and applying creative
solutions to them
• finding a mentor to support you in difficult times
• presenting data and information in appropriate
forms
• communicating information, and your
understanding of it, to your peers.

Surviving on your own

On the following page are some of the characteristics
required for success when working alone. As an
individual you will be good at some of these, and
probably not so good at others. Each person is
different, with their own strengths and weaknesses.
When working by yourself you have to build on
your strengths and find ways of dealing with your
weaknesses. As you complete your project, try to
Sometimes it is necessary to complete Fig 9.1.1
identify the characteristics that you already have and a task by yourself. This requires
which ones need improving. organisation and self-discipline.

295
 Being an individual >>>

Creativity: a creative person will be able to come up
with new ideas, see relationships between results and
information, and invent new ways of doing things.
They will often solve problems in unusual ways.
What to do?
Organisation: an organised person will plan time lines and
resources carefully. They might make lists, find out what
they need, and collect resources before they start working.
They will often proceed in a series of planned steps.

Resourcefulness: being resourceful involves thinking ‘outside

the square’. It involves making the most of the resources you have
available. It may also include changing or modifying the plan as new
ideas emerge, and taking advantage of any opportunities that arise.

Self-motivation: self-motivated people know why they

want to do something. Make sure you choose a topic for
Dedication: dedicated people want to achieve. They are investigation that you will find interesting and challenging,
able to meet goals and see a project through to completion. since this is likely to keep you motivated.

Fig 9.1.2 Individual work skills

296
 9.1

UNIT
Sheep drag
Scientists in Australia have carried out resea
rch on the forces
required to drag sheep over various surfa
ces. Their aim was to find
a simple and inexpensive way to make it
easier for shearers to drag
sheep in for shearing. The results showed
that the dragging forces
for different floor textures and slopes range
d from about 360 N to
420 N. Their analysis indicated that a timbe
r floor with a slope of
1:10 (about 6°) and boards parallel to the
sheep’s drag path reduced
the force by 64 N. This research could make
life a lot easier for
shearers, who each drag around 150 sheep
per day, each with a
mass of up to 45 kg. That’s a total of 6750
kg of sheep!
Fig 9.1.3 A shearer drags 6750 kg of sheep a day. Research
into how to make this easier is helping Australians
get the job done.

Career profile
Science teacher
Science teachers in secondary schools teach science to Year 7 Science teachers are involved in:
to 10 students. In Years 11 and 12 they specialise in teaching • preparing daily lessons and long-term teaching
physics, chemistry, biology, earth and environmental science programs
or senior science. They will have studied the subjects they • teaching, using different techniques such as classroom
teach at university as well as undertaken special studies in activities, discussions, experiments, projects,
education. assignments and excursions
• taking into account the different needs of students
• using information technology to assist in lesson
preparation, delivery and reporting
• setting assessments, projects, assignments and
homework, marking these and collating the results
• evaluating and reporting on the progress of students,
and discussing individual performance with students
and parents
• participating in the wider school community through
activities such as sports, camps, student support
groups and extra-curricular activities.
A good science teacher will be able to:
• plan and organise various activities on a daily basis
• show enthusiasm for learning and a love of science
• communicate concepts and instructions clearly
• enjoy working with young people and other teachers
• relate well to and communicate with people of all ages
and backgrounds
• be patient in dealing with people
Fig 9.1.4 A science teacher presenting a • work as a member of a team
genetics lesson • keep accurate records and prepare reports.

297
 Being anchemical
Writing individualequations
Fluffy belly buttons
Dr Karl Kruszelnicki carried
out the world’s first belly-
button lint (BBL) survey.
Some variables included in
the survey were the degree
of overall body hair, ‘innie’
or ‘outie’ belly buttons, skin
type and whether you have
a navel ring. The study
collected information about
whether the colour of your
belly-button lint is related to
clothing colour and whether
clothes were washed in a
top-loader or front-loader.
The results showed that you
are ‘more likely to have BBL
if you’re male, older, hairy,
and have an ‘innie’’. This
important research won Dr
Karl an Ig Nobel Prize for
Popular Science.
>>>
Think
6 The five characteristics of independent learning listed
below are not the only ones that you may possess.
Describe another characteristic that you may need to
be successful when working alone.
7 Evaluate the importance of having a mentor when
working alone.
8 Describe an example of when a person you know was
resourceful.
9 Propose ways to keep self-motivation high.
10 Compare the characteristics of creativity and
resourcefulness.
11 a Although part of a team, teachers do a lot of
independent work. State the key
characteristics of a good science teacher.
b Justify your choice in each case.

Analyse
12 Imagine you are a lone astronaut orbiting Earth in a
Fig 9.1.5 The winner: older, hairy males with an innie space station. Suddenly there is an explosion and
have the most belly button lint. cabin oxygen slowly begins to leak into space. What
will you do?

9.1
a Identify the two main skills you will need to solve

[ Questions ] this problem.

b Identify the two main characteristics that you think
UNIT

will be required to get out of this situation alive.

Checkpoint c Is one skill or characteristic more important than
others in this situation? Justify your answer.
Independent work skills 13 You have been chosen to spend six months in an
1 From those listed in this unit, identify four skills that undersea research centre off the coast of New South
you are good at. Wales. During this time you will perform a series of
2 List the eight skills in order from what you consider to experiments. You will be able to communicate with
be most important, down to least important. other scientists onshore but will be working alone.
3 Explain what is meant by a ‘mentor’. a Identify the three key characteristics you will
require to complete this task.
Surviving on your own
b Identify three key skills you will require.
4 Match the characteristic below with the correct c Which skill or characteristic do you think will be
description. most important in this situation? Justify your
5 Which characteristics are your individual strengths? answer.
Identify two of them from the list below. Explain why
you chose each.

