K-Factor and Transformer Losses Calculations under
Harmonics
Mahrous A. Taher
Hydro Power Generation Company (HPGC),
Aswan, Egypt
(e-mail: mahrous_taher@yahoo.com)
Abstract; Transformers are equipment designed to operate
perfectly at linear loads. Nowadays with wide use of modern
technology requirement and industry needs which utilize
nonlinear loads, the transformers are subjected to more
nonlinear loads. Many research studied the influence of
harmonics upon transformers. This paper focuses on
transformer losses calculations for the case study of Mubarak
Pumping Station (MPS) with and without passive harmonic
filters. Also harmonic indices including K-Factor transformer,
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), Harmonic Loss Factor (FHL)
and de-rating of transformer are calculated. When distribution
transformer is operating under harmonic load, the value of load
losses is increased, while the no load losses increased with a little
amount. No load losses of a distribution transformer under
harmonic loads can increase its operating cost. K-Factor
calculation depends upon the fundamental current and the
harmonic current components, and it is an indicative value of the
harmonic contents in the power system.
Index Terms –K-FACTOR, Total Harmonic Distortion
(THD), Point of Common Coupling Conduction (PCC).
I. INTRODUCTION
Basic design of transformer is based on operation pure
sinusoidal voltage and current at the desired rated values, but
actually this cannot happen continuously. The reason is the
industrial explosion in the technology of electronic products
which cover most human life fields starting from domestic
devices like microwave ovens, PC computers, fluorescent
lamp, and gas discharge lighting up to huge industrial
equipment like UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply), motor
speed drives (which depend upon variation of frequency), and
arc furnaces. These are examples of non-linear loads which
cause distortion of voltage and current waveforms. As a result,
multiple integer components from the main frequency power
supply voltage and current to be produced. These components
are known as harmonics. The impact of harmonics on
transformers is very important, where it increase losses and
reduce the life time of transformer insulation.
In general, the harmonics produce extra heating of
transformers windings and increase the skin effect. Where,
both of them are a function of the square of the RMS current,
and transformer insulation. Excessive heat dissipation as a
result of increasing of harmonic losses even from eddy current
losses or core losses [1] The scientific studies of power quality
are started in 1990, however the actual advancing in
978-1-4673-9063-7/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE
Salah Kamel, and Ziad M. Ali
Department of Electrical Engineering,
Aswan University, 81542 Aswan, Egypt
(e-mails: skamel@aswu.edu.eg ;
dr.ziad.elhalwany@gmail.com)
theoretical and practical solutions has been slow. As
mentioned before, transformers in general as power and
distribution are designed to operate under linear loads,
however in some cases, a special type transformers are
designed and manufactured, these transformers can operate
under a specific harmonic loads [2].
K- Factor calculation can be considered as the representation
of transformer stray losses and load harmonic current A lot of
K-Factor transformers design techniques are proposed and
produced [3 ,4]
Due to the expected possibility of reduction of transformer life
span which operate under non-sinusoidal loads, manufacturers
of distribution transformers have developed K-Factor type
transformers. K-Factor transformers have the possibility of
operation safely under non-sinusoidal loads, where it is
capable of withstanding the heating effects of harmonic load
currents. The calculated K-Factor value of a power system can
be considered as an indicative value of the amount of its
harmonic contents, i.e. as the value of K-Factor is increased,
the higher the harmonic currents are more existed [3].
This paper is aimed to investigate K-Factor transformers
basics and its relation with harmonic indices when operating
under harmonic load. Theoretical understanding on harmonics
distortion can be helpful in developing suitable analysis for
identifying the harmonics content within the transformer
losses, but a realistic case study can emphasize the idea.
Mubarak Pumping Station (MPS) that located in Upper Egypt
is taken as a case study. The transformer in this study has a
rating of 66/11KV, 25MVA. However, the calculations based
on two strategies; the first strategy is the maximum non-
sinusoidal load current using rated eddy current losses in cases
of with and without harmonic passive filter. The second
strategy is the maximum non-sinusoidal load current using
maximum eddy current losses in cases of with and without
harmonic passive filter too.
II. LOSSES OFTRANSFORMERS UNDER
HARMONICS
Transformer manufacturers based their design upon minimum
losses under rated voltage, current and frequency.
Harmonic voltages and harmonic currents are effective
parameters of transformer losses. However, harmonic currents
are the main reason of increasing in load losses, but harmonic
voltages are the main reason of increasing in no load losses.
Due to harmonic losses, the transformer heating is increased
compared to pure sinusoidal loads [5].
Transformer loss is divided generally into two main types, no- µ Conductor permeability.
load and load loss [6, 7]: τ Conductor's resistivity.
PT = PT + PLL (1) H Magnetic field.
