800-Rotordynamics & Balancing

800 Rotordynamics and Balancing
Abstract
Certain machinery applications require rotordynamic analyses in order to assure
that machines meet design performance. These analyses can prevent problems
ranging from occasional nuisances to catastrophic failures. This section covers the
machinery applications where these analyses are appropriate. Although rotordy-
namics is a complex topic which needs to be handled by specialists, this section
reviews the practical aspects, primarily covering lateral and torsional critical
speeds, how they are determined, and what their effects are.
This section also includes balancing techniques and tolerances. The information
included is reference material for engineers, technicians or analysts. It is not
intended to provide detailed guidance on shop or field balancing.
A sub-section defining terminology is included at the end.
Note that MAC-MS-3546, Standard Procedure for Residual Unbalance Verifica-
tions is included in the Specifications Section. This specification outlines a recom-
mended procedure to ensure proper balancing of machine rotors.
Contents Page
810 General Information 800-3

811 Introduction
812 Purpose
813 When to Specify a Lateral or Torsional Analysis
820 Lateral Critical Speed Analysis 800-5
821 Modeling the Rotor and Support System
822 Critical Speed Map
823 Undamped Critical-Speed Mode Shapes
824 Effects of Damping
825 The Damped Unbalanced Rotor Analysis
826 Separation Margin
830 Torsional Analysis 800-14
Chevron Corporation 800-1 August 1989

800 Rotordynamics and Balancing General Machinery Manual
831 Sources of Torsional Excitation

833 How the Analysis is Performed
834 Torsional Response Analysis
835 Methods in Use
836 Problems in Existing Equipment
840 Rotor Balance 800-18
841 Engineering Principles
842 Types of Unbalance
843 Balancing Tolerances and Specifications
844 Typical Balancing Techniques
845 Balance Machines
846 Pitfalls to Accurate Balancing
850 Terminology 800-26
August 1989 800-2 Chevron Corporation

General Machinery Manual 800 Rotordynamics and Balancing
810 General Information
811 Introduction
Improved technology has allowed machinery design to be technically superior and
more cost-effective than systems built 10 years ago. However, with the new higher
speed machinery, the additional concern about dynamic problems has become an
important design factor.
To insure safe and reliable operating machinery, accurate calculations of the critical
speeds and the unbalanced response of the rotor are necessary. Modern turbo-
machines produce or absorb a great amount of power in a relatively small package.
One extreme example is NASA's Space Shuttle main engine turbopumps, which
produce 70,000 HP in two stages about the size of a Frisbee. (These pumps have,
incidentally, been marked with rotordynamic problems.) Along with high horse-
power and high speeds (including machinery commonly used in the petrochemical
industry) comes high inertial loads, and potential problems with shaft whirl, vibra-
tion, and rotordynamic instability. This section addresses these subjects.
In the design of turbomachinery, performance goals and rotordynamic consider-
ations are often in conflict: The performance engineer usually wants to maximize
the flow rate and pressure, and minimize the fluid energy losses through a machine
of limited size and weight. This generally leads to high shaft speeds, multiple
stages, highly loaded rotating components, large spacing between stages, and unre-
stricted inlets to the stages. All of these features improve performance, but also tend
to create rotordynamic problems. The design of a successful and reliable machine
requires a compromise between the two conflicting requirements.
Rotordynamics is important because lateral or torsional critical speed prob-
lems can severely damage machinery. Critical machines which vibrate unaccept-
ably can impair the operating factor of a plant. They also can, and have, delayed the
startup of large projects.
Rotordynamics can also affect the plant later when changes in operating conditions
occur. This is one reason why all predictable operating conditions (flow, mole
weight, pressure, etc.) need to be given as accurately as possible. These changes
might cause problems such as excessive bearing, seal, or rotor repairs.
If you have any question about whether rotordynamics should be a consideration on
your project, contact the Mechanical and Electrical Systems Division in ETD, an
independent engineering consultant, or a knowledgeable specialist.
812 Purpose
The successful design of a machine involves:
• Avoiding critical speeds, if possible
• Minimizing vibration levels if critical speeds must be traversed

• Minimizing dynamic loads transmitted to the machine structure throughout the

operating speed range
• Avoiding turbine or compressor blade-tip or seal rubs, while keeping tip clear-
ances and seals as tight as possible to increase efficiency
• Avoiding rotor instability
• Avoiding torsional vibration resonance or torsional instability of the drive train
system
In designing, operating, and troubleshooting turbomachinery, rotordynamic analysis
can help accomplish the following specific objectives:
1. Predict Critical Speeds
Speeds at which intense vibration occurs (lateral critical speeds) can be calcu-
lated from design data, in order to avoid them in normal operation of the
machine. Generally, machinery cannot operate at these speeds, except for rapid
transitions during startup and shutdown.
2. Determine Design Modifications to Change Critical Speeds
When it becomes necessary to change the operating speed range of turboma-
chinery, design modifications may be required to change the critical speeds.
3. Predict Natural Frequencies of Torsional Vibration
This usually applies to the entire drive train in which the turbomachine is
employed. For example, a centrifugal compressor rotor driven by a synchro-
nous electric motor through a gearbox may experience a torsional vibration
excited by pulsations of the motor during startup. In such a case, it might be
desirable to change the natural frequency of the train to a value which has the
least possible excitation (in magnitude and/or time).
4. Calculate Balance-Correction Masses and Locations from Measured
Vibration Data
This capability allows “in-place” rotor balancing to be accomplished, thereby
reducing the amplitude of synchronous vibration.
5. Predict Vibration Amplitudes Caused by Rotor Unbalance
This is one of the most difficult objectives to accomplish accurately since the
amplitude of rotor whirling depends on two factors which are both very diffi-
cult to measure: (a) the distribution of unbalance along the rotor, and (b) the
rotor-bearing system damping. What can be done, however, is to predict the
relative effects of rotor unbalance and system damping at specific locations.
6. Predict Speeds and Vibration Frequencies for Instability
This is challenging since a number of the destabilizing forces are still not
understood well enough for accurate mathematical modeling. However, the

instability caused by journal bearings, known as “oil whip,” can be predicted

quite accurately.
7. Determine Design Modifications to Suppress Instabilities
This can be met more readily than Objective 6, since computer simulations can
predict the relative stabilizing effect of various hardware modifications (such
as varying internal clearances), even if the models for destabilizing force are
only approximations.
813 When to Specify a Lateral or Torsional Analysis

The above objectives are generally achieved by one or more of the following:
• Torsional analysis
• Transient torsional analysis
• Lateral critical speed analysis
Figures 800-1 and 800-2 give general guidelines on when these analyses are appro-
priate. For additional guidance, contact the Mechanical and Electrical Systems
Division (MESD) of ETD, or an engineering contractor. Rotordynamic analyses
are complex; you should also obtain support from a specialist in reviewing the
analyses.
Also note that these analyses are expensive, and the decision to perform them
should be carefully considered.
820 Lateral Critical Speed Analysis