Characteristic Description
Resourcefulness Make lists and collect resources before starting work and then proceed in a series of steps.
Self-motivation Meet goals and see a project through to completion.
Creativity Make the most of the available resources and take advantage of opportunities.
Organisation Comes from being interested, and knowing the reason why you want to do something.
Dedication Invent new ways of doing things and solve problems in unusual ways.

298
 Science focus:
Science can be funny!
Prescribed focus area: The nature and practice
of science Can frogs really levitate? One scientist
proved that they can, with the help of
Can you believe that science can be funny? To be
Fig SF 9.1 an electromagnet.
a good scientist requires not just reasoning and
objectivity, but creativity and curiosity, which usually
come from people with interesting and even funny
personalities!

Classic investigations
Believe it or not, scientists engage in some very
amusing research. There are subjects you would never
have thought of unless you were a scientist with too
much time on your hands. Some classic investigations
have included:
• Why toast often falls on the buttered side
• The five-second rule
• The best way to dunk a biscuit
• How to levitate frogs and a sumo wrestler with an
electromagnet
• The effects of ale, garlic and sour cream on the
appetites of leeches (sour cream was the biggest
appetite stimulant)
• Chicken plucking as a measure of tornado wind
speed
• The role of elevator music in preventing the
common cold
• How herrings communicate by farting
• Chickens’ preference for beautiful people
• The belly-button lint survey conducted by
Australian scientist Dr Karl Kruszelnicki
• How to make a teapot spout that doesn't drip
• The invention of software that detects when a cat
is walking over your computer keyboard
• Why shower curtains billow inwards.
All of the above investigations have been awarded
Ig Nobel Prizes. The Ig Nobel prizes are awarded for
science that ‘first makes people laugh, and then makes
them think’. The idea of these awards is to celebrate
unusual science, to honour the imagination and
promote popular science in the wider community.
It is said that the Ig Nobel prizes honour those
achievements that ‘cannot and should not be
reproduced’.
Prizes are awarded at Harvard University in the
USA, and the prizes are handed to the Ig Nobel
winners by genuine Nobel Prize winners, who are
amused at their colleagues’ investigations. Many Ig
Nobel winners are actually serious scientists.
One Ig Nobel prize winner is physicist Dr Len
Fisher. Dr Fisher is an Australian (based at Bristol
University in England) who has devoted much of his
time to understanding the science behind everyday
life. He combines scientific reasoning and method
with an enthusiasm for the bizarre. Dr Fisher’s Ig
Nobel prize was awarded for his research into dunking
biscuits. The following outlines some of Dr Fisher’s
more unusual research projects.
The physics of dunking biscuits
Dr Fisher and his research team showed that a dunked
biscuit releases up to 10 times more flavour than a dry
biscuit. A biscuit is basically lumps of starch glued
together with sugar. When dunked, the hot tea or
coffee enters the pores in the surface of the biscuit and
is absorbed by the starch grains that swell. The sugar