Where: Also, eddy current loss of winding can be obtained from the
PT Total loss. following equation:
PNL No-load loss. PEC = PLL-R – [(R1I21-R – R2 I22-R)] (7)
PLL Load loss. Where:
A brief description of transformer losses can be introduced as PLL-R Rated load loss.
follows: R1 Primary winding resistance.
R2 Secondary winding resistance.
A. No load loss
I1-R Primary eddy current.
It is found in transformers due to magnetization current and
I2-R Secondary eddy current.
dielectric losses flowing through primary winding. Operation
As per IEEE C57 .110 standards for oil-filled transformers, the
of distribution transformers is often continuous, so that for a
eddy current loss can be found approximately 33% of total
big number of distribution transformers in the same network,
stray loss i.e.:
its total no-load loss is high but constant .It is obviously to
PEC-R = 0.33PTSL (8)
subdivide no load losses to hysteresis losses and eddy current
3) Other stray loss
losses. Both of hysteresis losses and eddy current are in direct
The stray losses POSL of transformers are found at the core,
proportion to frequency and core flux density [1]. Due to small
tank, transformer fittings and metallic parts. Due to linkage of
values of harmonic voltage orders which is less than 5 % of
electromagnetic flux to the metallic conductor, a voltage is
fundamental, the fundamental frequency voltage can be used
induced. This induced voltage causing eddy current to pass
for calculation of no load losses and the other harmonic.
inside the transformer core, the eddy current producing more
B. Load loss losses. Extra heat is dissipated even internal or external of the
The sum of PDC, PEC and POSL is called total stray loss PLL transformer. It can be said that the stray losses of a
as follows as follows [8]: transformer are the stray losses. [2].
PLL = PDC + PEC+ POSL (2) There are a lot of factors affecting on the assigned value of
Where: POSL, such as; the rating of transformer, where all core sizes,
PDC Ohmic Loss. transformer voltage rating and the metal parts which used to
PEC Windings eddy current loss. construct the transformer body and its accessories.
POSL Other stray losses. Experimental tests are clearly showing the effect of the value
The sum of PEC and POSL is called total stray loss PTSL. of fundamental and the harmonic frequency order on
The value of total stray loss can be calculated according to (3). determination the value of other stray loss. At the lower
PTSL = PEC + POSL= PLL-PDC (3) frequencies range (0: 360Hz), the resistance of other stray loss
Until now, it is not possible to segregate windings eddy can be found from the following equation:
0.8
current loss from other stray loss. fh
RifAC = 0.00129 (9)
f1
1) Ohmic loss Where:
Calculation of ohmic loss under nonlinear load depends upon fh Harmonic order frequency
measurements of winding dc resistance and the summation of f1 Fundamental frequency
harmonic load current components in (4). At higher frequencies in the range of (420:1200 Hz), the
h=h
Pdc = R dc × I 2 = R dc × ∑h=1 max I 2 h, max (4) resistance of other stray loss can be found from the following
equation:
0.8
2) Eddy current loss in winding Rhf
fh
AC = 0.33358 (10)
Eddy current losses of transformers are produced due to skin f1
effect and proximity effect. External windings of transformers Consequently, it can be concluded that, the relation of eddy
have lower eddy current loss compared to internal winding current losses with load losses and frequency can be
adjacent to core, due to concentration of electromagnetic flux concluded to be as follow [3]:
intensity near the core that covers these windings. Most of PEC α I 2 α f 0.8 (11)
eddy current losses amount exist in the last layer of conductors
in the windings, is a direct result of radial flux density. Other stray loss can be calculated from (3) as follows:
Formula of eddy current loss of winding can be expressed as POSL = PTSL − PEC (12)
[2]:
PEC α I 2 f 2 (5) III. EFFECT OF HARMONICS ON NO-LOAD
Or LOSSES
πτ 2 µ 2 2 Transformer flux can be expressed in time domain as per
PEC = f × H2 α f 2 × I2 (6) Faraday's law as follows:
3ρ
Where:
τ Conductor width perpendicular to field line.
 d∅ h=h Ih 2
N1 = v1 (t) (13) K − Factor = ∑h=1 max h2 (16)
dt IR
where: Where:
N1 Number of turns Ih Current related to hth harmonic.
