CREATIVE WRITING

Writing Poetry

Poetic Devices
 The SOUNDS of words
 The MEANINGs of words
 Arranging the words
 The IMAGES of words

The SOUNDS of words

• Words or portions of words can be clustered or juxtaposed to achieve specific kinds of effects when
we hear them. The sounds that result can strike us as clever and pleasing, even soothing. Others we
dislike and strive to avoid.

The MEANINGs of words

Most words convey several meanings or shades of meaning at the same time. It is the poet’s job to find
words which, when used in relation to other words in the poem, will carry the precise intention of
thought. Often, some of the more significant words may carry several layers or “depths” of meaning at
once.

Arranging the words

• Words follow each other in a sequence determined by the poet. In order to discuss the
arrangements that result, certain terms have been applied to various aspects of that arrangement
process. Although in some ways these sequences seem arbitrary and mechanical, in another sense
they help to determine the nature of the poem. These various ways of organizing words have been
identified.

The IMAGES of words

• A poet uses words more consciously than any other writer. Although poetry often deals with deep human
emotions or philosophical thought, people generally don’t respond very strongly to abstract words, even
the words describing such emotions and thoughts.

• The poet, then, must embed within his work those words which do carry strong visual and sensory impact,
words which are fresh and spontaneous but vividly descriptive.

• He must carefully pick and choose words that are just right. It is better to show the reader than to merely
tell him.

I. Poetic Devices

A POET IS LIMITED in the materials he can use in creating his works: all he has are words to express his ideas
and feelings. These words need to be precisely right on several levels at once:
• they must sound right to the listener even as they delight his ear
• they must have a meaning which might have been unanticipated, but seems to be the perfectly right one
• they must be arranged in a relationship and placed on the page in ways that are at once easy to follow and
assist the reader in understanding
• they must probe the depths of human thought, emotion, and empathy, while appearing simple, self-
contained, and unpretentious

Fortunately, the English language contains a wide range of words from which to choose for almost every
thought, and there are also numerous plans or methods of arrangement of these words, called poetic devices,
which can assist the writer in developing cogent expressions pleasing to his readers.
Even though most poetry today is read silently, it must still carry with it the feeling of being spoken aloud, and
the reader should practice “hearing” it in order to catch all of the artfulness with which the poet has created his
work.
o The SOUNDS of words
Words or portions of words can be clustered or juxtaposed to achieve specific kinds of effects when we hear
them. The sounds that result can strike us as clever and pleasing, even soothing. Others we dislike and strive to
avoid. These various deliberate arrangements of words have been identified.

 Alliteration: Repeated consonant sounds at the beginning of words placed near each other, usually
on the same or adjacent lines. A somewhat looser definition is that it is the use of the same
consonant in any part of adjacent words.
Example: fast and furious
 Assonance: Repeated vowel sounds in words placed near each other, usually on the same or
adjacent lines. These should be in sounds that are accented, or stressed, rather than in vowel
sounds that are unaccented.
 Consonance: Repeated consonant sounds at the ending of words placed near each other, usually on
the same or adjacent lines. These should be in sounds that are accented, or stressed, rather than in
vowel sounds that are unaccented.
 Cacophony: A discordant series of harsh, unpleasant sounds helps to convey disorder. This is often
furthered by the combined effect of the meaning and the difficulty of pronunciation.
Example:
My stick fingers click with a snicker
And, chuckling, they knuckle the keys;
Light-footed, my steel feelers flicker
And pluck from these keys melodies.
—“Player Piano,” John Updike