299
 also begins to melt, giving a biscuit that is purely
starch but much softer than the original biscuit, which
in turn makes it unstable.
Eventually the team used an old formula devised
in 1921 that describes the dunking process. This is
how it works: the perfect dunking time is equal to
the height (L) the liquid rises up the biscuit squared,
multiplied by four times the viscosity (η, density of
liquid) divided by the surface tension (γ) of the tea,
multiplied by the average pore diameter (D).
L24η
t=
γD
The research is yet to be completed as Dr Fisher
believes that the temperature of the tea also has an
impact on dunking times.
This research was sponsored by a biscuit company
that will print advice for consumers on its biscuit
packets. The best dunking time for a gingernut biscuit
was three seconds, and eight seconds for a digestive
biscuit. Soon a more user-friendly version will be
available that gives the best time for dunking for
different types of biscuits. If you want to get the most
out of your biscuits, keep an eye out for it!
The optimum dunking time for gingernut Fig SF 9.2
biscuits is three seconds.
The perfect cheese sandwich
The perfect cheese sandwich is another of Dr Fisher’s
great discoveries. This work was sponsored by the
British cheese board. Being a physicist, Dr Fisher
could not help but develop an equation to describe
this phenomenon:
% cheesiness = (100/2.8) × thickness of cheese (mm)
300
This equation is specific to cheddar cheese,
and the value 2.8 changes with different types of
cheese. This formula was derived using a series of
experiments that involved inserting a tube up the nose
to measure the concentration of aromas produced
while chewing and swallowing a cheese sandwich.
This formula shows that the perfect cheese
sandwich requires a slice of cheddar cheese 2.8 mm
thick, to gain maximum percentage cheesiness.
Thinner slices will have lower percentage cheesiness
and not be as tasty. Try working it out yourself with
the formula!
Fig SF 9.3 Testing the cheesiness of a sandwich using
an aroma-detection device
After a certain thickness no amount of extra cheese
will add to the cheesy aroma impact of the sandwich.
Dr Fisher also discovered that adding butter or
margarine enhances cheesiness, probably because the
fat in butter and margarine dissolves the flavours, and
the fat then coats the mouth and tongue and holds the
flavours in the mouth longer.
What is the impact of this research? It is thought
that more research should be undertaken that will
allow us to better understand the design of healthy
and tasty foods, in order to produce maximum flavour
release.
Wasted gravy
Want more? Another bizarre example of Dr Fisher’s
work comes from British people wasting 681 912 litres
of gravy a week. This is gravy poured onto plates and
then not consumed.
 To solve this problem the gravy absorbency index – Roast potatoes should be
was developed: eaten last as they absorb up
% gravy uptake = (W – (D/S)) to 30% of their dry weight,
D × 100 and take as long as five to
where: W = weight of uncooked food ten minutes to absorb this
D = weight of cooked food amount.
S = shrinkage factor • Ciabatta, an airy Italian bread,
Scientific method was used to measure the weight is better than ordinary bread
of gravy absorbed according to time at different gravy at soaking up leftover gravy,
temperatures. absorbing 120% of its dry weight.
Research findings: • Dr Fisher even has a suggestion
• Absorption times can be accelerated by 20% if for using popcorn. Popcorn has
gravy is very hot. an ‘off the scale’ gravy absorption
• A food’s ability to mop up gravy is also dependent rate of 600% plus. Fisher added,
on the time it is in contact with the gravy, and the ‘You just have to move fast before
density of the food. it goes all soggy’.
• For efficient gravy absorption, food should be eaten The study showed that there is a
in the correct order.
scientific reason for gravy wastage.
– Start with meat as it absorbs no gravy. People eat their food in the wrong
– Green vegetables should be eaten next as they order!
absorb up to 15% of their dry weight within
30 seconds.
2 a Use the formula for the perfect cheese sandwich
Bread should be swirled in a circular motion to complete the following table:
around the plate using both sides of the
Fig SF 9.4 bread for maximum gravy absorption.
Thickness of Calculation
cheddar cheese (mm)
2.8 % = (100/2.8) x 2.8
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Nuts for physics
A bowl of mixed nuts may
be good Christmas food,
but for physicist Paul Quinn
it’s a nutty physics project.
Quinn was puzzled by an
odd nut-bowl phenomenon.
Brazil nuts always seem to
sit on the top of smaller nuts.
But shouldn’t gravity pull the
heavy nuts to the bottom of
the bowl, while lighter nuts
rest on top? Quinn calls the
phenomenon the Brazil-nut
problem, or BNP.
Quinn found that a nut ‘sinks
or swims’ depending on the
ratio of two properties: mass
and diameter. If a fat nut is
twice the mass and diameter
of the other nuts in the bowl,
it surfaces. But if the nut is
six times the mass and only
twice the diameter of smaller
nuts, it sinks.
%
cheesiness
100%

b Gouda cheese was discovered to have a percent-

age cheesiness of 100% at a thickness of 3.1 mm.
[ Questions ] Calculate the percentage cheesiness of a sandwich
containing a slice of gouda that is 2.3 mm thick.
3 Gather information from the Internet about an
1 Find out more about the Ig Nobel Prizes by
unusual science research project that involves
connecting to the Science Focus 4 Companion
creativity and curiosity, and is funny. Present your
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
information to the class, outlining how the research
selecting chapter 9 and clicking on the destinations
was done, what was discovered, and how this
button. Watch past presentation ceremonies online,
information is thought to be useful. Remember not
see a list of past winners and their research ideas,
to take yourself too seriously.
and be amused.

301
 UNIT
>>>

9. 2
context

Performing an investigation can be fun! As fart more than boys, although the types of farts were
well as completing belly-button lint research different, with girls doing more ‘silent but friendly’ (the
Dr Karl also completed the Great Fart Survey. opposite to a ‘silent but deadly’, a ‘silent but friendly’
This unusual scientific research showed fart is quiet with no smell—the only type you can get
that Aussie kids fart 24 times a day. It also away with in public) or ‘squirter’ farts, and boys doing
revealed that although boys like to talk a more ‘common’ and ‘thunder’ farts.
lot more about their farts than girls, there was no Selecting an interesting investigation will make your
difference between the amount and types of farts research more successful. It may be something that
that boys and girls do. A baked bean experiment interests you during science classes or at home, or it
was included which showed that beans make girls may even be to do with your favourite hobby, sport
or pastime. Otherwise, be creative and investigate
something unusual!
Types of investigation
Selecting an investigation is a very important part of
your project. The investigation should allow you to First-hand investigation
apply the skills that you have learnt in science. When A first-hand investigation can be an experiment or
choosing your investigation make sure: series of experiments to investigate a topic of your
• you are interested in choice. By completing this type of investigation you
learning about your chosen will show your skill at planning, conducting and
topic reporting on an area of interest in science. You will
• it is challenging enough for need to design a fair test that will give accurate and
your level of ability clear results.
The five-second rule
• it is safe and does not pose High-school student Jillian Examples:
a danger to people or the Clarke investigated the • Do people listen to their headphones at potentially
environment scien tific validity of the dangerous levels?
‘five-second rule’ You know
• you can get the required • Does heart rate increase with music type or
the rule: If food falls to the
equipment and materials floor and it’s in contact with increasing volume?
• it can be finished in the the floor for fewer than five • Who is generally fitter—males or females? Who has
agreed time seconds, it’s safe to pick it the lowest average heart rate, and how long does
up and eat. She found that
• it is open-ended, meaning 70% of women and 56% heart rate take to return to normal after exercise?
there are many possible of men are familiar with • Which type of sausage contains the most fat?
solutions and it cannot the rule, and most use it to • Which home insulation works best?
make decisions about tasty
be answered with simple treats that slip through • What factors affect the growth of bread mould?
answers such as true/false their fingers. • Which type of sunglass lens blocks the most light?
or yes/no. The rule dates back to the • How does coffee affect blood pressure?
There are three main types time of Genghis Khan, who • What percentage of lawn seed in a package will
first determined how long it
of investigation that you may was safe for food to remain germinate?
undertake for your individual on a floor when dropped. • How much water is in different fruits?
project. Each type is explained Khan had slightly lower • Does the human tongue have definite areas for
standards, however—he
here, with examples to help you specified 12 hours! certain tastes?
in selecting a topic.