In many rotating machines, the rotor will vibrate at a natural frequency. These
natural frequencies are called critical speeds. Often, this will occur as the speed
passes through certain values during startup and coast-down. This is not normally a
problem because the duration is usually short and the magnitude of the vibration is
not too severe. A more serious condition is one in which an operating speed coin-
cides with a natural frequency. Normally, this condition is avoided by design.
Figure 800-1 provides general guidelines on when a lateral critical speed analysis is
needed. The list covers both new and existing machines.
The lateral critical speed analysis answers two questions:
1. At what speeds will the rotor be excited?
2. How serious will the vibration be?
The analysis is almost always done by the equipment manufacturer, using a
computer program to process a combination of analytical and empirical data. The
results are expressed on a “Critical Speed Map” which shows the relationship of
critical speeds, operating speeds, and support stiffness. Another type of plot is also
usually furnished which shows the mode shape and relative amplitude of vibration
along the rotor. Both methods are illustrated later in this section.

Fig. 800-1 General Guidelines on When to Specify Lateral Critical Speed Analysis
Lateral critical speed analysis is generally performed on individual machines (rotating, not reciprocating). Occa-
sionally, it may be done for a machine train (a “train lateral”) if the machines are rigidly coupled or if coupling
lock-up is likely to occur.
1. New Machines
Lateral Critical Speed Analysis is Specified for:
a. All centrifugal compressors except well-proven “off-the-shelf” types such as packaged internally geared
machines or small refrigeration compressors.
b. All special purpose steam turbines
c. All special purpose gearboxes
d. All special purpose fans

e. Some critical, expensive, multi-stage pumps. (Pumps are normally not done, but high-speed units with
long, thin shafts should be considered).
f. Turbo expanders unless they are a well-proven design.
g. All electric induction machines that satisfy both 1.) and 2.):
1.) 3600 RPM (no load, or synchronous speed) and greater.
2.) 800 HP (600 kW) and larger.
h. All electric synchronous machines that satisfy both 1.) and 2.):
1.) 1800 RPM and greater.
2.) 1340 HP (1000 kW) and larger.

i. Internal combustion engines 500 HP and greater that are of a new design without field experience.
j. Internal combustion engines 500 HP and greater that are directly coupled (engine mounted) to the driven
equipment.
Note: Even with “well-proven” equipment, if there is any doubt about the accuracy of a previous analysis of the
critical speeds, an analysis is good insurance.
2. Existing Machines:
For any machine or machine train where an analysis was justified at the time of purchase (such as Items a.
through j. under 1), a re-analysis is recommended any time there is any change of:
a. Coupling mass by more 5%
b. Rotor mass by more than 2%
c. Seal design, such as from an oil bushing type to a dry gas seal
d. Shaft diameter
e. Bearing type
f. Bearing clearance specification (not just normal wear)

Fig. 800-2 General Guidelines on When to Specify Torsional or Transient Torsional Analysis
(Driven machines include centrifugal and reciprocating pumps and compressors.)
1. For New Machines or Machine Trains
a. Torsional Analysis:
1.) All machines driven by a synchronous motor1200 RPM and greater.
2.) Any machine with a gearbox and a driver 500 HP or higher.
3.) All reciprocating machines 500 HP or higher (for example: compressors, engines, and power
pumps but not proportioning pumps).
4.) All machines with AC adjustable-frequency drives (AFD).
5.) Induction motor or turbine-driven centrifugal machines that have three or more (including the driver)
directly-coupled machines in the same train.
b. Transient Torsional Analysis:
1.) All synchronous motor driven machines1200 RPM and greater.
2. For Existing Machine Trains
a. Torsional Analysis:
For any machine or machine train where an analysis was justified at the time of purchase (such as Items a
through e under 1), a re-analysis is recommended any time there is:
1.) A change of 5% or more in the inertia or torsional elasticity of a rotating component such as:
• Using a coupling of a different design
• Changing shaft diameters
2.) A change in gear ratios
3.) A failure that suggests torsional fatigue such as a spiral shaped fracture of a shaft.
4.) Suspicious looking wear or damage to gears such as a heavy wear pattern at equally-spaced
positions around a gear.
5.) A change of speed and previous analysis is not available.
b. Transient Torsional Analysis:
A Transient Torsional Analysis should also be done if any of the conditions listed in items 1.) through 5.)
(under 2) exist and there is a synchronous motor driver.

You should obtain help from the Mechanical and Electrical Division of ETD or
other qualified specialists when reviewing the map and plot furnished by the manu-
facturer. Together you can confirm that an analysis predicts adequate separation
between operating and critical speeds and that the expected amplitude will be
within the required limits. This is discussed in more detail later in this section.
The typical sequence of events in a lateral critical speed analysis is:
1. Model the rotor.
2. Model the support system.
3. Calculate the undamped critical speeds as a function of the support system
stiffness.
4. Calculate the support system stiffness as a function of the shaft speed.
5. Plot both items 3 and 4 above on a Critical Speed Map.
6. Compare the proximity of the critical speeds with the intended operating
speeds.
7. Perform a damped unbalanced rotor response analysis.
8. Determine the amplitude of vibration at various locations along the rotor.
9. Compare the vibration amplitude to the running clearances.
10. Determine the separation margin based on the amplification factor.
11. Verify the calculations on the test stand.
821 Modeling the Rotor and Support System

Rotor
The rotor is modeled as a series of numbered sections. Sections are created for each
diameter, bearing location, added mass, and unbalance location. Attached compo-
nents such as impellers, balance pistons, sleeves, and couplings are modeled as
additional masses and inertias.
Support System
The support system usually consists of the oil film, the bearing housing, the
pedestal, and the foundation. As the names imply, damping is ignored in the prepa-
ration of an undamped critical speed map but the stiffness and damping of each
component in the support system are considered in the damped unbalanced rotor
response analysis.
Modeling the stiffness and damping of the bearings is the most complex part of the
support system analysis. For the oil film, the Reynolds equation for incompressible
fluids is used. The equation defines the pressure distribution of the oil film as a
function of bearing geometry, clearance, lubricant viscosity, speed, and time. The

bearings are typically represented by springs and dashpots located at 90, 135, 180,
and 225 degrees. See Figure 800-3.
Fig. 800-3 Stiffness and Damping Coefficients

Courtesy of Engineering Dynamics Incorporated
The stiffness and damping coefficients of the bearing are functions of bearing type,
diameter, length, load, lubricant viscosity, clearance, rotor speed, and the Sommer-
feld number which is defined as:
2
µNDLR
S = -----------------------
WC
(Eq. 800-1)
where:
µ = lubricant viscosity, lb-sec/in2
N = rotor speed, Hz (RPM × 60)
D = bearing diameter, in
L = bearing length, in
R = bearing radius, in
W = bearing load, lbs
C = radial bearing machined clearance, in
822 Critical Speed Map

A critical speed map (Figure 800-4) is usually a combination of two different
plots. One is the various critical speeds shown as functions of support-system stiff-
ness. This simply shows how a critical speed will change as the support system stiff-
ness changes. Speed is generally shown on the vertical axis and stiffness is shown
on the horizontal axis.

