Measurement Uncertainties and their Treatment II

(Bar Pendulum, Kater’s Pendulum, Sextent, Flywheel)

(BSc(P) I Semester (2019), Mechanics Lab, St Stephen’s College)
Sanjay Kumar
This note has suggestions for uncertainty estimates for experiments you will be
doing in the Mechanics Lab this semester. Uncertainty in the final result of all
experiments depends upon a number of factors. You should calculate
contributions of all of these factors. Estimating uncertainty may appear to be
cumbersome at first. However, it is fairly straightforward once you learn to do it
systematically. Since the uncertainty estimate is reported only up to one
significant figure (see section 5 of the first note on Measurement Uncertainties)
you will notice that typically only one dominant source contributes to the final
estimate.
It is essential that in the section on Sources of Error in your experiment
report you mention which source contributes maximum to the final error
estimate. This is of great practical value. If you want to design a better
experiment, then you must reduce the uncertainty in the least precise step in the
experiment.

I Acceleration due to Gravity by Bar Pendulum

In this experiment the acceleration due to gravity is found from two different
methods of calculation.
(i) From a graph of T vs l using the formula g = 42 L/T2, where L is the
length of the equivalent simple pendulum found from graph. Since g is
a product function we can use log error.
∆𝑔 ∆𝐿 ∆𝑇
= +2 .
𝑔 𝐿 𝑇

(a) L arises from two sources. First source is the uncertainty in the
measurement of the distance of the point of suspension from one
end of the pendulum. This is the least count of the meter stick and
equals 1mm. The other source is uncertainty in the value of L from
graph. Typically, the second uncertainty in L from graph is much
larger (upto five times, but think why) than the uncertainty from
the meter stick. In general, when one source is much larger (two to
 three times larger) than the other source, then only the larger
source should be used in final error estimation.
(b) T again has two sources : from the timing measurement, and from
the graph. If you have measured time for ten oscillations, and the
uncertainty in your reaction time is 0.1s, then T from timing
measurement is 0.01 s. You should compare it with the uncertainty
in T from graph, and if one is more than three times larger than
the other, then use only the larger one. If contributions of the two
sources to T are comparable then these should be added.

(ii) The second method for finding g involves the best fit straight line
between l2 and T2l, where l is the distance of the point of suspension
from the center of gravity of the pendulum. g is found from the
relationship
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 4𝜋 2 2 1.
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Since this is a product function we can estimate the uncertainty in g
from log error.
∆𝑔 ∆(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) ∆(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
= + .
𝑔 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Uncertainties (y2 – y1) and (x2 – x1) in the two terms arise from the
measurements of l and T, and also from the least counts of the graph.
Use only the uncertainty from graph to estimate the final result.

II Acceleration due to Gravity from Kater’s Pendulum

Kater’s pendulum is one of the most precise mechanical devices to find

acceleration due to gravity. Its asymmetric mass distribution, which can be
altered by moving the steel and wooden masses, and the freedom to change the
point of suspension are the key to its precision. You should be able to appreciate
these points after going through the uncertainty analysis for it.

The formula for g is

8𝜋 2
𝑔=
𝑇12 + 𝑇22 𝑇12 − 𝑇22
+
𝑙1 + 𝑙2 𝑙1 − 𝑙2
It is more convenient to work with inverse of g. So define an A such that
𝑇2
1 +𝑇2
2 𝑇 −𝑇 2 2
1 + 1 2 ∆𝑔 ∆𝐴
𝑙1 +𝑙2 𝑙1 −𝑙2
𝐴 ≡ = 2
and = .
𝑔 8𝜋 𝑔 𝐴

Measurements of lengths in Kater’s pendulum have to be done and interpreted

carefully. The l1 + l2 is just the separation between two knife edges. You do not
need to measure l1 and l2 separately. It is only one measurement with
uncertainty of 1mm. For l1 - l2, first the center of mass is located, and then from
that point l1 and l2 are measured. So, finding the value of l1 – l2 involves three
steps. If we assume that all steps involve an uncertainty of 1mm then the
uncertainty in it is 3mm; much greater than the uncertainty in l1 + l2 . Hence we
see that l1 + l2 and l1 – l2 are two separate measurements.

Let l1+ l2 = L+ and l1-l2 = L- . The function A then depends upon four
independent variables, namely T1, T2, L+ and L- . Since A involves additions and
subtractions, we can not use log error formulas, and must use the basic formula
for propagation of errors.

𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
∆𝐴 = | | ∆𝑇1 + | | ∆𝑇2 + | | ∆𝐿+ + | |∆𝐿− .
𝜕𝑇1 𝜕𝑇2 𝜕𝐿+ 𝜕𝐿−

Each one of the partial derivatives has two terms. Care should be taken that
these terms be kept with whichever signs, positive or negative, appears with
them. Modulus is taken after complete partial derivative has been evaluated. For
example

𝜕𝐴 2𝑇1 2𝑇2
| |=| − |.
𝜕𝑇2 𝐿+ 𝐿−

Answer the following questions in your report for the experiment.