 Euphony: A series of musically pleasant sounds, conveying a sense of harmony and beauty to the
language.
Example:
Than Oars divide the Ocean,
Too silver for a seam—
Or Butterflies, off Banks of Noon
Leap, plashless as they swim.
— “A Bird Came Down the Walk,” Emily Dickenson (last stanza)
 Onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meanings. In Hear the steady tick of the old hall clock,
the word tick sounds like the action of the clock, If assonance or alliteration can be onomatopoeic,
as the sound ‘ck’ is repeated in tick and clock, so much the better. At least sounds should suit the
tone – heavy sounds for weightiness, light for the delicate. Tick is a light word, but transpose the
light T to its heavier counterpart, D; and transpose the light CK to its heavier counterpart G, and tick
becomes the much more solid and down to earth dig.
Example: boom, buzz, crackle, gurgle, hiss, pop, sizzle, snap, swoosh, whir, zip
 Repetition: The purposeful re-use of words and phrases for an effect. Sometimes, especially with
longer phrases that contain a different key word each time, this is called parallelism. It has been a
central part of poetry in many cultures. Many of the Psalms use this device as one of their unifying
elements.
Example: I was glad; so very, very glad.
Half a league, half a league,
Half a league onward…
 Rhyme: This is the one device most commonly associated with poetry by the general public. Words
that have different beginning sounds but whose endings sound alike, including the final vowel
sound and everything following it, are said to rhyme.
Example: time, slime, mime
Double rhymes include the final two syllables. Example: revival, arrival, survival
Triple rhymes include the final three syllables. Example: greenery, machinery, scenery
o The MEANINGs of words
Most words convey several meanings or shades of meaning at the same time. It is the poet’s job to
find words which, when used in relation to other words in the poem, will carry the precise intention
of thought. Often, some of the more significant words may carry several layers or “depths” of
meaning at once. The ways in which the meanings of words are used can be identified.
 Allegory: A representation of an abstract or spiritual meaning. Sometimes it can be a single word
or phrase, such as the name of a character or place. Often, it is a symbolic narrative that has not
only a literal meaning, but a larger one understood only after reading the entire story or poem.
 Allusion: A brief reference to some person, historical event, work of art, or Biblical or mythological
situation or character.
 Ambiguity: A word or phrase that can mean more than one thing, even in its context. Poets often
search out such words to add richness to their work. Often, one meaning seems quite readily
apparent, but other, deeper and darker meanings, await those who contemplate the poem.
Example: Robert Frost’s ‘The Subverted Flower’
 Analogy: A comparison, usually something unfamiliar with something familiar.
Example: The plumbing took a maze of turns where even water got lost.
 Apostrophe: Speaking directly to a real or imagined listener or inanimate object; addressing that
person or thing by name.
Example: O Captain! My Captain! our fearful trip is done…
 Cliché: Any figure of speech that was once clever and original but through overuse has become
outdated. If you’ve heard more than two or three other people say it more than two or three times,
chances are the phrase is too timeworn to be useful in your writing.
Example: busy as a bee
 Connotation: The emotional, psychological or social overtones of a word; its implications and
associations apart from its literal meaning. Often, this is what distinguishes the precisely correct
word from one that is merely acceptable.
 Contrast: Closely arranged things with strikingly different characteristics.
Example: He was dark, sinister, and cruel; she was radiant, pleasant, and kind.
 Denotation: The dictionary definition of a word; its literal meaning apart from any associations or
connotations. Students must exercise caution when beginning to use a thesaurus, since often the
words that are clustered together may share a denotative meaning, but not a connotative one, and
the substitution of a word can sometimes destroy the mood, and even the meaning, of a poem.
 Euphemism: An understatement, used to lessen the effect of a statement; substituting something
innocuous for something that might be offensive or hurtful.
Example: She is at rest. (meaning, she’s dead)
 Hyperbole: An outrageous exaggeration used for effect.
Example: He weighs a ton.
 Irony: A contradictory statement or situation to reveal a reality different from what appears to be
true.
Example: Wow, thanks for expensive gift...let’s see: did it come with a Fun Meal or the Burger King
equivalent?
 Metaphor: A direct comparison between two unlike things, stating that one is the other or does the
action of the other.
Example: He’s a zero.
 Metonymy: A figure of speech in which a person, place, or thing is referred to by something closely
associated with it.
Example: The White House stated today that... Example: The Crown reported today that...
 Oxymoron: A combination of two words that appear to contradict each other.
Example: a pointless point of view; bittersweet
 Paradox: A statement in which a seeming contradiction may reveal an unexpected truth.
Example: The hurrier I go the behinder I get.
 Personification: Attributing human characteristics to an inanimate object, animal, or abstract idea.
Example: The days crept by slowly, sorrowfully.
 Simile: A direct comparison of two unlike things using “like” or “as.”
Example: He’s as dumb as an ox.
Her eyes are like comets.
  Symbol: An ordinary object, event, animal, or person to which we have attached extraordinary
meaning and significance – a flag to represent a country, a lion to represent courage, a wall to
symbolize separation.
Example: A small cross by the dangerous curve on the road reminded all of Johnny’s death.
 Synecdoche: Indicating a person, object, etc. by letting only a certain part represent the whole.
Example: All hands on deck.
o Arranging the words
Words follow each other in a sequence determined by the poet. In order to discuss the arrangements that
result, certain terms have been applied to various aspects of that arrangement process. Although in some ways
these sequences seem arbitrary and mechanical, in another sense they help to determine the nature of the
poem. These various ways of organizing words have been identified.

 Point of View: The author’s point of view concentrates on the vantage point of the speaker, or
“teller” of the story or poem. This may be considered the poem’s “voice” — the pervasive presence
behind the overall work. This is also sometimes referred to as the persona.
 1st Person: the speaker is a character in the story or poem and tells it from his/her
perspective (uses “I”).
 3rd Person limited: the speaker is not part of the story, but tells about the other characters
through the limited perceptions of one other person.
 3rd Person omniscient: the speaker is not part of the story, but is able to “know” and
describe what all characters are thinking.
 Line: The line is fundamental to the perception of poetry, marking an important visual distinction
from prose. Poetry is arranged into a series of units that do not necessarily correspond to
sentences, but rather to a series of metrical feet. Generally, but not always, the line is printed as one
single line on the page. If it occupies more than one line, its remainder is usually indented to
indicate that it is a continuation.
There is a natural tendency when reading poetry to pause at the end of a line, but the careful reader
will follow the punctuation to find where natural pauses should occur.
In traditional verse forms, the length of each line is determined by convention, but in modern
poetry the poet has more latitude for choice.
 Verse: One single line of a poem arranged in a metrical pattern. Also, a piece of poetry or a
particular form of poetry such as free verse, blank verse, etc., or the art or work of a poet.
The popular use of the word verse for a stanza or associated group of metrical lines is not in
accordance with the best usage. A stanza is a group of verses.
 Stanza: A division of a poem created by arranging the lines into a unit, often repeated in the same
pattern of meter and rhyme throughout the poem; a unit of poetic lines (a “paragraph” within the
poem). The stanzas within a poem are separated by blank lines.
Stanzas in modern poetry, such as free verse, often do not have lines that are all of the same length
and meter, nor even the same number of lines in each stanza. Stanzas created by such irregular line
groupings are often dictated by meaning, as in paragraphs of prose.
 Stanza Forms: The names given to describe the number of lines in a stanzaic unit, such as: couplet
(2), tercet (3), quatrain (4), quintet (5), sestet (6), septet (7), and octave (8). Stanza forms are also a
factor in the categorization of whole poems described as following a fixed form.
 Rhetorical Question: A question solely for effect, which does not require an answer. By the
implication the answer is obvious, it is a means of achieving an emphasis stronger than a direct
statement.
Example: Could I but guess the reason for that look?
O, Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?
 Rhyme Scheme: The pattern established by the arrangement of rhymes in a stanza or poem,
generally described by using letters of the alphabet to denote the recurrence of rhyming lines, such
as the ababbcc of the Rhyme Royal stanza form. Capital letters in the alphabetic rhyme scheme are
used for the repeating lines of a refrain; the letters x and y indicate unrhymed lines.