Fig. 800-4 Typical Critical Speed Map Courtesy of Engineering Dynamics Incorporated
Now consider a separate plot of how support system stiffness changes when speed
changes (primarily due to behavior of the lube-oil film). As in the plot described,
the speed is shown on the vertical axis and stiffness is shown on the horizontal axis.
When the two are combined on the same graph, you can see the intersection of the
critical speed curves and the stiffness curves. Generally, the proposed operating
speeds will also appear on the plot. This is the designers first graphical look at how
close the operating speeds will be to critical speeds. It also shows whether the
machine must pass through one or more critical speeds on its way up to operating
speed.
The critical speed map is also a useful indicator of how changes in support system
stiffness will affect critical speed. For example, if the critical speed curve is hori-
zontal for a given range of stiffness values, then changes in stiffness in that range
will have no effect on the critical speed. If however, the curve has a slope, then a
change in support system stiffness may be all that is needed to change the critical
speed.
In Figure 800-4, two stiffness curves appear on the map because the support system
has different values in the horizontal and vertical directions. Note that the predicted
first critical speed (for the horizontal stiffness) is at 4500 RPM.

823 Undamped Critical-Speed Mode Shapes

The actual mode shapes assumed by the rotor depend on the rotor speed, stiffness
of the rotor, stiffness of the support system, damping, and distribution of unbalance.
The easiest case to visualize is one in which the effects of damping and unbalance
are ignored and the bearing support system has infinite stiffness. The resulting
mode shapes then are entirely due to the flexing of the rotor. These are sometimes
referred to as the “rigid bearing criticals.” The rotor mode shapes in this example
would be similar to the mode shapes of a musical instrument string. In the first
mode, there is a node at each end (see Figure 800-5). In the second mode, there is a
node at each end and one in the middle. In the third, a node at each end and two in
between, and so on.
Fig. 800-5 Mode Shapes When Bearing Support System has Infinite Stiffness
In the other extreme, (again ignoring unbalance and damping) the rotor has infinite
stiffness and the bearing support system is springy or “soft.” The two mode shapes
are generally associated with this case. Both modes are called by at least four
names all used interchangeably within each mode. (See Figure 800-6.)
The first mode may be visualized as the entire rotor remaining horizontal (in a hori-
zontal machine) with no flexing, and moving around within the clearance of the
bearings. In the second mode, the rotor also remains rigid but it moves within the
bearing clearance while rocking about a node (the rotor's center of gravity) between
the bearings.
No bearing support system has infinite stiffness and no rotor is infinitely rigid.
These extreme examples illustrate the two types of rotor mode shapes that are
combined into actual rotor behavior.

Fig. 800-6 Mode Shapes when Rotor is Infinitely Rigid

When support stiffness values are about 1 × 107 lb/in and higher, the mode shapes
approach the rigid bearing criticals. Many bearing support system stiffness values
are in the range of 1 × 106 lb/in. In the sample critical speed map in Figure 800-4,
the first three undamped critical speeds would be 6,000 RPM, 20,000 RPM, and
24,000 RPM for a support stiffness of 1 × 106 lb/in.
In practice, the mode shapes are determined not only by the damping and the loca-
tion of the unbalance but also by the stiffness of the bearing support system relative
to the stiffness of the rotor. Figure 800-7 shows the progression of mode shapes for
various ratios of bearing stiffness to rotor stiffness. As shown in the figure, the term
“soft” is used to describe a ratio of high rotor stiffness to low support stiffness and
the term “hard” is used to describe a ratio of low rotor stiffness to high support
stiffness.
Fig. 800-7 Mode Shape Ratios Courtesy of Engineering Dynamics Incorporated

Figure 800-8 represents the undamped mode shapes as they might be presented for
an actual rotor. They are plotted for the first two critical speeds on a scaled drawing
to illustrate the relative vibration amplitudes along the shaft. Such a plot gives the
designer a preliminary indication of where deflections will be the greatest (where
internal rubbing might occur) and where deflections will be the lowest (poor
choices for probe locations).
824 Effects of Damping

Damping is a dynamic phenomenon which can have effects similar to changes in
stiffness. Damping will affect critical speeds but an attempt to describe the effects
in any more detail would be beyond the scope of this section.
825 The Damped Unbalanced Rotor Analysis

The damped unbalanced rotor response analysis is typically done using the
machinery supplier's computer program which incorporates a blend of analytical
methods and empirical data obtained from their testing experiences. The principal
purposes of the analysis are to give the designer the best available data (prior to
testing) for selecting operating speeds, establishing internal clearances, and
selecting probe locations.
Fig. 800-8 Typical Lateral Critical Speed Analysis

Courtesy of Engineering Dynamics Incorporated (1 of 2)

Fig. 800-8 Typical Lateral Critical Speed Analysis

Courtesy of Engineering Dynamics Incorporated (2 of 2)

Once critical speeds are known, safe operating speeds must be established with
adequate separation from the critical speeds. The term separation margin is used
to express the required difference between a critical speed and an operating speed.
API 617 Centrifugal Compressors for General Refinery Service, for example, spells
out requirements for separation margins based on the shape of the peaks of a vibra-
tion vs. speed curve. (See Figure 800-9.) Similar requirements can be found in the
API specifications for other special-purpose equipment. (Many API Specifications
are available in other Company machinery manuals.) As stated earlier, these anal-
yses are complex and you should obtain help from an experienced specialist.
830 Torsional Analysis

Excessive torsional vibration can cause the following broken items: shafts, gear
teeth, couplings, or other components. Normally, a separation margin (discussed
in Section 832) is maintained to guard against such damage, but in some cases,
damping such as with a special coupling may be needed instead.
Torsional oscillations are present to some degree in all rotating equipment during
startup and operation. In order to take the necessary steps to prevent damage form

Fig. 800-9 Rotor Response Plot from API 617 Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute
excessive torsional oscillations, the designer must know the sources, magnitudes,
and frequencies of the exciting forces as well as the natural (resonant) frequen-
cies of the machinery components and train.
There is no relationship between these torsional frequencies and the lateral critical
speeds. Excitation is caused by alternating torque. When the frequency of the
alternating torque, and a torsional natural frequency coincide, the system is said to
be torsionally resonant. Most machinery systems are not inherently well-damped
torsionally.
Refer back to Figure 800-2 for a quick reference of when torsional and transient
torsional analyses are recommended.
Note that the three principal sources of torsional excitation are synchronous motors,
reciprocating machinery, and gearboxes.
You should obtain help from the Mechanical and Electrical Division of ETD or
other qualified specialists when reviewing the torsional analyses furnished by the
manufacturer. Together you can confirm that an analysis predicts adequate separa-
tion between operating and critical speeds and that the expected amplitude will be
within the required limits. This is discussed in more detail in this section.