1. The value of g at any place on Earth depends upon a number of factors. A

constant part, which is same at all points on Earth depends upon the total
mass and average radius of the Earth. Rotation of the Earth causes an
outward centripetal force perpendicular to the axis of rotation. This force
reduces the observed value of g, and is different for different latitudes.
Altitude of a place above the mean sea level, and distribution of rocks
below the surface also affect the value of g. Different physical affects
have very different magnitudes and show up at different levels of
 precision, or significant figures. The value of g up to four significant
figures is
𝑔 = 9.806 − 0.026 cos(2 × 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒) (m/s2),
where the second term is from the rotation of the Earth.
Is your value of g from Kater’s pendulum precise enough to register
the effect of Earth’s rotation?
Find percentage difference between the value of found by you and
the exact value of g for Delhi from the above formula.
2. Compare the magnitudes of contribution to the final error from T1, T2,
L+ and L- . What contributes maximum to the error? Do you now
understand why is it important to adjust the pendulum so that the two
time periods are very close to each other?

III Height of a Pillar by Sextent

The unknown height in this experiment is given by

𝑥
𝐻= + ℎ0 ,
cot 𝛼2 −cot 𝛼1
where x is the distance between two points along the line towards the pillar,
from where the topmost point of the pillar makes angle 1 and 2 respectively.
The h0 is the height of the eye level.

Measurement uncertainties in x, 1, 2 and h0 cause uncertainty in H.

Since the formula for height involves additions, log error can not be used.

𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻
∆𝐻 = | | ∆𝑥 + | | ∆𝛼1 + | | ∆𝛼2 + | |∆ℎ0 .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝛼1 𝜕𝛼2 𝜕ℎ0

The sextents available in the lab have 12 arcsecond least count. However, you
will notice that these do not have a very sturdy construction, and also have
significant zero errors. Rather than taking the least count as the uncertainty in
angles, it is better to measure 1 and 2 at least three times and take the range
of values found as the estimate for uncertainty. While taking the average of the
three readings you must take note of the fact that the average cannot be more
precise than the numbers being averaged, and is known only up to the least count
uncertainty.

The derivation formulas for trigonometric quantities are valid only when angles
are in radians.
IV Moment of Inertia of a Flywheel

In this experiment the moment of inertia is found from the slope of the graph
between m(g-a) and a, where m is the mass hanging on the flywheel axle, and a
is its acceleration. The equation of the straight line is
𝐼
𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎) = 𝑎 + 𝑓.
𝑅2

In this equation f is the force of friction acting on the axle, R is the axle radius,
and I is the moment of inertia of the flywheel. In the LHS of the equation, a is
almost thousand times less than g, and given the precision of other quantities in
the equation, it can be neglected.

Since I = slope×R2, the fractional uncertainty in I is

∆𝐼 ∆𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 ∆𝑅
= +2 .
𝐼 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑅

The uncertainty in slope includes uncertainties in m and a.

You should weight each of the masses separately as the difference between their
values is likely to be more than the sensitivity of the scale, or the smallest standard
mass available in the weight box. You should compare uncertainty in the
measurement of m with the least count of the graph. If the two are comparable in
magnitude then the two should be added. Else, use only the larger uncertainty in
your calculations.

The axle radius is measured using Vernier callipers. You should find it at four-
five different places on the axle and in different directions. If you find that these
values differ by more than the least count of the Vernier callipers, then use the
range of these values as the uncertainty in R.

Uncertainty a in the acceleration

Acceleration a is not directly measured. It is found from measuring the time taken
for the mass to fall through a fixed distance s.
𝑎 = 2𝑠/𝑡 2 . Hence, the relative uncertainty in the value of a from measurements
is
∆𝑎 ∆𝑠 ∆𝑡
= +2 .
𝑎 𝑠 𝑡

Since the starting point where mass m begins to fall is not very well determined,
s is larger than the least count (1mm) of the meter stick. It may be as much as
half a centimetre. Use t values from the middle of the data set to estimate
fractional uncertainty in a. Also find the fractional uncertainty from the least
count of the graph, to find the final uncertainty in a.

In the discussion part of the lab report try to answer these questions.

1. What would be a reasonable estimate of the smallest mass necessary to

rotate the flywheel from your observations and results.
2. Does the finite thickness of the thread have any effect on the value of the
moment of inertia found in the experiment? If yes, then neglecting it
produces what kind of error (systematic, or random) in your result?
3. Flywheels are used in automobile engines to store mechanical energy, and
for its smooth delivery. Estimate the fraction of the potential energy lost
by the falling mass that gets stored in the rotational kinetic energy of the
flywheel in the experiment.