∅ Magnetic flux IR Rated load current.
v1 Terminal voltage K-Factor can be considered as a measure that indicates how
Then, transferring (13) from time domain into frequency the amount of harmonic currents is are concentrated within the
domain to find harmonic voltage as follow: network. For establishing K-Factor ratings, UL (Underwriters
N1 (ℎ ) = Vh (14) Laboratories) chose the following specified values 1, 4, 9, 13,
Where: 20, 30, 40 and 50. After calculation of K-Factor value for a
Vh Harmonic voltage. transformer, it is possible to choose the nearest higher value
h Harmonic order. from UL ratings. Designers of K-Factor transformer based
According to permissible limits of recommended IEEE 519, their idea upon introducing an oil filled distribution
the value of THDV should be less than 5% and the harmonic transformer at a certain K-Factor value that can run safely up
voltage component seldom reaches to 3%. Therefore, if the to the desired life time [2]. The eddy current losses can be
harmonic voltage is ignored, the error will be minor. The calculated as [7, 12]:
measurements done in [10] are emphasizing the idea. If h=h Ih 2
THDV value cannot neglect no-load loss in the presence PEC = PEC −R × ∑h=1 max h2 (17)
IR
harmonic voltages can be determined from (15) as follows [6]: Where:
2
V hRMS PEC Rated eddy current loss of windings under sinusoidal
P = PM Ph + Pec (15)
V RMS current.
Where: PEC-.R Rated eddy current loss of windings to rated I2 R loss.
P No-load losses under sinusoidal voltages. Mathematically, when a transformer operating under non
PM No-load losses under distorted voltages. linear load, it can be proof that K-Factor and eddy current loss
Ph Hysteresis losses. of windings are in direct proportion to harmonic load current
Pec Eddy current losses under sinusoidal voltages. squared and harmonic frequency order squared. Relation
VRMS RMS sinusoidal voltage. between eddy current loss and K-Factor can be obtained from
VhRMS RMS distorted voltage. the following equation:
PEC = PEC −R × K − Factor (18)
IV. HARMONICS EFFECTS ON LOAD LOSSES It is possible to calculate the de-rating of transformer from the
It is theoretically and practically outlined that, the harmonic following equation:
load current is more significance than harmonic voltage, 1+P EC −R
where it causes an extra losses even in the transformer D= (19)
1+K ×P EC −R
winding and transformer metal parts [1].
1) Harmonics effect on dc losses To calculate harmonic loss factor for eddy current loss of
When transformer is operating under harmonic load, the winding, the following equation can be used [2]:
measured value of load current is ascending; hence, the square h =h I 2
h =h
∑h =1 max h 2 I h 2 ∑h =1 max h 2 h
of the load current is ascending [6]. The DC losses of FHL = =
I R
(20)
h =h
∑h =1 max I h 2 Ih 2
transformer operating under harmonic load can be found from h =h
∑h =1 max
IR
(4). Both of harmonic loss factor for eddy current loss and K-
2) Harmonics effect on eddy current losses factor are related to each other by the following equation:
Skin effect and proximity effect are producing winding eddy
h =h
current losses PEC. Winding eddy current losses are produced ∑h =1 max I h 2
K − Factor = FHL (21)
due to load current and harmonic frequency order. Load IR 2

current is time dependent and most of its amount is found

within the outer conductor layers, this phenomenon is known 3) Harmonics effect on other stray losses
The other stray losses are a function of load current and
as skin effect. Proximity effect is a phenomenon related to the
frequency; however it is vary with the square of RMS current
effects of alternating current of a conductor on the nearest one and the harmonic frequency to the power of 0.8:
or it is due to jumping of a magnetic field from a conductor to h=h Ih 2
POSL = POSL −R × ∑h=1 max h0.8 (22)
the nearest one[11]. As per IEEE standard C57.110-1998 [2], IR
it is introduced the definition of K-Factor for de-rating a According to IEEE Std. C57.110/D7-1998, the harmonic loss
transformer to withstand non-sinusoidal load current. factor for other stray losses can be defined from the following
equation [2]:
Designers introduced K-Factor transformers as special type h =h I 2
∑h =1 max h 0.8 h
transformers that can operate under harmonic loads up to the FHL −STR =
P OSL
=
IR
(23)
P OSL −R h =h Ih 2
name plate rating without overheating. K-Factor value can be ∑h =1 max
IR
calculated as follows: Consequentially, the other stray losses of a transformer
operating under nonlinear load POSL can be obtained with
multiplying rated other stray loss POSL-R by harmonic loss
factor, FHL.STR.