831 Sources of Torsional Excitation

The most common sources of torsional excitation are torque fluctuations caused by
the following:
• Firing frequency in reciprocating engines
• Gear-tooth meshing frequencies
• Blade-passing frequencies in turbines
• Pump-impeller vane-passing frequencies
• Worn gear-type couplings
• Fluid pulsations
• Compressor-impeller and diffuser passing frequencies
• Synchronous motors (electrically induced torque variations)
• Rapid load or speed variations
• Variable speed electric drives (electronically induced torque variations)
During startup, machinery can experience fluctuating torque which excites torsional
natural frequencies. This is particularly true with synchronous-motor drivers.

Recommended specifications for separation margin can be found in API 612
Special Purpose Steam Turbines for Refinery Services and API 617 Centrifugal
Compressors for General Refinery Service (available in the Driver and Compressor
manuals, respectively). These specifications require that the torsional resonances of
the complete train be at least 10% above or below any possible excitation frequency
within the specified operating speed range (from minimum to maximum continuous
speed).
As with a lateral analysis, you should obtain help from a qualified specialist in
reviewing torsional analysis, and for determining separation margins.
In some installations, a torsional natural frequency can be excited by a multiple of
running speeds. Users are encouraged to discuss the results of a torsional analysis
with the equipment supplier and raise questions about such possibilities. Depending
on the proximity of multiples, it may be advisable to conduct additional shop tests
or modify the contract to protect the user in the event of unexpected resonances. It
is also wise to strive for greater separation margins than the 10% normally required,
to allow for inaccuracy in calculations.
833 How the Analysis is Performed

Normally, the supplier of the driven equipment coordinates the analysis which is
done by computer modeling the system. He obtains the necessary information from
the other suppliers such as mass moments of inertia and dimensioned drawings
from which torsional stiffness can be determined. Coupling suppliers provide
published data on the torsional stiffness of their couplings. These data are usually
sufficiently reliable to use as is.

For the most part, this type of analysis produces accurate results. The determination
of the various stiffnesses and mass moments of inertia is straightforward. The most
likely place for errors is in complex geometrical shapes like compressor impellers,
turbine wheels, and motor armatures.
The natural frequencies of the system are calculated in a manner similar to the way
they would be determined for a simple mass-spring system. The springs in the
analogy are the torsional stiffnesses; the masses are the mass moments of inertia of
the various components. Damping properties also must be accounted for in the
model. Once the natural frequencies are established, they can be compared to the
frequencies of the exciting forces that are present.
834 Torsional Response Analysis

The torsional response analysis is the process of inputting the various exciting
torques and measuring the response of the system. The sources of excitation that
must be considered include operating speeds, line frequencies, gear tooth meshing
frequencies, and their multiples. This analysis is the tool that enables the designer
to separate the natural frequencies from exciting frequencies.
A transient torsional analysis concentrates on non-steady-state conditions such as
startup, coast-down, or changes in load. During these transients, exciting forces
may be present that can cause damage even though they occur only briefly.
The term “transient torsional analysis” is used commonly in the industry, but has no
formal definition. Some machinery manufacturers include it in a torsional response
analysis and others will only do it if specifically requested. Refer to Figure 800-2
for guidance on when to specify a torsional or transient torsional analysis and bear
in mind that where a transient study is warranted, it is best to establish clearly with
the vendor what is expected.
Often the sources of excitation are more difficult to change than the response of the
system. Since the natural frequencies depend on the mass, stiffness, and damping of
the components, the designer may choose to alter one or more of these variables.
One of the best candidates for modifications is the flexible coupling(s). Changes to
major components may be very expensive or push a machine design outside the
area of proven experience, but alterations to couplings are relatively inexpensive
and in many cases all that are needed to achieve the desired separation margin.
Other methods that may be used to change the system stiffness and/or damping
include changes in shaft diameters, the addition of a viscous damper, or the addition
of a flywheel.
Some examples of changes to the exciting forces are changes in operating speed, a
different type of driver, (say an induction motor or a turbine instead of a synchro-
nous motor) or a change in gear ratios.

835 Methods in Use

The two most common methods in use are the Eigenvector-Eigenvalue method and
the Holzer method.
The Eigenvector-Eigenvalue method is a matrix technique which uses an eigen-
value solution. It is generally recognized as the approach which produces the
most practical and accurate results for determining mode shapes and resonant
frequencies.
The Holzer method is an iteration technique based on equilibrium of torques at
resonance. Since it is a trial and error method, there is the possibility that it may
miss a frequency when searching for natural frequencies.
836 Problems in Existing Equipment

It is very difficult to recognize a torsional problem before damage has occurred.
Sound emitted from a gearbox is probably the most common symptom; often
referred to as “gear hammer.” Making field measurements of torsional vibrations
requires the use of special equipment that few plants have on hand, but this is the
only way to establish conclusively that an excessive torsional condition exists.
Torsional problems should not occur in machinery that has a history of reliable
operation unless something has happened to affect the resonant frequency or
change an exciting force. As mentioned earlier, changes in the rotating mass or stiff-
ness (such as a change to a coupling of a different design), may be enough to suffi-
ciently alter the natural frequency. Similarly, a change in speed may create a new
exciting force. Refer to Figure 800-2 for recommendations on conducting torsional
analyses for existing equipment. Contact the Mechanical and Electrical Division of
the Engineering Technology Department or other specialists for assistance if you
suspect a torsional resonance problem.
840 Rotor Balance

Balancing of rotors in process machinery is performed to provide smooth operation
with low vibration levels. This improves machinery reliability, lengthens compo-
nent life, and promotes a safe, quiet working environment.
841 Engineering Principles

Balance is an ideal state of perfect, symmetrical mass distribution about the rota-
tional axis. Unbalance is the real-world condition of an asymmetrical mass distribu-
tion that moves the mass inertial axis away from the rotating axis. Eccentricity is
the distance between these two axes. Units to express the severity of unbalance are
therefore in the form of mass times distance, usually expressed as ounce-inches or
gram-inches.
Consider a very thin disk as shown in Figure 800-10. An unbalanced state exists
when a mass is placed on the outer edge of the otherwise perfect disk, moving the

center of gravity (i.e., the mass inertial axis for the disk) away from the rotational
center-line. When the disk is spun, the centrifugal force created on the heavy side is
greater than that on the light side, and a net centrifugal force pushes the disk toward
the direction shown. If this disk were constrained by a shaft and bearing assembly,
this would cause the shaft to bow, and the rotor would vibrate at running-speed
frequency.
Fig. 800-10 Illustration of an Unbalanced Rotating Mass
Unbalance Forces
Equations have been derived using Newton's Second Law (F = ma) to describe the
vibration of equipment with unbalanced rotors. Review of these equations reveals
the following:
• The generated forces vary proportionately with the unbalance mass and with
the eccentricity.
• These same forces vary proportionately with the rotational speed squared.
These facts serve to emphasize the importance of balance with increasing machine
size and, especially, with increasing speed.
842 Types of Unbalance

Static Unbalance
This is the simplest form of unbalance as shown in Figure 800-10. Static unbal-
ance can also exist in more massive rotors provided the unbalance mass is centered
axially, as shown in Figure 800-11. The motion of a statically unbalanced rotor
sweeps out a cylindrical shape as shown in Figure 800-12A. If either of these rotors
were mounted on low-friction supports (Figure 800-13), the heavy side would move
to the bottom. The rotor could then be statically balanced by placing an equal
weight on the other side. Automotive tires are sometimes balanced like this with a
bubble balancer.