In quatrains, the popular rhyme scheme of abab is called alternate rhyme or cross rhyme. The abba
scheme is called envelope rhyme, and another one frequently used is xaxa (This last pattern, when
working with students, is generally easier for them to understand when presented as abcb, as they
associate matched letters with rhymed words).
 Form: The arrangement or method used to convey the content, such as free verse, ballad, haiku, etc.
In other words, the “way-it-is-said.” A variably interpreted term, however, it sometimes applies to
details within the composition of a text, but is probably used most often in reference to the
structural characteristics of a work as it compares to (or differs from) established modes of
conventionalized arrangements.
 Open: poetic form free from regularity and consistency in elements such as rhyme, line
length, and metrical form
 Closed: poetic form subject to a fixed structure and pattern
 Blank Verse: unrhymed iambic pentameter (much of the plays of Shakespeare are written
in this form)
 Free Verse: lines with no prescribed pattern or structure — the poet determines all the
variables as seems appropriate for each poem.
 Couplet: a pair of lines, usually rhymed; this is the shortest stanza
 Heroic Couplet: a pair of rhymed lines in iambic pentameter (traditional heroic epic form)
 Quatrain: a four-line stanza, or a grouping of four lines of verse
 Fixed Form: A poem which follows a set pattern of meter, rhyme scheme, stanza form, and refrain
(if there is one), is called a fixed form.
Most poets feel a need for familiarity and practice with established forms as essential to learning
the craft, but having explored the techniques and constraints of each, they go on to experiment and
extend their imaginative creativity in new directions. A partial listing includes:
 Ballad: a narrative poem written. The “story” of a ballad can be a wide range of subjects but
frequently deals with folklore or popular legends. They are written in a straight-forward
manner, seldom with detail, but always with graphic simplicity and force. Most ballads are
suitable for singing: “Barbara Allen” is an example. Many of the oldest ballads were first
written and performed by minstrels as court entertainment. Folk ballads are of unknown
origin and are usually lacking in artistic finish. Because they are handed down by oral
tradition, folk ballads are subject to variations and continual change. Other types of ballads
include literary ballads, combining the natures of epic and lyric poetry, which are written by
known authors, often in the style and form of the folk ballad, such as Keats’ ‘La Belle Dame
sans Merci.”
 Concrete Poetry: also known as pattern poetry or shaped verse, these are poems that are
printed on the page so that they form a recognizable outline related to the subject, thus
conveying or extending the meaning of the words. Pattern poetry retains its meaning when
read aloud, whereas the essence of concrete poetry lies in its appearance on the page rather
than in the words; it is intended to be perceived as a visual whole and often cannot be
effective when read aloud. This form has had brief popularity at several periods in history.
 Epigram: a pithy, sometimes satiric, couplet or quatrain comprising a single thought or
event and often aphoristic with a witty or humorous turn of thought
 Epitaph: a brief poem or statement in memory of someone who is deceased, used as, or
suitable for, a tombstone inscription; now, often witty or humorous and written without
intent of actual funerary use
 Haiku: a Japanese form of poetry consisting of three unrhymed lines of five, seven, and five
syllables. The elusive flavor of the form, however, lies more in its touch and tone than in its
syllabic structure. Deeply imbedded in Japanese culture and strongly influenced by Zen
Buddhism, haiku are very brief descriptions of nature that convey some implicit insight or
essence of a moment. Traditionally, they contain either a direct or oblique reference to a
season
 Limerick: a light or humorous form of five chiefly anapestic verses of which lines one, two
and five are of three feet and lines three and four are of two feet, with a rhyme scheme of
aabba. Named for a town in Ireland of that name, the limerick was popularized by Edward
Lear in his Book of Nonsense published in 1846, and is generally considered the only fixed
form of English origin. While the final line of Lear’s limericks usually was a repetition of the
first line, modern limericks generally use the final line for clever witticisms and word play.
Their content also frequently tends toward the ribald and off-color.
 Lyric: derived from the Greek word for lyre, lyric poetry was originally designed to be sung.
One of the three main groups of poetry (the others being narrative and dramatic), lyric
verse is the most frequently used modern form, including all poems in which the speaker’s
ardent expression of a (usually single) emotional element predominates. Ranging from
 complex thoughts to the simplicity of playful wit, the melodic imagery of skillfully written
lyric poetry evokes in the reader’s mind the recall of similar emotional experiences.
 Ode: any of several stanzaic forms more complex than the lyric, with intricate rhyme
schemes and irregular number of lines, generally of considerable length, always written in a
style marked by a rich, intense expression of an elevated thought praising a person or
object. “Ode to a Nightingale” is an example.
 Sonnet: a fourteen line poem in iambic pentameter with a prescribed rhyme scheme; its
subject was traditionally love. Three variations are found frequently in English, although
others are occasionally seen.
 Shakespearean Sonnet: a style of sonnet used by Shakespeare with a rhyme scheme of
abab cdcd efef gg
 Italian (Petrarchan) Sonnet: a form of sonnet made popular by Petrarch with a rhyme
scheme of abbaabba cdecde or cdcdcd
 Spenserian Sonnet: a variant of the Shakespearean form in which the quatrains are linked
with a chain or interlocked rhyme scheme, abab bcbc cdcd ee.
 Sonnet Sequence: a series of sonnets in which there is a discernable unifying theme, while
each retains its own structural independence. All of Shakespeare’s sonnets, for example,
were part of a sequence.
o The IMAGES of words
A poet uses words more consciously than any other writer. Although poetry often deals with deep human
emotions or philosophical thought, people generally don’t respond very strongly to abstract words, even
the words describing such emotions and thoughts. The poet, then, must embed within his work those
words which do carry strong visual and sensory impact, words which are fresh and spontaneous but vividly
descriptive. He must carefully pick and choose words that are just right. It is better to show the reader than
to merely tell him.
 Imagery: The use of vivid language to generate ideas and/or evoke mental images, not only of the
visual sense, but of sensation and emotion as well. While most commonly used in reference to
figurative language, imagery can apply to any component of a poem that evoke sensory experience
and emotional response, and also applies to the concrete things so brought to mind. Poetry works it
magic by the way it uses words to evoke “images” that carry depths of meaning.
The poet’s carefully described impressions of sight, sound, smell, taste and touch can be transferred
to the thoughtful reader through imaginative use and combinations of diction.
In addition to its more tangible initial impact, effective imagery has the potential to tap the inner
wisdom of the reader to arouse meditative and inspirational responses.
Related images are often clustered or scattered throughout a work, thus serving to create a
particular mood or tone. Images of disease, corruption, and death, for example, are recurrent
patterns shaping our perceptions of Shakespeare’s Hamlet.
Examples:
 Sight: Smoke mysteriously puffed out from the clown’s ears.
 Sound: Tom placed his ear tightly against the wall; he could hear a faint but distinct
thump thump thump.
 Touch: The burlap wall covering scraped against the little boy’s cheek.
 Taste: A salty tear ran across onto her lips.
 Smell: Cinnamon! That’s what wafted into his nostrils.
 Synesthesia: An attempt to fuse different senses by describing one kind of sense impression in
words normally used to describe another.
Example: The sound of her voice was sweet.
Example: a loud aroma, a velvety smile
 Tone, Mood: The means by which a poet reveals attitudes and feelings, in the style of language or
expression of thought used to develop the subject. Certain tones include not only irony and satire,
but may be loving, condescending, bitter, pitying, fanciful, solemn, and a host of other emotions and
attitudes.
Tone can also refer to the overall mood of the poem itself, in the sense of a pervading atmosphere
intended to influence the readers’ emotional response and foster expectations of the conclusion.
Another use of tone is in reference to pitch or to the demeanor of a speaker as interpreted through
inflections of the voice; in poetry, this is conveyed through the use of connotation, diction, figures of
speech, rhythm and other elements of poetic construction.
 Elements of Poetry
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POETRY ASSUMPTIONS