302
 9.2

UNIT
• Ohm’s law
• Chemical and physical change
• Photosynthesis and respiration
• Diffusion
• Refraction, reflection and dispersion

A student demonstrating the scientific

principle of photosynthesis by measuring
Fig 9.2.2 oxygen produced by a plant

Fig 9.2.1 A student performing a first-hand investigation

in chemistry to find out how acidic different
lemonades are

• What are the effects of different fertilisers on plant

growth?
• How does light direction affect plant growth?
• What is the best insulation for making an insulated
coffee mug?
• How does the colour of a material affect its
absorption of heat?
• How does our hearing change as we age?
• Which soft drink has the most bubbles or dissolved
Construction of a model, either static
gas? or working
By completing this investigation you will show your
Demonstration of a scientific skill at building a model and manipulating materials
principle in order to demonstrate a scientific principle or
By completing this type of investigation you will investigate an aspect of science of your choice. You
show your skill in understanding a basic principle of will have to plan, design and construct your model.
science. You will have to interpret this principle and This will involve understanding the scientific
then design and conduct an experiment or series of principles behind your model in order to make it
experiments to prove that it is correct. informative and accurate.
Examples: Examples
• Conservation of matter in chemical reactions Build a model to demonstrate or investigate:
• Conservation of energy • The greenhouse effect
• Simple inheritance of a characteristic—dominant • Collisions: airbags or crumple zones
and recessive • Generation of electricity—wind power
• Natural selection • A solar car or device
• Bioaccumulation • An electrical device
• Sound travels by waves • A speaker
• Gravity acts at 9.8 m/s2 • The carbon cycle
• Newton’s Laws of Motion • Part of the body such as the ear or heart
• Brownian motion • Atoms: solids, liquids and gases

303
 My investigation
• Atoms: molecules and chemical reactions
• Reproduction of a virus or other microbe
• Ohm’s law
• The structure of DNA
• Newton’s Laws of Motion
• The operation of a remote-sensing satellite
• Different types of earthquake waves
• An optical device such as a microscope, telescope,
projector or binoculars, showing how it works
• A nuclear reactor, showing how it works
• The best direction for a house to face—how do we
keep sunlight out in summer, and let sunlight in
during winter?
• How a lung works—how does the movement of the
diaphragm relate to the volume of air inhaled?
• How the current and voltage in a circuit affect the
power of an electromagnet
• The perfect beach—how the depth of water affects
the height of waves
• How infectious disease can be spread
• The amount of tar in cigarettes—you may need
teacher and parent permission to complete this
investigation
• How the mass of an object affects stopping distance
• How lifting an object is made easier by ramps or
pulleys
• Reproduction rates in bacteria using computer
modelling
• The aerodynamic shape of different car designs
using a wind tunnel.
Note: There are many other investigations that you
could do, but you will need to negotiate with your
teacher if you select a different problem. Further ideas
can be found by searching the Internet.
Fig 9.2.3 A student using a model to investigate the
structure of DNA
304
>>>
Murphy’s Law and others
You will have heard of Murphy’s Law:
‘Anything that can go wrong will go wron
g’.
There are other similar ‘rules’ that you may
encounter throughout
your project, so be prepared.
• Nothing is as easy as it looks.
• Everything takes longer than you think.
• Always keep a record of data. It indicates
that you’ve been working.
• In case of doubt, make it sound convincing
.
• Experiments should be reproducible—they
should all fail in the
same way.
• When you don’t know what you are doing
, do it neatly.
• If it is green or it wiggles, it’s Biology. If it
stinks, it’s Chemistry.
If it doesn’t work, it’s Physics.
Scientific method
You will be required to produce a report based on your
work and findings, whichever type of investigation
and topic you choose. The following is a review of the
scientific method to help you in designing, conducting
and reporting on your investigation.
Aim
The aim outlines the idea or scientific question you
are trying to test.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a prediction or ‘educated guess’ about
what you might find in an experiment. A hypothesis
is something that can be tested in measurable terms.
Variables
Identify all the variables that may affect your results.
Remember that variables can be classified into three
groups:
• independent variable—the variable that is changed
• dependent variable—the variable that is being
measured
• controlled variables—the variables that are kept
the same throughout the experiment.
Equipment
List all the equipment and materials that you need.
Method
The method is a step-by-step set of instructions that
other scientists at your level of experience could
follow to accurately repeat your experiment.
 9.2