Fig. 800-11 Static Unbalance Fig. 800-12 Effect of Unbalance on Free Rotor Motion
Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company
Couple Unbalance
Figure 800-14 shows unbalance masses at opposite ends and sides of a rotor, which
is called couple unbalance. This rotor is statically balanced, but will still vibrate in
a double-conical pattern as shown in Figure 800-12B. As such, balancing opera-
tions must be done at both ends (i.e., in two axial planes). This procedure is called
two-plane balancing.
Fig. 800-13 Low Friction Supports Fig. 800-14 Couple Unbalance
Quasi-Static Unbalance
A single unbalance mass at one end, or a combination of static unbalance along with
couple unbalance, produces quasi-static unbalance, as shown in Figure 800-15.
These rotors would vibrate in a double-conical pattern also, but the apex would not
be centered. Two-plane balancing techniques are again required.
Dynamic Unbalance
The most common situation, dynamic unbalance, occurs when the unbalance
masses are randomly distributed as shown in Figure 800-16. The mass inertial axis
is skewed away from the rotational axis and they do not intersect. This type rotor
requires balancing in at least two planes.

Fig. 800-15 Quasi-Static Unbalance Fig. 800-16 Dynamic Unbalance—

Axes do not Intersect
843 Balancing Tolerances and Specifications

Balancing is a labor-intensive, iterative job. A rotor is typically spun on a balance
machine, readings are taken, corrections are made (usually by grinding off mate-
rial), readings are re-taken, more corrections are made, and the process is repeated
until specifications are met.
For most Company machinery, the balancing tolerance should be 4W/N, as
defined by API 612 Special Purpose Steam Turbines and API 617 Centrifugal
Compressors. (API 612 is available in the Driver Manual; API 617 is available in
the Compressor Manual.)
The maximum unbalance (U) of 4W/N means four times the rotor weight supported
by each journal (lbs.), divided by the speed (RPM). The result is the number of
ounce-inches of unbalance permitted per plane (multi-plane balancing is discussed
later). In general:
• The machinist can best meet the tolerance by removing or adding material at a
distance far from the center. Removing one ounce at one inch is equivalent to
removing only one-tenth of an ounce at ten inches.
• The equation is self correcting for speed, as higher speeds result in a lower
calculated tolerance for a given journal weight. As such, this tolerance
normally applies to all types of Company machinery, regardless of speed.
• The resultant allowable eccentricity can be calculated as:
e = U/16W (inches)
(Eq. 800-2)

where:
U = the unbalance
Example
Suppose a rotor weighing 1000 pounds and operating at 7000 RPM is to be
balanced. Since there are normally two journal supports for a rotor, each journal
weight is 500 pounds. The maximum allowable unbalance for this rotor would be:
U = 4W/N = 4(500)/7000 = 0.286 oz-in
The eccentricity with this amount of unbalance would be:
e = 0.286 oz-in/16(500) oz = 0.000036 inch or 36 microinches
844 Typical Balancing Techniques

Dynamic balance machines are designed to support the rotor on two bearings and
balance it in two planes. The technique required depends on rotor complexity, size,
and speed.
The sections which follow give a brief description of accepted methods, but are not
intended as detailed balancing instructions. The CUSA Manufacturing IMI organi-
zations have detailed procedures and checklists available to carry out actual
balancing operations.
Garden Variety Machinery Rotors

Single-element (i.e., one stage) rotors of slow speed (RPM), stiff-shaft machines
are dynamically balanced in two planes, one on each side of the axial centerline, in
an area where material can be removed or added. It is common practice to mount
the impeller on a mandrel which serves as a “dummy” shaft, inserting a “dummy”
half-key to fill the impeller slot. The assembly is then mounted with the impeller
about midway between the balance machine bearing supports. The actual shaft is
normally excluded from the balance procedure. This practice holds for overhung as
well as between-bearings pump designs.
Multiple-element, garden variety rotors require multi-plane balancing. Each
impeller is individually component balanced in two planes, as is the rotor shaft.
The impellers are then mounted on the shaft and a final two-plane assembly
balance of the whole rotor is completed. Little material removal should be required
during this final trim balance procedure.
Critical Machinery Rotors

High-speed (5000 RPM), flexible-shaft rotors require more sophisticated tech-
niques. Multi-plane balance is achieved by mounting, or stacking, one or two
elements at a time on the shaft and completing a two-plane dynamic balance proce-
dure to 4W/N limits. Subsequent elements or pairs of elements are then stacked and
the procedure is repeated, until the rotor is completely assembled for a final trim
balance. This entire process is sometimes called stack-balancing.

After stack balancing is complete, a residual unbalance check is done to measure

and locate the remaining (i.e., the residual) unbalance in the rotor. This procedure
must be completed for each balance plane of correction. A known trial weight is
attached to the rotor at each of a number of equal radial segments, and unbalance
readings are taken. These readings are then plotted on a polar chart as shown in
Figure 800-17. MAC-MS-3546, included in the Specifications section, gives a
detailed procedure for checking residual unbalance.
Fig. 800-17 Sample Plot for Residual Unbalance
The shape of the resultant graph should be circular, but will usually not be concen-
tric with the center of the graph. The segment of the circle furthest from the origin
represents the angular location of the residual unbalance, where the known unbal-
ance from the trial weight adds to the residual unbalance. On the opposite side lies
the circular segment closest to the origin, where the known unbalance subtracts from
the residual. The magnitude of residual unbalance is represented by the distance
from the center of the plotted circle to the center of the graph paper. Figure 800-18
shows the test data calculations taken from Figure 800-17. For a complete example
of the polar chart and calculation sheet, see Specification MAC-MS-3546. These
results are independent of balance machine calibration, and represent the true size
and location of the remaining rotor unbalance for the balance plane being checked.

