Distinctive Properties of Living Systems

• Organisms are complicated and highly organized

• Biological structures serve functional purposes
• Living systems are actively engaged in energy
transformations
• Living systems have a remarkable capacity for self-
replication
 Distinctive Properties of Living Systems

Solar energy flows from photosynthetic organisms through

food chains to herbivores and on to carnivores at the apex of
the food pyramid.

Figure 1.2 The food pyramid. Photosynthetic organisms at the base

capture light energy. Herbivores and carnivores derive their energy
ultimately from these primary producers.
Energy-rich molecules
Organisms capture energy in the form of special
energized molecules such as ATP.

Figure 1.3
Energy-rich molecules

Organisms capture energy in the

form of special energized
molecules such as NADPH.

Figure 1.3
The Fidelity of Self-Replication Resides
Ultimately in the Chemical Nature of DNA

Figure 1.5 The DNA double helix. Two complementary

polynucleotide chains running in opposite directions can pair
through hydrogen bonding between their nitrogenous bases.
Their complementary nucleotide sequences give rise to
structural complementarity.
Covalent Bond Formation by H, C, N, and O
Makes Them Suitable to the Chemistry of Life

Figure 1.6 Covalent bond

formation by e- pair sharing
makes H, C, N, and O appropriate
for the support of life.
 Chemical Nature of Biomolecules

• H, O, C and N atoms are very appropriate to the

chemistry of life because they have the ability to form
covalent bonds by electron-pair sharing.

• H, O, C and N make up 99+% of atoms in the human

body

ELEMENT PERCENTAGE
Hydrogen 63
Oxygen 25.5
Carbon 9.5
Nitrogen 1.4
 Chemical Nature of Biomolecules

• What are the bond energies of covalent bonds?

Bond Energy (kJ/mol)

H-H 436
C-H 414
C-C 343
C-O 351
 Chemical Nature of Biomolecules

Covalent bond
formation by e-
pair sharing
 Chemical Nature of Biomolecules

Covalent bond
formation by e-
pair sharing
Structural Organization of Complex Biomolecules

• Simple Molecules are the Units for

Building Complex Structures

• Metabolites and Macromolecules

• Organelles
• Membranes
• The Unit of Life is the Cell
Structural Organization of Complex Biomolecules

Examples of the versatility of C-C bonds in

building complex structures
Structural Organization of Complex Biomolecules

Examples of the versatility of C-C bonds in

building complex structures
Structural Organization of Complex Biomolecules

Examples of the versatility of C-C bonds in

building complex structures
Structural Organization of Complex Biomolecules

Examples of the versatility of C-C bonds in

building complex structures
Structural Organization of Complex Biomolecules
Structural Organization of Complex Biomolecules
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition

• Macromolecules and their building blocks have a

“sense” or directionality
• Macromolecules are informational
• Biomolecules have characteristic three-dimensional
architecture
• Weak forces maintain biological structure and
determine biomolecular interactions
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition

Amino acids build proteins

1.4 – Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their
Fitness to the Living Condition

Polysaccharides are built by joining sugars

together
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition

Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides

Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition
• Covalent bonds hold atoms together so that
molecules are formed
• Weak forces profoundly influence the structures and
behaviors of all biological molecules
• Weak forces create interactions that are constantly
forming and breaking under physiological conditions
• Energies of weak forces range from 0.4 to 30 kJ/mol
• Weak forces include:
• van der Waals interactions
• Hydrogen bonds
• Ionic interactions
• Hydrophobic interactions
Biomolecules Have Characteristic
Three-Dimensional Architecture

Figure 1.11 Antigen-binding domain of immunoglobulin G (IgG).

Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition
• Know these important numbers

• Van der Waals Interactions: 0.4-4.0 kJ/mol

• Hydrogen Bonds: 12-30 kJ/mol
• Ionic Interactions: 20 kJ/mol
• Hydrophobic Interactions: <40 kJ/mol

• These interactions influence profoundly the nature of

biological structures
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition

Two Important Points about

Weak Forces

• Biomolecular recognition is mediated by weak

chemical forces
• Weak forces restrict organisms to a narrow range of
environmental conditions
Van der Waals Forces Are Important to
Biomolecular Interactions

Figure 1.12 Van der Waals packing is enhanced in molecules

that are structurally complementary. Gln121, a surface
protuberance on lysozyme, is recognized by the antigen-
binding site of an antibody against lysozyme.
Van der Waals Forces Are Important to
Biomolecular Interactions

Figure 1.13 The van

der Waals interaction
energy profile as a
function of the distance,
r, between the centers
of two atoms.
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition

Some
biologically
important H
bonds
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition

Some
biologically
important
H bonds
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition

Ionic bonds in the Mg-ATP complex

Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition

Ionic bonds
contribute to
the stability of
proteins
Biomolecular Recognition is Mediated
by Weak Chemical Forces

Figure 1.16 Structural complementarity: The antigen on the right

(gold) is a small protein, lysozyme, from hen egg white. The
antibody molecule (IgG) (left) has a pocket that is structurally
complementary to a surface feature (red) on the antigen.
Biomolecular Recognition is Mediated
by Weak Chemical Forces

Figure 1.16 Structural complementarity: The antigen on the right

(gold) is a small protein, lysozyme, from hen egg white. The
antibody molecule (IgG) (left) has a pocket that is structurally
complementary to a surface feature (red) on the antigen.
Biomolecular Recognition is Mediated
by Weak Chemical Forces

Figure 1.16 Puzzles and locks in keys are models of structural

complementarity.
Biomolecular Recognition is Mediated
by Weak Chemical Forces
Figure 1.17 Denaturation and renaturation of the
intricate structure of a protein.
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition

Cells release
the energy of
glucose in a
stepwise
fashion,
capturing it
in the
formation of
ATP
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition

Combustion of
glucose in a
calorimeter yields
energy in its least
useful form, heat
Enzymes Catalyze Metabolic Reactions

Figure 1.19 Carbonic

anhydrase, a representative
enzyme.
Properties of Biomolecules Reflect Their Fitness to
the Living Condition
 Organization and Structure of Cells
• Prokaryotic cells
• A single (plasma) membrane
• No nucleus or organelles
• Eukaryotic cells
• Much larger in size than prokaryotes
• 103-104 times larger!
• Nucleus plus many organelles
• ER, Golgi, mitochondria, etc.
How Many Genes Does a Cell Need?
Archaea and Bacteria Have a Relatively
Simple Structural Organization

Figure 1.20 This bacterium is Escherichia coli, a member of the

coliform group of bacteria that colonize the intestinal tract of
humans. (See Table 1.7.)
Arcahea and Bacteria Have a Relatively
Simple Structural Organization
 Organization of Eukaryotic Cells

Figure 1.21 This

figure diagrams a rat
liver cell, a typical
higher animal cell.
 Organization of Eukaryotic Cells

Figure 1.22 This

figure diagrams a
cell in the leaf of a
higher plant
The Structural Organization of Eukaryotic Cells

Figure 1.21 Several images of

organelles in eukaryotic cells.
 Organization and Structure of Cells

Figure 1.22
Electron
micrograph
of a
chloroplast.
 Organization and Structure of Cells

Figure 1.22 Electron micrograph of a Golgi body.

 Organization and Structure of Cells

Figure 1.22
Electron
micrograph of a
nucleus
Organization and Structure of Cells
Organization and Structure of Cells
Organization and Structure of Cells
 Viruses

Viruses are genetic elements enclosed in a protein coat.

Viruses are not free-living organisms and can reproduce only
within cells.
Viruses show an almost absolute specificity for their particular
host cells, infecting and multiplying only within those cells.
Viruses are known for virtually every kind of cell.
(a) an animal virus, adenovirus; (b) bacteriophage T4 on E.coli; and (c) a plant virus, tobacco mosaic virus.
 Viruses

Figure 1.24 The virus life cycle. Viruses are mobile bits of
genetic information encapsulated in a protein coat.