UNIT
When writing the instructions, include the • Describe any difficulties or problems you had in
following information: doing the investigation.
• the one variable that you are going to change • Explain how your experiment could be improved
• how you are going to change it and by how much to gain better or more dependable results.
• how you are going to control all the other variables
• diagrams, drawings or photographs Conclusion
• how you are going to measure the changes A conclusion is simply a summary of the results
• how you are going to record the changes, such as of your experiment. A good conclusion will:
in a results table. • answer your aim
Your experimental method should be replicated a • identify whether your
number of times so that a more accurate conclusion experiment proved or disproved
can be drawn. your hypothesis. Use any trends
you saw in the results as proof.
Results • identify any changes that you Nuclear beer froth
A scientist in Germany
Results can be of two types: would make if you had to repeat demonstrated that the
• Results or data that are numerical are called this investigation. volume of beer froth decays
quantitative as they usually measure amounts or exponentially with time,
quantities. Resource list just like radioactive decay.
This is sometimes called a The experiments showed
• If you are using your senses to observe, you are that the decay constant
making observations. Qualitative observations are bibliography and is a list of all the depended on the brand and
written down as a description or recorded as a resources and references you used. type of beer.

picture or diagram. You may also wish to make any

You should also record any other things you
notice, particularly any problems you had with your
investigation. If appropriate, include a photographic
essay of your project steps or results. These will assist
in your final analysis.
You may be asked to keep a detailed process diary
of observations, data, and results while completing
your experiment.
Discussion
In the discussion you should analyse and evaluate
your results in detail:
• Analyse and present your data or observations in
different ways to show any patterns or trends. This
is where a graph may be useful. Line graphs should
be used when both the independent and dependent
variables are numerical.
• Explain any trends or patterns in your
observations, data and results.
• Explain why the results occurred and what they
demonstrated.
• Evaluate the success of your investigation.
• Outline any errors that may have affected your
results. Errors are unavoidable, but mistakes are
because of clumsiness. Report your errors, not your
mistakes.
acknowledgements here.
Communicating
When working independently it is vital to be able to
communicate your results and knowledge to others.
As well as your written report you may be required to
present your findings in another way.
When selecting your topic, consider the type of
presentation that would best suit your investigation.
As you perform your investigation, collect any
information that will allow you to present your
findings in a creative and interesting way.
Presentations could take the form of:
• an oral presentation (use props to assist you)
• a demonstration of a model to the class
• a website
• a PowerPoint presentation
• a poster or visual display
• photographic, video or audio material
• a journal article
• a newspaper article.
Use worksheets 9.1 and 9.2 to help you plan your
investigation.
Worksheet 9.1 Proposing my big idea

Worksheet 9.2 Planning my investigation

305
 My investigation
Career profile
Science laboratory assistant
Laboratory assistants prepare experimental equipment and
chemical solutions and maintain a chemical storage area in
accordance with safety requirements. They support science
teachers and scientists in their work, ordering stock, disposing
of waste and helping them improve experiments. They often
help with research, carrying out preliminary experiments.
Laboratory assistants can be involved in:
• working with teachers or scientists in planning
experiments
• cleaning, maintaining and setting up equipment for use
in experiments
• performing calculations to prepare correct chemical
solutions
• completing routine experiments to help in an
investigation
• checking chemical and equipment supplies and ordering
stock
• keeping records of stock
• checking that all equipment and chemicals are stored
safely
• disposing of waste in a safe manner.
Fig 9.2.4 Laboratory assistant preparing for an experiment
306
>>>
A good laboratory assistant will be able to:
• enjoy scientific activities
• work as part of a team
• communicate and negotiate effectively with people
• solve problems in creative ways
• keep accurate and detailed reports
• follow detailed experimental instructions.
Flatus odour judge
Odour judges are common in the research laboratories of mouthwash
companies. Volunteers with bad breath blow gusts of air in the judges’ faces
to test product efficiency. Gastroenterologist Michael Levitt recently took
the job to another level. Sixteen healthy subjects volunteered to eat baked
beans and insert small plastic collection tubes into their anuses. After each
‘episode of flatulence’, Levitt syringed the gas into a sterile container. The
odour judges then sat down with at least 100 samples, opened the caps one
at a time, and inhaled. For comparison with the judges’ comments Levitt also
chemically analysed the samples. He found that the ‘smelliest’ component
of the human flatus was hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Make sure you read the job
description very carefully before taking on any laboratory job!
 9.2