Fig. 800-18 Example Calculation Sheet
Field vs. Shop Balancing

Most balancing requires rotor removal and is best done in a machine shop. Fans and
blowers, however, usually have easy access to the rotor, and can be field balanced at
less cost. Field balancing principles are conceptually the same as those for shop
balancing, but the equipment and techniques are different.
Field balancing uses portable vibration sensing and phase measurement equipment.
Initial vibration readings are taken and plotted. A trial weight is then installed and
the readings are again taken. Comparison of the data can be used to calculate the
required size and location of the correction weight, much like the residual unbal-
ance procedure pinpointing both size and location of unbalance.
845 Balance Machines

Shop balance machines are categorized by the type of bearing support system used.
Soft bearing machines have a flexible spring suspension system supporting the
bearings, permitting free movement of the rotor in the horizontal direction (see
Figure 800-19). The system's natural frequency is low, so balancing is done above
the first resonance. Rotor movement is measured with velocity transducers. Hard
bearing machines have rigid support systems that restrain free movement. Strain
gage transducers are used to measure unbalance forces.
Fig. 800-19 Soft Bearing Balance Machine Support System

Hard bearing designs offer these advantages, and are recommended:

• Calibration is independent of rotor weight. Soft bearing machine calibration
must be adjusted with each change in weight.
• Readings are not affected by windage.
• Relatively large unbalances can be handled. Soft bearing designs are prone to
high vibration with large unbalances.
• Small rotors can be balanced. Soft bearing machines may not have enough
sensitivity to balance small rotors.
• Accuracy and repeatability of readings are better since the transducers are
measuring actual unbalance forces, rather than velocity.
Drive Designs
Balance machines usually spin the workpiece up to speed with either a shaft/
u-joint drive, or with a belt drive. The shaft type design must itself be precisely
balanced before accurate rotor balance can be achieved. Belt drives are generally
more accurate and less troublesome.
Balancing Speeds
Balance machines have speed limitations, so most rotors are balanced below the
actual running speed. The required set speed varies with rotor size and balance
machine sensitivity. A set speed which is too low may not generate enough forces
to register on the balance machine. Conversely, a setting which is too high results in
extra run-up time, excess energy usage, high wind and noise generation, and
possible danger to the operator. Speed settings of 800-1500 RPM are common.
With good machine sensitivity, a rotor balanced at 800 RPM will still be balanced
at 5000 RPM. It is important to use the same speed setting through each iteration of
the balancing procedure for a given rotor.
Note that a few large shops are equipped with vacuum chambers to allow high-
speed balancing at, or near, actual operating speeds. Company experience indicates
these are not necessary provided the 4W/N tolerance criteria are met.
846 Pitfalls to Accurate Balancing

Balancing to 4W/N limits is a precision operation, particularly with large rotors
operating at high speeds. There are a number of hardware deficiencies and operator
practices which often impede accurate balancing:
• Mandrels may be inaccurately ground or improperly balanced. Residual unbal-
ance checks of each mandrel are essential.
• Workpieces are often mounted loose on the mandrel. This creates an eccen-
tricity that may exceed that imposed by the 4W/N specification. For instance, a
75 pound impeller that operates at 10,000 RPM would have an allowable eccen-
tricity of only 25 microinches. For this reason, all mountings should be done to
a light shrink fit.

• Flat half-keys are sometimes used, which fail to add weight for shaft curvature.
This can cause significant errors on large diameter, high-speed rotor assemblies.
• The “W” in 4W/N is taken to mean total rotor weight, rather than per-journal
weight. For a two-journal assembly, this results in a calculated balancing toler-
ance that is twice what it should be.
• High-speed rotors that have been accurately balanced are sometimes errone-
ously rebalanced after storage. Since all large rotors take on a slight bow
during shipment, this ensures an unbalanced rotor when it straightens out as it
is brought up to operating speed. Do not rebalance stored rotors that have
been accurately checked for residual unbalance and documented to be
within specification.
850 Terminology
The following definitions may be useful reference material for the text that follows.
There is no need to read this except as necessary to help understand the terms.
Amplification Factor-On Line: A measure of the susceptibility of a rotor to vibra-
tion amplitude at a resonant frequency when rotative speed is not equal to the reso-
nant frequency.
Amplification Factor-Synchronous: A measure of the susceptibility of a rotor to
vibration amplitude when rotational speed is equal to the rotor natural frequency or
frequencies. For imbalance type excitation, synchronous amplification factor is
calculated by dividing the amplitude value at the resonant peak by the amplitude
value at a speed well above resonance, as determined from Polar Plot or compen-
sated Bodé Plot. Generally a high amplification factor indicates low damping and
vice versa. Due to a number of factors, the amplification factor measured during
machine startup may be different than that measured during coast-down.
Amplitude: The magnitude of dynamic motion or vibration. Amplitude can be
specified in terms of peak-to-peak, zero-to-peak, or root-mean-square (rms).
Asymmetrical Support: The rotor support system does not provide uniform
restraint in all radial directions. This is typical for most heavy industrial machinery
where restraint or stiffness in one plane may be substantially different than the
restraint in a perpendicular plane. This exists in bearings to: (1) deliberate design to
create vertical stiffness bearing preload differing from horizontal stiffness, or (2) by
steady state preloads such as gravity, pressure dams, and misalignment.
Bodé Plot: Cartesian graphic representation of the 1× vector where rotor speed is
plotted on the X axis versus phase angle and vibration amplitude on the Y axis.
Sometimes referred to as an unbalance response plot. A Bodé Plot documents the
location of balance resonances (critical speeds). It also presents data to calculate the
synchronous amplification factor which is virtually a direct measure of the avail-
able damping in the system. (Refer to Figure 800-20.)

Fig. 800-20 Typical Bodé Plot Courtesy of Bently Nevada Corporation
Bow: A shaft condition such that the geometric shaft centerline is not straight.
Usually the centerline is bent in a single direction due to a gravity sag-set, thermal
warpage, or pre-stressed interference fit.
Component Balancing: A balance procedure for multi-component rotors where
each individual component of the rotor receives its own static or dynamic balance
before it is assembled to the rotor shaft. This is to determine the effect each
impeller is contributing to the total unbalance vector.
Couple Unbalance: That condition for which the principal axis of inertia intersects
the shaft axis at the center of gravity. This arises when two equal unbalance masses
are positioned at opposite ends of a rotor and spaced 180 degrees apart. This type of
unbalance cannot be corrected by a single mass in a single correction plane. At
least two masses are required, each in a different transverse plane (perpendicular to
the shaft axis). (Refer to Figure 800-26A discussed later under “Static Unbalance.”)
Critical Damping: Smallest amount of damping required to return the system to its
equilibrium position in the shortest time without oscillation. It is also the value of
damping which provides the most rapid transient response without overshoot.
Critical Speed: A state of vibration resonance in a complete rotor system. It is the
resultant of all spring, mass, and damping effects from the rotor, bearings, seals,
casings, support structure, and foundation. Critical speeds are identified by vibra-
tion amplitude peaks, phase changes, and mode shape analysis. They can be destruc-
tive and are normally avoided in machinery operation.