Readers of poetry often bring with them many related assumptions:

 That a poem is to be read for its "message,"

 That this message is "hidden" in the poem,
 The message is to be found by treating the words as symbols which naturally do not
mean what they say but stand for something else,
 You have to decipher every single word to appreciate and enjoy the poem.

There are no easy ways to dispel these biases. Poetry is difficult because very often its
language is indirect. But so is experience - those things we think, feel, and do. The lazy
reader wants to be told things and usually avoids poetry because it demands commitment
and energy. Moreover, much of what poetry has to offer is not in the form of hidden
meanings. Many poets like to "play" with the sound of language or offer an emotional
insight by describing what they see in highly descriptive language. In fact, there can many
different ways to enjoy poetry; this reflects the many different styles and objectives of
poets themselves. For an overview of the many ways to read a poem, click here. Finally, if
you are the type to give up when something is unclear, just relax! Like we just said, there
can be many different approaches to examining poetry; often these approaches (like
looking for certain poetic devices or examining the meaning of a specific phrase) do not
require a complete and exhaustive analysis of a poem. So, enjoy what you do understand!

FIRST APPROACHES

Read the poem (many students neglect this step). Identify the speaker and the situation.
Feel free to read it more than once! Read the sentences literally. Use your prose reading
skills to clarify what the poem is about.Read each line separately, noting unusual words
and associations. Look up words you are unsure of and struggle with word associations
that may not seem logical to you.Note any changes in the form of the poem that might
signal a shift in point of view. Study the structure of the poem, including its rhyme and
rhythm (if any). Re-read the poem slowly, thinking about what message and emotion the
poem communicates to you.

STRUCTURE and POETRY

An important method of analyzing a poem is to look at the stanza structure or style of a
poem. Generally speaking, structure has to do with the overall organization of lines and/or
the conventional patterns of sound. Again, many modern poems may not have any
identifiable structure (i.e. they are free verse), so don't panic if you can't find it!

STANZAS: Stanzas are a series of lines grouped together and separated by an empty line
from other stanzas. They are the equivalent of a paragraph in an essay. One way to
identify a stanza is to count the number of lines. Thus:

 couplet (2 lines)
 tercet (3 lines)
 quatrain (4 lines)
 cinquain (5 lines)
 sestet (6 lines) (sometimes it's called a sexain)
 septet (7 lines)
 octave (8 lines)

FORM: A poem may or may not have a specific number of lines, rhyme scheme and/or
metrical pattern, but it can still be labeled according to its form or style. Here are the three
most common types of poems according to form:

1. Lyric Poetry: It is any poem with one speaker (not necessarily the poet) who
expresses strong thoughts and feelings. Most poems, especially modern ones, are lyric
poems.

2. Narrative Poem: It is a poem that tells a story; its structure resembles the plot line of a
story [i.e. the introduction of conflict and characters, rising action, climax and the
denouement].

3. Descriptive Poem: It is a poem that describes the world that surrounds the speaker.
It uses elaborate imagery and adjectives. While emotional, it is more "outward-focused"
than lyric poetry, which is more personal and introspective.

In a sense, almost all poems, whether they have consistent patterns of sound and/or
structure, or are free verse, are in one of the three categories above. Or, of course,
they may be a combination of 2 or 3 of the above styles! Here are some more types of
poems that are subtypes of the three styles above:

Ode: It is usually a lyric poem of moderate length, with a serious subject, an elevated
style, and an elaborate stanza pattern.

Elegy: It is a lyric poem that mourns the dead. [It's not to be confused with a eulogy.]It has
no set metric or stanzaic pattern, but it usually begins by reminiscing about the dead
person, then laments the reason for the death, and then resolves the grief by concluding
that death leads to immortality. It often uses "apostrophe" (calling out to the dead person)
as a literary technique. It can have a fairly formal style, and sound similar to an ode.