UNIT
9.2 [ Questions ]
UNIT

Checkpoint
Types of investigation 17 Discuss the purpose and contents of a discussion in
an experimental report.
1 Describe three things to consider when selecting a
topic for investigation. 18 Evaluate the need for a conclusion when writing an
experimental report.
2 List the three types of investigation that may be
undertaken. 19 Explain why an experiment should be replicated.
3 Distinguish between building a model to demonstrate
a scientific principle, and building a model to
Skills
investigate an aspect of science. 20 Classify the following as either open or closed
Scientific method questions.
4 List the sections of a scientific report. a Is it possible to reduce friction using oil?
b Is the average weight of boys in your class greater
5 Distinguish between a dependent variable and an
than the average weight of girls?
independent variable.
c Which type of material is best for making a
6 Define ‘controlled variable’.
shopping bag?
7 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative d What is the best colour for a flashing light so that it
observations. can be seen easily at night?
8 Clarify the purpose of a conclusion. e Is it further to Mars than to Venus?
Communicating f How does the amount of sugar in water change
9 Identify two ways in which you could communicate the boiling temperature?
the findings of your investigation. 21 You have been asked to design an experiment
to test the amount of light that can pass through
Think different types of glass. You have the following
equipment available: different glass samples including
10 Compare an aim and a hypothesis.
transparent, opaque, translucent and coloured; a light
11 List three ways in which you could present the results sensor and data logger; torch; ruler.
of an investigation.
a Construct an aim for this experiment.
12 Explain why you should only change one variable at a b Construct a hypothesis.
time in any experiment.
c Identify the independent and dependent variables.
13 The following types of information could be collected d List the variable(s) that would need to be
in an experiment. Classify each as quantitative or controlled.
qualitative data.
e Outline any observations you would make.
a colour f force
f Outline any measurements you would make.
b mass g texture
g Propose a method for this experiment.
c smell h length
h Design a table in which you could record your
d time i current results.
e weight j temperature
22 Marika completed an experiment to test the effect of
14 Everyone has different learning styles. Explain why fertiliser on the growth of plants, using the equipment
it is important to use different techniques when shown in Figure 9.2.5.
communicating information.
a Identify the independent variable.
15 Describe two props that could be used in an oral
b Identify the dependent variable.
presentation to help you pass information in visual
c List the controlled variables.
form to learners.
d Propose a hypothesis for this experiment.
16 Distinguish between a newspaper article and a journal
article.

>>

307
 My investigation >>>
Chapter review
[ Summary questions ]
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph about
the skills required for completing an independent
investigation.
communicate, time lines, conduct, data, identifying,
evaluate, safely, creative, scientific, mentor, solving,
0 grams 5 grams 10 grams alone
When completing an independent investigation you will
Amount of fertiliser added
need to set suitable _____________. You will need to
250
work ___________ while you design, ___________ and
Plant ___________ your investigation.
fertiliser 200 As problems arise you may need to apply ___________
Measuring
cylinder thinking and problem-_____________ techniques. This
150 will involve _____________ problems and coming up with
_____________ solutions to them. Having a ___________
100 ___ to support you through difficult times can help when
working __________. After completing an investigation it
50 is necessary to______________ information and results
20
to others. This will involve presenting _________ and
information in suitable forms.
2 Outline three personal characteristics needed for
electronic balance Water
working independently.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 cm Ruler 3 Construct three open-ended questions that may be
suitable for investigation.
4 Identify whether the following statements are true or
Fig 9.2.5
false.
a The topic you select for investigation should not pose
Marika recorded the results shown in the table below. a danger to people or the environment.
e Construct a line graph to show these results. You b A closed question cannot be answered with a
will need three lines on the one graph. true/false or yes/no.
f Describe any patterns and trends that you see in c A conclusion sums up the results of an investigation.
the results. d An aim and a hypothesis are the same thing and
g Use these results to deduce what effect the only one of them should be included in a report of
fertiliser had on the height of the plants. an investigation.
h Could you rely on these results, or believe any e A graph of results would appear in the conclusion of
conclusion based on them? Justify your answer. an investigation.
i Evaluate the experiment to decide if it is a fair test.
j Propose any improvements to the experiment.

Amount of fertiliser Height of plant (cm)

(grams) Start Day 2 Day 4 Day 6 Day 8 Day 10
0 5.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5
5 5.0 6.5 8.6 10.5 12.8 14.7
10 5.0 6.4 8.2 9.2 11.0 12.1

308
[ Thinking questions ]
Report section Purpose Description of what should be included
Title To identify the project and what it is about A title
Aim A statement about what you will be finding out about
Hypothesis A prediction or ‘educated guess’ about
what you may find in an experiment.
Equipment List of equipment and resources
Variables
To provide clear, unambiguous instructions
that other scientists could follow to accurately
repeat your experiment
Results
Discussion To analyse and evaluate your results in detail
Whether you answered the aim. Whether the hypothesis was proved
or disproved and why
Bibliography Lists of resources including books, websites, journal articles etc.

5 Copy and complete the table above to summarise the
structure of a scientific report.
6 Explain the difference between an investigation to
demonstrate a scientific principle and an investigation into
an aspect of science of your choice.
‘On the west coast of the South American continent,
a cool ocean current (called the Humboldt or Peru
current) brings nutrient-rich water to the coast.
This provides valuable food for the fish. But every
two to seven years, at about Christmas time, a warm
current comes and leaves the coastal fishermen with

[ Interpreting questions ] empty nets. The fishermen called this phenomenon

‘El Niño’, meaning ‘Christ Child’.’

7 Peter decided to investigate the solubility of gases f Use the findings from Peter’s experiment to
in water and apply the results to explain the El Niño propose an explanation for the empty fishing nets.
effect. From texts and the Internet he found that marine
animals depend on oxygen in the same way as animals
on land. He also found that the gases oxygen and Temperature Tap water Boiled Sea water Boiled
carbon dioxide are soluble in water. °C tap water sea water
Peter then used datalogging equipment to test the 5 13.1 7.1 10.9 6.8
solubility of oxygen in water. His experiment produced 10 11.8 6.8 9.5 5.9
the results shown opposite:
15 10.5 6.6 8.7 4.8
a Construct a line graph to display these results. You
will need four lines on the one graph. 20 9.7 6.9 8.0 4.4

b Identify any experimental results that may be wrong. 25 8.4 6.1 7.2 4.1
Predict the correct values for these points. 30 7.7 5.9 6.7 3.9
c Describe any patterns and trends that you see in
35 7.1 5.7 6.1 3.7
the results.
d Use these results to deduce how oxygen solubility is 40 6.8 5.6 5.7 3.5
affected by temperature.
e Evaluate the experiment to decide whether it was a
fair test. Worksheet 9.3 Sci-words
Peter searched the Internet to find information about the
El Niño effect. His search allowed him to summarise the
effect as follows:

309
310
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,EGEND
METALS SYMBOL
LIQUIDATROOMTEMPERATURE
( NAME
(YDROGEN
METALLOIDS  ATOMICNUMBER
GASATROOMTEMPERATURE

ATOMICMASS
NON
METALS
 ATOMICMASSOFTHE
LONGEST
LIVEDISOTOPE
Australian Aboriginal
diet, 189
dreamtime, 225
healing, 188
medicines, 205
use of resins, 45
use of natural fibre, 47
AC/DC, 64
acceleration, 147
acquired characteristics, 227
acquired immunity, 204
action/reaction forces, 164
adaptations, 223–4
adaptive radiation, 235
ADSL, 88
agitation, CD9
air resistance, 169
albinism, 106
alcohol, 18–19, 215–16
alkanes, 16
alkenes, 17
alkynes, 18
alleles, 100
alloys, 25–6
alpha radiation, 277
alternating current, 64
aluminium, 39
AM-FM, 80
amino acids, 115
amplitude, 77
analogue network, 85
anatomical studies, 243
anodising, 39
antibiotics, 205
antibodies, 204
antigen, 204
attenuation, 86
atomic mass, CD2
Australopithecus, 250
Avogadro’s number, CD2
bacteria, 197
balanced forces, 160
balancing equations, 4–5
bandwidth, 86
base pairs, in DNA, 114
behavioural adaptations, 224
beta radiation, 277–8
biotechnology, 128 cultural evolution, 252–3
blast furnace, 33 Curie, Marie, 277
blood groups, 107 current, 61, 62
blood pressure, 213 AC/DC, 64
blow moulding, 46
Bowler, Jim, 259 Darwin, Charles, 227
broadband, 89 theory of evolution, 227–9
Buffon, Georges, 226 Darwin’s finches, 228
deceleration, 147
cancer, 214 diabetes, 212
capacitors, CD15 diatomic, 4
carat, 26 diet, Aboriginal, 189
carbon dating, 281 digital network, 85
carbon dioxide, 264–5 diodes, CD16
carbon fibres, 49 diploid cells, 97
careers direct current, 64
geneticist, 125 disease, 192
medical laboratory technician, contagious, 203
110 control of, 203–4
science laboratory assistant, 306 heart, 213
science teacher, 297 infectious, 196
cell division, 98–9 non-infectious, 211
chain reaction, 286 transmission of, 203
chemical formulas, 3 X-linked, 110
chemistry, organic, 15 displacement, 136
Chernobyl, 288 distance, 136
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), 265, distance–time graph, 138
272–3 divergent evolution, 235
chromosomes, 97 DNA, 97
circuit types, 63 copying, 114
cloning, 123–4 fingerprinting, 129–30
therapeutic, 124 recombinant, 121
coaxial cable, 86 structure of, 114
codominance, 101 dominant trait, 97
combustion, 19 door latch, 69
communicating, 305 drug abuse, 215
communication dynamo, 71
waves in, 76–80
history of, 84–5 eating disorders, 212
communication network 85–9 Einstein, Albert, 285
contagious disease, 203 El Niño, 268
convergent evolution, 235–6 elastic potential energy, 177
copying DNA, 114 electric bell, 69
corrosion of metals, 38–9 electric circuit, 60–2
protection against, 38–9 types of, 63–4
covalent bonding, 3 water analogy, 61–2
cracking, 17 electricity, 60
creation, 225 electrolysis, 32
311
 Index >>>
electronics, CD14–17 gamma rays, 78 iron, smelting of, 33
electromagnet, 68 gangue, 32 isotopes, 276–7
electromagnetic spectrum, 77–8 gene cell therapy, 125
electromagnetism, 68 gene expression, 116 Jenner, Edward, 205
embryonic development, 244 gene probes, 129
emulsion, CD9 gene technology, 120–1, 122 kinetic energy, 176
energy, 176 generator, 71 Kyoto Protocol, 266
elastic potential, 177 genes, 97
gravitational potential, 177 genetic code, 115 Lamarck, Jean, 226
kinetic, 176 genetic disorders, 211 theory of evolution, 227
potential, 177 genetic engineering, 120–1
enhanced greenhouse effect, 264 genetic evidence, 246 lasers, 87
epidemic, 193, 196 genetic map, 125 lather, CD9
evolution, 223 genetically modified organisms, 121 Law of conservation of mass, 5
convergent, 235–6 genotype, 100 Law of conservation of matter, 4
cultural, 252 geographic isolation, 234 Law of Constant Proportions, CD5
Darwin’s theory of, 227–9 geological time scale, 239 life on Earth, 241
divergent, 235 glass fibres, 49 light-dependent resistors, CD15
evidence for, 239–46 global warming, 266–8 light waves, 77
human, 249–53 glycemic index (GI), 187 Lister, Joseph, 206
parallel, 236 graphs
theory of, 225 distance–time, 138 maglev trains, 70
experiments speed–time, 138–9, 148 magnetic field, 71
cheese sandwich, 300 gravitational potential energy, 177 malnutrition, 211
dunking biscuits, 299–300 gravity, 169 manipulating genes, 121
gravy, 300–1 greenhouse effect, 263 Maralinga, 289
extrusion moulding, 46 enhanced, 264 measuring radiation, 279–80
eye colour, 107 greenhouse gases, 264 meiosis, 99
Mendel, Gregor, 96
fermentation, 19 half-life, 278–9 mental illness, 218
fibreglass, 49 hard and soft water, CD9 metals, 3, 24
fibres health, 186 extraction, 32
natural, 47 heart disease, 213 mining, 31
synthetic, 47–8 hereditary factors, 97 properties of, 24
fission, 285 HIV/AIDS, 207, 208 pure, 24
flatworm, 199 Homo sapiens, 251 methane, 265
flukes, 199 homologous pair, 97 micromechanics, 55
food pyramid, 187 human evolution, 249–53 microphone, 71
forces, 153 human genome, 125 microwave ovens, 92
action/reaction, 164 human inheritance, 106–10 microwaves, 80, 87, 91
balanced, 160 hydrocarbons, 16 minerals, 30
types of, 153 mining process, 31
forensic analysis, 123 incomplete dominance, 102 mitosis, 98
formula mass, CD3 independent work skills, 295–6 mobile phones, 88
fossil record, 239–43 individual research project, 294 mole, CD2
fossils, 239–40 industrial reactions, 10 monofilaments, 48
fractional distillation, 17 inertia, 153, 155 monomers, 44
frequency, 76 infection, 193 Morse code, 84
fungi, 199 infectious diseases, 196–200 motion graphs, 138
fusion, 288–9 infra-red rays, 79 distance–time, 138
injection moulding, 46 speed–time, 138–9, 148
galvanised iron, 39 integrated circuits, CD17 multiple bonds, 15
gametes, 97 investigations, 302–4 multiplexing, 86
gamma radiation, 278 ionic bonding, 4 Mungo man, 255–9