Critical Speed Map: An XY diagram used in rotating machinery design as a tool

to evaluate the different system stiffness effects on a system's natural resonance
frequencies. The X axis represents bearing stiffness and the Y axis represents shaft
rotative frequency.
Cross-Coupled: A condition which exists when a forcing function applied in one
plane will have a definite measured effect in a perpendicular plane.
Cycle: One complete sequence of values of a periodic quantity.
Damping: The energy converter from mechanical energy to mostly heat in a
vibrating system that restrains the amplitude of motion with each successive oscilla-
tion. As applied to shaft dynamic motion, damping is provided by oil in bearings,
and seals, or internal material friction. Units for damping are typically expressed as
pound second/inch or newton second/ meter.
Damping Ratio or (D/Dc): Ratio of the degree of actual damping to the degree of
damping required for critical damping.
Damping, Tangential: Component of impedance of a bearing, seal, or rotor which
acts at zero or 180 degrees to the perturbing force.
Eccentricity: Out-of-roundness, the variation of the outer diameter of a shaft
surface when referenced to the true geometric centerline of the shaft.
Electrical Runout: Apparent run-out of a shaft caused by electromagnetic varia-
tions in the shaft surface. A source of error which affects the output signal of a prox-
imity probe transducer system and repeats with each shaft revolution.
Flexible Rotor: One which operates above its first critical speed.
Forced Vibration: The oscillation of a system under the action of a forcing func-
tion. Typically forced vibration occurs at the frequency of the exciting force.
Free Vibration: Vibration of a mechanical system following an initial change of
position or velocity. Depending on the kind of changes the system responds to by
free vibration at one or more of its natural frequencies.
Frequency: The repetition rate of a periodic wave. This is normally expressed in
units of revolutions per minute. (RPM), cycles per minute (CPM), or cycles per
second (cps or Hz). There are two types of rotating machinery vibrations of
interest: 1) shaft rotational frequency, and 2) a number of other vibrational frequen-
cies such as harmonics of the shaft rotational frequency torsional and axial vibra-
tions. Vibrational frequencies are commonly expressed in terms of the shaft
rotational speed: 1× means one times rotational frequency and likewise 2× means
two times, ½ × means one-half times, etc. (Refer to Figure 800-21.)
Hertz (Hz): Unit of frequency measurement represented by cycles per second, i.e.,
RPM times 60.
High-Speed Balancing: Rotors which cannot be satisfactorily balanced at low
speed require special high-speed balancing and modal analysis techniques. This
should never be used as a substitute for progressive low-speed stack balancing.

Fig. 800-21 Illustration of the Relationships of Time, Frequency, and Amplitude
There are very few facilities in the United States with high-speed capabilities.
Contact the Mechanical and Electrical Systems Division of ETD Services for
assistance.
Lateral Critical: The frequency of vibration with motion normal to the shaft axis.
The dynamics of a rotor change significantly as it approaches and passes through a
critical speed. The amplitude of the vibration response peaks, and the phase
response shifts by 180 degrees.
Log Decrement: A measure of the amount of damping present in a system based
upon the rate of decay of the free oscillating motion. This dimensionless quantity is
defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive amplitude peaks
(log X1/X2). Damping factor or amplification factor are more commonly used.
Both are used to determine the sensitivity of the rotor system as it passes through a
critical speed. To make sure sufficient damping is present so the amplitudes remain
within the mechanical constraints of the machine so no rubs occur.
Mechanical Impedance: The mechanical properties of a machine system (mass,
stiffness, damping) that determine the response to periodic forcing functions.
Mechanical Runout: Mechanical surface variations from a perfectly concentric
shape which are a source of error on the output signal of a proximity probe trans-
ducer system. Common sources include out-of-round shafts, scratches, chain
marks, dents, rust or other conductive build-up on the shaft, stencil marks, flat
spots, and engravings.
Modal Plots: A diagram of the shape of the flexible shaft rotor system at a critical
speed.
Mode Shape: A specific bending shape of a flexible rotor relating to one of its crit-
ical speeds.

Natural Frequency: Frequency of free vibration of a system. The frequency at

which an undamped system with a single degree of freedom will oscillate upon
momentary displacement from its rest position by a transient force. The natural
frequencies of a multiple degree of freedom systems are the frequencies of the
normal modes of vibration.
Nodal Point: A point of zero shaft deflection in a specific plane of a node shape.
May readily change location along the shaft axis due to changes in residual unbal-
ance or other forcing function or change in restraint such as increased bearing clear-
ance. Motion immediately on each side of the node is 180 degrees out of phase.
Oil Whirl/Whip: Free vibration where the bearing is unable to establish a stable
oil wedge profile. This can occur because of various mechanisms including exces-
sive radial bearing clearance and a steady state preload acting in the opposite direc-
tion to bearing load. Under this malfunction condition, the shaft centerline dynamic
motion is usually circular and forward (in the same direction as shaft rotation). Oil
whirl vibration occurs at a frequency equal to average oil flow velocity in the
bearing, i.e., 40-49% of shaft rotative speed. Oil whip occurs when the oil whirl
frequency coincides with and becomes locked to a system natural resonance, often
a rotor balance resonance. Note that the whirl/whip mechanism is not restricted to
oil lubricated bearings, but can occur in any case where a fluid is between two
cylindrical surfaces. Examples are steam acting in a turbine seal and oil in a centrif-
ugal compressor bushing seal.
Orbit: The path of the shaft centerline motion during rotation. The orbit is observed
with an oscilloscope connected to XY proximity probes. (Refer to Figure 800-22.)
Fig. 800-22 Example of Typical Orbit and Vibration Signals Used to Generate It
Courtesy of Bently Nevada Corporation
Peak-to-Peak Value: Difference between positive and negative extreme values of a

signal or dynamic motion. For a sinusoidal vibration, the peak-to-peak value is
twice the zero-peak amplitude. (Refer to Figure 800-23A)
Period: Elapsed time for the repeat of a periodic wave form.
Periodic Vibration: Oscillatory motion whose amplitude pattern repeats in time.