Sonnet: It is a lyric poem consisting of 14 lines and, in the English version, is usually
written in iambic pentameter. There are two basic kinds of sonnets: the Italian (or
Petrarchan) sonnet and the Shakespearean (or Elizabethan/English) sonnet. The
Italian/Petrarchan sonnet is named after Petrarch, an Italian Renaissance poet. The
Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines). The
Shakespearean sonnet consists of three quatrains (four lines each) and a concluding
couplet (two lines). The Petrarchan sonnet tends to divide the thought into two parts
(argument and conclusion); the Shakespearean, into four (the final couplet is the
summary).

Ballad: It is a narrative poem that has a musical rhythm and can be sung. A ballad is
usually organized into quatrains or cinquains, has a simple rhythm structure, and tells the
tales of ordinary people.

Epic: It is a long narrative poem in elevated style recounting the deeds of a legendary or
historical hero.

Qualities of an Epic Poem:

 narrative poem of great scope; dealing with the founding of a nation or some
other heroic theme requires a dignified theme requires an organic
unity requires orderly progress of the action always has a heroic figure or
figures involves supernatural forces
 written in deliberately ceremonial style

Other types of poems include:

Haiku: It has an unrhymed verse form having three lines (a tercet) and usually
5,7,5 syllables, respectively. It's usually considered a lyric poem.

Limerick: It has a very structured poem, usually humorous & composed of five lines (a
cinquain), in an aabba rhyming pattern; beat must be anapestic (weak, weak, strong) with
3 feet in lines 1, 2, & 5 and 2 feet in lines 3 & 4. It's usually a narrative poem based upon a
short and often ribald anecdote.

For more about poetic forms, see the Open School Notes on Poetry Forms.

SOUND PATTERNS
Three other elements of poetry are rhyme scheme, meter (ie. regular rhythm) and word
sounds (like alliteration). These are sometimes collectively called sound play because
they take advantage of the performative, spoken nature of poetry.

RHYME

Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds. In poetry, the most common kind of rhyme is
the end rhyme, which occurs at the end of two or more lines. It is usually identified with
lower case letters, and a new letter is used to identify each new end sound. Take a look at
the rhyme scheme for the following poem :

I saw a fairy in the wood,

He was dressed all in green.
He drew his sword while I just stood,
And realized I'd been seen.

The rhyme scheme of the poem is abab.

Internal rhyme occurs in the middle of a line, as in these lines from Coleridge, "In mist or
cloud, on mast or shroud" or "Whiles all the night through fog-smoke white" ("The
Ancient Mariner"). Remember that most modern poems do not have rhyme.

NOTE: Rhyme (above) and rhythm (below) are two different

concepts!

RHYTHM AND METER

I recommend starting with this podcast on rhythm and meter.

Meter: the systematic regularity in rhythm; this systematic rhythm (or sound pattern) is
usually identified by examining the type of "foot" and the number of feet.

1. Poetic Foot: The traditional line of metered poetry contains a number of rhythmical units, which
are called feet. The feet in a line are distinguished as a recurring pattern of two or three
syllables ("apple" has 2 syllables, "banana" has 3 syllables, etc.). The pattern, or foot, is designated
according to the number of syllables contained, and the relationship in each foot between the strong
and weak syllables.Thus:

__ = a stressed (or strong, or LOUD) syllable

U = an unstressed (or weak, or quiet) syllable

In other words, any line of poetry with a systematic rhythm has a certain number of feet, and each
foot has two or three syllables with a constant beat pattern .

a. Iamb (Iambic) - weak syllable followed by strong syllable. [Note that the pattern is sometimes
fairly hard to maintain, as in the third foot.]

b. Trochee (Trochaic): strong syllable followed by a weak syllable.

c. Anapest (Anapestic): two weak syllables followed by a strong syllable.

e.g.
In her room at the prow of the house
Where light breaks, and the windows are tossed...

From "The Writer", by Richard Wilbur

d. Dactyl (Dactylic): a strong syllable followed by two weak syllables.

DD

Here's another (silly) example of dactylic rhythm.

DDDA was an / archer, who / shot at a / frog
DDDB was a / butcher, and / had a great / dog
DDDC was a / captain, all / covered with / lace
DDDD was a / drunkard, and / had a red / face.

e. Spondee (Spondaic): two strong syllables (not common as lines, but appears as a
foot). A spondee usually appears at the end of a line.

2. The Number of Feet: The second part of meter is the number of feet contained in a
line.

Thus:
one foot=monometer
two feet=dimeter
three feet=trimeter
four feet=tetrameter
five feet=pentameter
six feet=hexameter (when hexameter is in iambic rhythm, it is called an alexandrine)

Poems with an identifiable meter are therefore identified by the type of feet (e.g. iambic)
and the number of feet in a line (e.g. pentameter). The following line is iambic pentameter
because it (1) has five feet [pentameter], and (2) each foot has two syllables with the stress on the
second syllable [iambic].

That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold

Thus, you will hear meter identified as iambic pentameter, trochaic tetrameter, and so on.

3. Irregularity: Many metered poems in English avoid perfectly regular rhythm because it
is monotonous. Irregularities in rhythm add interest and emphasis to the lines. In this line:
The first foot substitutes a trochee for an iamb. Thus, the basic iambic pentameter is
varied with the opening trochee.

4. Blank Verse: Any poetry that does have a set metrical pattern (usually iambic
pentameter), but does not have rhyme, is blank verse. Shakespeare frequently used
unrhymed iambic pentameter in his plays; his works are an early example of blank verse.