312
 INDEX
INDEX
mutagens, 116 potential energy, 177 synthetic fibres, 47–8
mutations, 116, 117 power transmission, 72 synthetics, 48
prenatal testing, 123
nanobots, 56 Priestley, Joseph, CD4 tapeworm, 200
nanometre, 54 primates, 249 telegraph, 84
nanotechnology, 54 products, 3 telephone, 85
native elements, 29 properties of metals, 24 television, 70
natural fibres, 47 protozoa, 198 terminal velocity, 169
natural selection, 232–4 Punnett square, 101 theory of evolution, 225
Newton’s laws, 164 therapeutic cloning, 124
First law, 153 quantum computing, 57 thermistors, CD15
Second law, 159 thermoplastic, 43
Third law, 164 rabbit control, 233 thermosetting plastics, 44
nitrous oxide, 265 radiation, 217, 276 thrust, 165
non-infectious diseases, 211 effects of, 279 ticker-timer, 137
nuclear accidents, 288 types of, 277–8 tokamak, 288–90
nuclear dangers, 287– 9 uses of, 280–2 traits, 96
nuclear energy, 285–6 radio waves, 80 transformers, 72
nuclear radiation, 276–80 radioactivity, 276 transgenics, 122
sources of, 279 radiotherapy, 280 transistors, CD17
uses of, 280–2 rates of reactions, 11–12 true breeding, 96
nuclear reactors, 286–7 reactants, 3 tuberculosis (TB), 205
nuclear waste disposal, 288 reaction engines, 165, tumour, 214
nutrients, 186 recessive trait, 97
recombinant DNA, 121 ultraviolet radiation, 79
obesity, 212 recycling, 34
Ohm’s law, 63–4 relay, 69 vaccinations, 204
optical fibres, 86 reproductive isolation, 234 vaccines, 204
ores, 30 resistance, 62 variation within a species, 108, 224
organic chemistry, 15 resistor code, CD14–15 varicose veins, 213
alkanes, 16 resistors, CD14 vector, 203
alkenes, 17 rockets, 165 velocity, 136–7
alkynes, 18 rusting, 38 terminal, 169
ozone, 272 vending machine, 72
destruction of, 273 saponification, CD9 viruses, 198
hole, 273–4 science fun, 299–301 visible light, 79
layer, 272 scientific method, 304–5 voltage, 61
selection, 225
pandemic, 198 selective breeding, 120 Wallace, Alfred, 229
parallel circuits, 63 series circuits, 63 water, CD8
parallel evolution, 236 sex linked inheritance, 109 wavelength, 77
pathogen, 192, 196 smelting, 33 waves, 76
pedigrees, 108–9 smoking, 215–16 weight, 169
pentadactyl limb, 243–4 soap, CD8–11 work, 176
peppered moth, 232–3 solenoid, 68
phenotype, 100 speakers, 69 X and Y chromosomes, 109
plant and animal distribution, 245 speciation, 234 X-linked diseases, 110
plasmids, 121 speed, 136–7 X-rays, 78
plastics, 43 speed–time graph, 138–9, 148
properties of, 43 spring constant, 178 yield, 10
thermoplastic, 43 states of matter, 6
thermosetting, 44 steel, 25
polar molecules, CD8 stem cells, 124
polarisation, 79 stroke, 212
polymers, 17, 43 structural adaptations, 223
sulfuric acid, 11–12

313