Phase: Measurement of the timing relationship between two signals, or between a

specific vibration signal and a once-per-shaft-revolution event. (Refer to Figure
800-23B.)
Phase Angle: Angular measurement from the leading edge of the pulse to the
following positive peak of the 1× vibration signal. (Refer to Figure 800-23B.)
Fig. 800-23 Illustration of Vibration Signals Showing Peak-Peak Values and Phase
Relationships
A. Amplitude Measurement Typical Methods
B. Relative Phase Measurement Between Two Vibration Signals
C. Absolute Phase Measurement Between a Vibration Signal and Shaft

Angular Rotation Reference (KEYPHASOR)

Phase Shift: Shift or change in phase angle between two events, or between some
event and a datum event. When phase angle is measured at a speed well above the
critical, the high spot measured by a displacement transducer is at a point opposite
the unbalance. When operating speed is near a critical, the phase will shift between
0 and 180 degrees, depending on the dynamics of the rotor.
Polar Plot: Polar coordinate representation of a Bodé plot. Usually generated
during startup or coastdown. It gives a visual indication of the phase changes as crit-
icals are passed through. (Refer to Figure 800-24.)
Fig. 800-24 Typical Polar Plot Courtesy of Bently Nevada Corporation
Pulse Generator: A device that generates a once per revolution pulse, usually a
signal generated by a shaft keyway as it passes an eddy current probe.
Rigid Rotor: One which operates below the influence of the first critical speed.
Root Mean Square (rms): Square root of the arithmetical average of a set of squared
instantaneous values. For a pure sine wave, rms equals 0.707 of the zero to peak value.
Single Plane Balancing: Reducing the unbalance of a rotor which is disc shaped
and therefore has only one correction plane. An example would be a single-stage
turbine rotor with a narrow wheel and minimal axial runout.
Spectrum Plot: Presentation of the amplitude of a signal as a function of frequency.
Usually called a signature, it is distinctive to a particular machine or component. A
spectrum is often used for historical comparison of mechanical condition over the oper-
ation life of the machine and for diagnostics troubleshooting. (Refer to Figure 800-25.)
Stack Balancing: As individually component balanced pieces are attached to the
shaft, the partially assembled rotor is checked for runout and unbalance each step of
the way. Stack balancing is necessary to allow for the deformation of components
resulting from the shrink fit. This effect is usually present on components that do not
have equal stiffness in all planes such as impellers with one keyway slot on the hub.

Fig. 800-25 Typical Spectrum Plot Courtesy of Bently Nevada Corporation
Standing Wave: A standing wave is a periodic wave having fixed distribution in

space which is the result of interference of progressive waves of the same frequency
and amplitude. Such waves are characterized by the existence of nodes and anti-
nodes that are fixed in space.
Static Unbalance: Exists when the principal axis of inertia is displaced parallel to
the shaft axis. This type of unbalance is found primarily in narrow, disk-shaped
parts such as flywheels and turbine wheels. (Refer to Figure 800-26.)
Subsynchronous: Components of a vibration signal which have a frequency less
than shaft rotative frequency.
Synchronous: Vibration frequency components at the rotative frequency.
Torsional Critical: A torsional natural frequency of a rotor system. Torsional crit-
ical speeds depend on the inertia-stiffness properties of the machine system.
Unbalance: Unequal radial weight distribution on a rotor system; a shaft condition
such that the mass centerline (principal inertial axis) does not coincide with the
geometric centerline. Also the effective mass causing the rotor to be out of balance.
Rotor imbalance exists to some degree in all machines, and is characterized by sinu-
soidal vibration at a frequency of once per revolution. Imbalance can be in a single
plane, static unbalance or multiple planes, and couple unbalance. The combination
is usually referred to as dynamic unbalance.

Fig. 800-26 Examples of Unbalance
A. Static Unbalance
Courtesy of Gulf
Publishing Company
B. Unbalanced Disk
(Static Unbalance)
Waterfall Plot: Also called a raster or cascade plot, it is used to observe the
changes in vibration frequency as a function of rotor speed. The plot consists of a
series of vibration frequency spectra acquired at various machine rotative speeds.
The X axis represents vibration frequency and the Y axis vibration amplitude.
These XY plots are shown for various rotor speeds incremented along the Y axis.
Such presentations provide an immediate examination of the synchronous vibration
components as well as sub- and super-synchronous components. Certain types of
instabilities such as oil whirl/whip and rubs can very often be detected. (Refer to
Figure 800-27.)

Fig. 800-27 Typical Cascade (Raster) Plot Courtesy of Bently Nevada Corporation

800-Rotordynamics &amp; Balancing

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800 Rotordynamics and Balancing

810 General Information 800-3

Chevron Corporation 800-1 August 1989

831 Sources of Torsional Excitation

August 1989 800-2 Chevron Corporation

810 General Information

Chevron Corporation 800-3 August 1989

• Minimizing dynamic loads transmitted to the machine structure throughout the

August 1989 800-4 Chevron Corporation

instability caused by journal bearings, known as “oil whip,” can be predicted

813 When to Specify a Lateral or Torsional Analysis

820 Lateral Critical Speed Analysis

Chevron Corporation 800-5 August 1989

Lateral Critical Speed Analysis is Specified for:

c. All special purpose gearboxes

d. All special purpose fans

f. Turbo expanders unless they are a well-proven design.

1.) 3600 RPM (no load, or synchronous speed) and greater.

2.) 800 HP (600 kW) and larger.

2.) 1340 HP (1000 kW) and larger.

a. Coupling mass by more 5%

b. Rotor mass by more than 2%

f. Bearing clearance specification (not just normal wear)

August 1989 800-6 Chevron Corporation

1. For New Machines or Machine Trains

1.) All machines driven by a synchronous motor1200 RPM and greater.

2.) Any machine with a gearbox and a driver 500 HP or higher.

4.) All machines with AC adjustable-frequency drives (AFD).

b. Transient Torsional Analysis:

1.) All synchronous motor driven machines1200 RPM and greater.

2. For Existing Machine Trains

• Using a coupling of a different design

• Changing shaft diameters

2.) A change in gear ratios

5.) A change of speed and previous analysis is not available.

b. Transient Torsional Analysis:

Chevron Corporation 800-7 August 1989

821 Modeling the Rotor and Support System

August 1989 800-8 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 800-3 Stiffness and Damping Coefficients

822 Critical Speed Map

Chevron Corporation 800-9 August 1989

August 1989 800-10 Chevron Corporation

823 Undamped Critical-Speed Mode Shapes

Chevron Corporation 800-11 August 1989

Fig. 800-6 Mode Shapes when Rotor is Infinitely Rigid

Fig. 800-7 Mode Shape Ratios Courtesy of Engineering Dynamics Incorporated

August 1989 800-12 Chevron Corporation

824 Effects of Damping

825 The Damped Unbalanced Rotor Analysis

Fig. 800-8 Typical Lateral Critical Speed Analysis

Chevron Corporation 800-13 August 1989

Fig. 800-8 Typical Lateral Critical Speed Analysis

826 Separation Margin

830 Torsional Analysis

August 1989 800-14 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 800-15 August 1989

831 Sources of Torsional Excitation

832 Separation Margin

833 How the Analysis is Performed

August 1989 800-16 Chevron Corporation

834 Torsional Response Analysis

Chevron Corporation 800-17 August 1989

835 Methods in Use

800-Rotordynamics & Balancing

800-Rotordynamics & Balancing