5. Free Verse: Most modern poetry no longer follows strict rules of meter or rhyme,
especially throughout an entire poem. Free verse, frankly, has no rules about
meter or rhyme whatsoever! [In other words, blank verse has rhythm, but no rhyme, while
free verse has neither rhythm nor rhyme.] So, you may find it difficult to find regular
iambic pentameter in a modern poem, though you might find it in particular lines. Modern
poets do like to throw in the occasional line or phrase of metered poetry, particularly if
they’re trying to create a certain effect. Free verse can also apply to a lack of a formal
verse structure.

How do I know if a poem has meter? How do I determine the meter?

To maintain a consistent meter, a poet has to choose words that fit. For example, if a
poet wants to write iambic poetry, s/he has to choose words that have a naturally iambic
rhythm. Words like betray and persuade will work in an iambic poem because they are
naturally iambic. They sound silly any other way. However, candle and muscle will work
best in a trochaic poem, because their natural emphasis is on the first syllable. (However,
a poet can use trochaic words if s/he places a one syllable word in front of them. This
often leads to poetic feet ending in the middle of words - after one syllable - rather than
the end.) It's not surprising that most modern poetry is not metered, because it is very
restrictive and demanding.

Determining meter is usually a process of elimination. Start reading everything

in iambic by emphasizing every second syllable. 80 to 90% of metered poetry is iambic. If
it sounds silly or strange, because many of the poem's words do not sound natural, then
try trochaic, anapestic or dactylic rhythms. If none of these sounds natural, then you
probably do not have metered poetry at all (ie. it's free verse).

If there are some lines that sound metered, but some that don't, the poem has
an irregular rhythm.

For more help, try this review of metered poetry.

WORD SOUNDS

Another type of sound play is the emphasis on individual sounds and words :

Alliteration: the repetition of initial sounds on the same line or stanza - Big bad Bob bounced bravely.
Assonance: the repetition of vowel sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a line or stanza) -
Tilting at windmills
Consonance: the repetition of consonant sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a line or stanza) -
And all the air a solemn stillness holds. (T. Gray)
Onomatopoeia: words that sound like that which they describe - Boom! Crash! Pow! Quack!
Moo! Caress...
Repetition: the repetition of entire lines or phrases to emphasize key thematic ideas.
Parallel Stucture: a form of repetition where the order of verbs and nouns is repeated; it may
involve exact words, but it more importantly repeats sentence structure - "I came, I saw, I
conquered".

MEANING and POETRY

I said earlier that poetry is not always about hidden or indirect meanings (sometimes
called meaning play). Nevertheless, if often is a major part of poetry, so here some of the
important things to remember:

CONCRETENESS and PARTICULARITY

In general, poetry deals with particular things in concrete language, since our emotions
most readily respond to these things. From the poem's particular situation, the reader may
then generalize; the generalities arise by implication from the particular. In other words, a
poem is most often concrete and particular; the "message," if there is any, is general and
abstract; it's implied by the images.

Images, in turn, suggest meanings beyond the mere identity of the specific object. Poetry
"plays" with meaning when it identifies resemblances or makes comparisons between
things; common examples of this "figurative" comparison include:

 ticking of clock = mortality

 hardness of steel = determination
 white = peace or purity

Such terms as connotation, simile, metaphor, allegory, and symbol are aspects of this
comparison. Such expressions are generally called figurative or metaphorical language.

DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION

Word meanings are not only restricted to dictionary meanings. The full meaning of a word
includes both the dictionary definition and the special meanings and associations a word
takes in a given phrase or expression. For example, a tiger is a carnivorous animal of the
cat family. This is the literal or denotative meaning. But we have certain associations with
the word: sinuous movement, jungle violence, and aggression. These are the suggestive,
figurative or connotative meanings.

FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES

1. Simile is the rhetorical term used to designate the most elementary form of
resemblances: most similes are introduced by "like" or "as." These comparisons are
usually between dissimilar situations or objects that have something in common,
such as "My love is like a red, red rose."
 2. A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison between
objects or situations. "All flesh is grass." For more on metaphor, click here.
3. Synecdoche is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an important (and
attached) part signifies the whole (e.g. "hands" for labour).
4. Metonymy is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor allowing an object
closely associated (but unattached) with a object or situation to stand for the thing
itself (e.g. the crown or throne for a king or the bench for the judicial system).
5. A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the first term left out. "My love is like a
red, red rose" is a simile. If, through persistent identification of the rose with the
beloved woman, we may come to associate the rose with her and her particular
virtues. At this point, the rose would become a symbol.
6. Allegory can be defined as a one to one correspondence between a series of
abstract ideas and a series of images or pictures presented in the form of a story or
a narrative. For example, George Orwell's Animal Farm is an extended allegory that
represents the Russian Revolution through a fable of a farm and its rebellious
animals.
7. Personification occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate objects as human,
that is, giving them human attributes, powers, or feelings (e.g., "nature wept" or "the
wind whispered many truths to me").
8. Irony takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of speech in which actual
intent is expressed through words that carry the opposite meaning.

o Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or situations

o Situational Irony: an unmailed letter
o Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or greater perspective than
the characters
o Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another
 Overstatement (hyperbole)
 Understatement (meiosis)
 Sarcasm

Irony may be a positive or negative force. It is most valuable as a mode of perception that
assists the poet to see around and behind opposed attitudes, and to see the often
conflicting interpretations that come from our examination of life.

POETRY AS A LANGUAGE OF INDIRECTION

Thus, if we recognize that much of the essential quality of our experience is more complex
than a simple denotative statement can describe, then we must recognize the value of the
poet's need to search for a language agile enough to capture the complexity of that
experience. Consider this four-line stanza:

O Western wind, when wilt thou blow

That the small rain down can rain?
Christ, that my love were in my arms,
And I in my bed again!

The center of the poem is the lover's desire to be reunited with his beloved (lines 3 and 4).
But the full meaning of the poem depends on the first two lines also. Obviously, the lover
associates his grief with the wind and rain, but the poet leaves to implication, to
indirection, just how the lover's situation and the wind and rain are related. We note that
they are related in several ways: the need for experiencing and manifesting love is an
inherent need, like nature's need for rain; in a word, love, like the wind and rain, is natural.
Secondly, the lover is living in a kind of drought or arid state that can only be slaked by the
soothing presence of the beloved. Thirdly, the rising of the wind and the coming of the rain
can neither be controlled nor foretold exactly, and human affairs, like the lover's
predicament, are subject to the same sort of chance.

Undoubtedly, too, there are associations with specific words, like "Western" or "small rain"
that the reader is only half aware of but which nonetheless contribute to meaning. These
associations or connotations afford a few indirections that enrich the entire poem. For
example, "small rain" at once describes the kind of rain that the lover wants to fall and
suggests the joy and peace of lover's tears, and "small" alone might suggest the
daintiness or femininity of the beloved.

Discussing Poetry Forms:

Sound and Structure

Resources

Poetry Alive: Reflections

Larry Liffiton and John McAllister (ed.)

Canadian Writer's Companion

Luengo, Anthony

Completing this lesson will help you to:

 learn about the various forms of poetry

Poetry comes in a wide variety of forms, such as free verse, blank verse,

couplet, sonnet, quatrain, cinquaine, diamante, limerick, haiku, and

ballad. Many forms, such as haiku and sonnet, were originally

developed in other languages but became popular with poets writing in

English. Thus, form in poetry refers to the way words and sentences

are structured in a poem, and the kind of sounds that may come

within a given structure.

In this lesson you will review some of the terms used to distinguish

different forms of poetry. As you are learning these terms, keep in mind

that a poem's form is meant to work with its other elements to create

an underlying theme.
Categories of Poetry
Probably the most basic categories of poetic forms are narrative, lyric and
descriptive poems.

Narrative poetry tells a story. It combines poetic techniques, such

as rhyme and alliteration, with the elements of fiction, such as
characters and a recognizable plot.

One common sub-type of narrative poetry is the ballad. A ballad tells a

story of a particular time and place, usually over many verses. It often

includes a refrain - lines or verses that are repeated at regular intervals. Ballads

were originally chanted or sung, so they are very structured in style.

Note:

Don't confuse ballad with ballade. A ballade is a traditional type of

formal lyric originally developed in France.

Lyric poetry, on the other hand, may tell about events, but the focus is on
creating a mood or recalling a feeling. Lyric poems express the character,
impresssions and emotions of the poet, and are usually short.

There are many different sub-types of lyric poems. Here are a few examples:

 Love song
 Patriotic song
 Hymn
 Elegy (a mournful poem or lament, sometimes rather long)
 Ode (usually addressed to a person, thing, or routine)
 Sonnet (a special type having fourteen lines)

Thus, a major division in poetry is between story telling and personal

emotion.

For example, "Coaster-Waggon on Indian Grove", Poetry Alive: Reflections, p. 30,

is most clearly a narrative poem because it describes events as they occurred.

"Childhood" (Poetry Alive: Reflections, p. 25) is definitely a lyric poem. Although

some events are mentioned, the focus is on recalling childhood images and feelings

rather than specific events.

Sometimes you might find it difficult to distinguish between lyric and

narrative poems. 'Those Winter Sundays", Poetry Alive: Reflections,

p. 27) tells you about the father getting up and warming the house,

so you might think this is a narrative. But look more closely and you'll

see that there isn't a plot structure of "beginning, middle, and end."

The focus is on recalling images and the feelings associated with them.

That makes it a lyric poem.

Today, anthologies of poetry are likely to contain more lyric poems

than narrative poems.

A third major type of poem is the descriptive poem. A descriptive "looks

outward" and describes the world as seen by the poet. As you can imagine,
it involves a great deal of imagery and uses many adjectives to describe a
scenery or a building or an event. Because it tends to lack an inner,
emotional psychology, it is not as popular as the other two types. The
Romantics, like Wordsworth, were the last to consistently use descriptive
poetry in their descriptions of the sublime elements of nature.
Features of Lyric Poetry
Lyric poems are often divided into stanzas or verses. Stanzas are

usually separated by a single blank line. Stanzas within a poem may

have the same form or may vary. The poet also tries to develop

interesting forms based on variations of rhyme, rhythm and metre

(i.e. "sound play").

Rhyme

Rhyme is the repetition of sounds in different words. Rhyme can occur

within lines (internal rhyme) or - more usually - at the end of lines (end rhyme).

A rhyme scheme is a short formula for describing the pattern of rhyme

in a poem. End words that rhyme are assigned the same letter.

For example, the rhyme scheme for this poem is aabb.

"Thoughts on Poetic Terms"

English 11, it seems to me a

Has plenty of terms for poetry, a
I've made lots of notes and done my best, b
I'm betting these terms are on the test. b

Obviously, not all poems follow the "aabb" rhyme scheme. If the word

at the end of a line does not rhyme with either "a" or "b" it is labeled

"c," and so on. The guided practice will allow you to identify the rhyme

scheme for several poems. Be aware that much modern poetry has no

rhyme scheme at all.

Rhythm

If you have ever studied music, or played an instrument, you will know

that music is broken into time units or a certain number of beats in a

bar or a line. This creates rhythm. Most poetry is broken up into units

or beats in a similar way.

To show a poem's rhythm, you divide the words into syllables then
decide which syllables are stressed and which are not. A stressed

syllable makes you raise your voice somewhat and linger over the

accented syllable. By reading a word aloud you will hear the natural

stress on the strong syllable.

Say the following words aloud. Notice where you place the stress or

emphasis.

depart Did you hear the emphasis on "part":

remain Did you hear the emphasis on "main":

hemlock Did you hear the emphasis on "hem":

Indicating Stressed and Unstressed Syllables

( / ) stressed (you might like to know that the technical term for this

is ictus)

( u ) unstressed

Metre

Metre refers to the particular rhythm or pattern of stressed and

unstressed syllables in a poem.

The unit of metre in poetry is the foot. A foot contains one stressed

syllable and one or more unstressed syllables. Here are the most

common types of feet that poets can use:

Iambic:

Two syllables. The stress is on the second syllable.

gugg/
be gin

Trochaic

Two syllables. The stress is on the first syllable.

g/gggu
lone ly
Anapestic

Three syllables. Two unaccented syllables followed by an accented one.

uggguggg/
con tra dict

Dactylic

Three syllables. The first syllable is stressed, followed by two unstressed ones.

g/ guggu
lone li ness

Spondaic

Two stressed syllables. Emphasizes part of a line. Usually follows two

unstressed syllables in the previous foot.

g/gggg/
rain cloud

The name for the metre in a poem depends on the number of feet in

each line.

Monometre: one foot

Dimetre: two feet

Trimetre: three feet

Tetrametre: four feet

Pentametre: five feet

Hexametre: six feet

Heptametre: seven feet

Oxtometre: eight feet

Free Verse and Formal Verse

There is one more set of terms you need to know about the structure of

poetry: free verse and formal verse.

Free Verse
Free verse is lyric poetry that doesn't follow a particular rhyme pattern

or metre but varies in its rhythm according to the mood the poet wants

to create. "Childhood" in Poetry Alive: Reflections, p. 25 is an

example of free verse.

Free verse poetry has:

- no set rhythm that is very obvious.

- no set rhyme scheme.

- lines of irregular length.

Note:

Don't confuse free verse with blank verse. Blank verse does not rhyme,

but it does follow a regular rhythm - iambic pentametre.

Formal Verse

Formal verse is poetry that follows one of the traditional, named

patterns for rhythm, rhyme, and stanzas. Formal verse includes

sonnets and haikus.

Scansion: Putting It All Together

The analysis of the patterns of rhythm in poetry is known as scansion

(i.e. to "scan"). When you are asked to scan a poem, follow these steps:

1. Determine the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in

the poem.

2. Draw a line separating each foot, then count the number of

feet per line.

3. Using the information from steps 1 and 2, name the type of

metre for the poem (e.g. tetrametre).

Have a look at the example below, which is from Thomas Gray's "Elegy

Written in a Country Churchyard." The first stanza of the poem has

been written for you so you can see its metre and foot pattern.

guggg/ggguggg/ guggg/ ggug/gggguggg/

The cur / few tolls / the knell / of par / ting day

guggg/ggguggg/ gguggg/ggggug/ggggugg/
The low / ing herd / wind slow / ly o'er / the lea,

guggg/ ggugggg/gggggugggg/gggguggg/gggugg/
The plow / man home / ward plods / his wear / y way

gu g /gggggugggg/ggguggg/gggguggg/gggugg/
And leaves / the world / to dark / ness and / to me.

As this poem follows a pattern of one unstressed syllable and one

stressed syllable, the name of the metre is iambic.

Now, count how many feet there are. Count the number of units

divided by the vertical lines. You will see that there are five feet per line,

making it pentametre. So, the name and number of the metre of the

poem is iambic pentametre.

When you interpret a poem, you should always pay attention to the

metre. Your description of the form should describe the rhythm as

regular rhythm (following a general pattern), or irregular rhythm (no

general pattern). Where there is a regular rhythm, describe the metre

in as much detail as you can.

Guided Practice 3.2A 1:
Instructions

Below are stanzas from five different poems. Identify the rhyme

scheme for these stanzas by writing the correct letter at the end of each

line. (1 mark for each question)

1. Do not go gentle into that good night,

Old age should burn and rave at close of day;

Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

"Do not go gentle into that good night" by Dylan Thomas

2. When I consider how my light is spent

Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,

And that one Talent which is death to hide,

Lodg'd with me useless, though my Soul more bent

"On My Blindness" by John Milton

3. Had he and I but met

By some old ancient inn,

We should have sat us down to wet

Right many a nipperkin!

'The Man He Killed" by Thomas Hardy

4. Let me take this other glove off

As the vox humana swells,

And the beauteous fields of Eden

Bask beneath the Abbey bells.

Here, where England's statesmen lie,

Listen to a lady's cry.

"In Westminster Abbey" by John Betjeman

5. With loitering step and quiet eye,

Beneath the low November sky,

I wandered in the woods, and found

A clearing, where the broken ground

Was scattered with black stumps and briers,

And the old wreck of forest fires

"In November" by Archibald Lampman

Answer to Guided Practice 3.2A 1

1. aba
2. abba
3. abab
4. abcbdd
5. aabbcc
Guided Practice 3.2A 2:
Instructions

Analyze (scan) these lines of poetry by doing the following:

1. Determine the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in

the poem.

2. Draw a line separating each foot, then count the number of

feet per line.

3. Using the information from 1 and 2, name the type of metre

for the poem.

1. I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o'er vale and hill

"I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" by William Wordsworth

2. It is a beauteous evening, calm and free,

The holy time is quiet as a Nun

"It is a Beauteous Evening, Calm and Free" by William

Wordsworth

3. That time of year thou mayst in me behold

When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang

"Sonnet LXXIII: That Time Of Year Thou Mayst In Me Behold"

by William Shakespeare

4. Double, double, toil and trouble

Fire burn and cauldron bubble

"Macbeth" by William Shakespeare

5. The Miller was a chap of sixteen stone,

A great stout fellow big in brawn and bone.

"The Canterbury Tales" by Geoffrey Chaucer (Translated by

Nevil Coghill)

Answer to Guided Practice 3.2A 2

1. Iambic tetrametre
2. Iambic pentametre

3. Iambic pentametre

4. Trochaic tetrametre

5. Iambic pentametre