V. CALCULATION OF LOSSES AND RATING OF

TRANSFORMER OPERATING UNDER HARMONIC
LOADS
Operation of a transformer under nonlinear load will
reduce its output power due to increased losses and
temperature rise [17]. To solve this problem, the total
transformer losses under non-sinusoidal loads should be
limited and not exceed the value under sinusoidal load
conditions Or it can be said that for a transformer operating
under non linear load, the maximum permissible current can Fig.1. K-Factor vs. THDI
be calculated to be equal to the value of loss at hot spot
and the transformer operating under linear load, the
following equation can be used:
PLL −R (pu) = 1 + PEC −R + POSL −R (pu) (24)
Where: P LL-R (pu) is Rated per unit load losses, 1 is per unit
amount of dc losses, PEC.R is Eddy current loss, POSL-R (pu) is
per unit Other Stray loss in rated current. In oil filled
transformer, the total load power losses due to harmonic
loading can be expressed as follows [14]:
2
PLL-R (pu)=I (pu)×[1+ FHL PEC-R (pu)+FHL-STR POSL-R (pu)](25)
Hence, maximum permissible load current which can be used
for calculation of the reduced transformer apparent power can
be calculated from the following equation [15]:
P LL −R (pu )
Imax (pu) = (26)
[1+[F HL P EC −R (pu )]+[F HL −STR P OSL −R (pu )]
Fig.2. K-Factor vs. 5th % harmonic order
From (26), it is possible to calculate the maximum permissible
load current of transformer that is used for specifying the From Fig. 1, It is clear that K-Factor of a transformer is
transformer capability and for calculation of the reduced increased linearly with THDI. Also K-Factor rating is
increased linearly with 5th harmonic current component as
transformer apparent power due to operation under nonlinear shown in Fig. 2. From Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, it is possible to
load [14, 15]. conclude that, K-Factor have nearly the same curve with both
THDI% and 5th harmonic current component, that indicates
VI. CASES TUDY: MUBARAK PUMPING the 5th harmonic current component have nearly the same
STATION (MPS) effect of THDI% on assigning the value of K-Factor of
It is one of the biggest pumping stations in the world. The transformer [16].
station contains 21 units each unit consists of a pump and a Calculations of losses based on the two following strategies:
synchronous motor rated at 12 MW, the synchronous motor
1) Maximum permissible non-sinusoidal load current
works at variable speed via Load Commutated Inverter (LCI).
calculation using rated eddy current losses
Two transmission lines 220 kV connect Toshka (where MPS
The rated local loss density can be calculated from (24);
located) to the supply in Aswan. The measurements are taken
PLL-R(PU)=1.56439pu. The calculation of local loss density
by Hitachi Company. The results show the harmonics on 11
PLL to equal to PLL-R using normal loss eddy current equation
kV at the Point of Common Coupling conduction (PCC).
can be calculated using (25). Then, the value of RMS of
TABLE I. 25 MVA, 66/11 KV OF MPS TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS maximum permissible non-sinusoidal load current can be
Parameter Rating, W calculated from (26). Consequently the equivalent MVA can
No load losses 17,500 be calculated. The calculations are accomplished for two cases
Pdc losses (I2 Rdc ) 57,390 as:
PEC (eddy current losses) 106,90 - Without passive filter
POSL (other stray losses) 21,700 The maximum permissible non-sinusoidal load current
without using harmonic passive filter is PLL(pu) = 2.341787
PTSL (total stray losses) 32,393
pu. Therefore the additional losses calculated due to harmonic
Total losses at rated 107,633
current flowing through transformer is 134292.6 W. Then the can be calculated from (26). Consequently the equivalent
RMS of maximum permissible non-sinusoidal load current is: MVA can be calculated. The calculation will be done for two
Imax= 0.82 pu cases as follows:
Imax = 997.949 A
- Without passive filter
Equivalent MVA = 20.5 MVA
The loss density produced by the harmonic current in the
In this case the transformer capability with the given non-
region of highest eddy-current loss without using harmonic
sinusoidal load current and maximum local loss density is
passive filter is PLL= 4.9101122 pu. Therefore, the additional
approximately 82 % of its sinusoidal load current capability.
losses calculated due to harmonic current flowing through
Hence, "De-rating" or the capacity reduction under non-
transformer is 281,784.9 W.
sinusoidal current of transformer is 18 %.
Then, the RMS of maximum non-sinusoidal load current can
- With passive filter be calculated from (27) as follows:
The maximum permissible non-sinusoidal load current with Imax = 0.65 pu
using harmonic passive filter is PLL= 1.631185 pu Therefore, Imax = 791.057 pu
the additional losses calculated due to harmonic current Equivalent MVA = 16.25 MVA
flowing through transformer is 93545.7 W. Then the RMS of In this case the transformer capability with the given non-
maximum permissible non-sinusoidal load current is sinusoidal load current and maximum local loss density is
Imax = 0.98 pu approximately 65 % of its sinusoidal load current capability.
Imax = 1192.67 A Hence, "De-rating" or the capacity reduction under non-
Equivalent MVA = 24.5 MVA sinusoidal current of transformer is increased sharply to 35 %.
In this case the transformer capability with the given non-
- With passive filter
sinusoidal load current and maximum local loss density is
The loss density produced by the harmonic current in the
approximately 98 % of its sinusoidal load current capability.
region of highest eddy-current loss when using harmonic
Hence, "De-rating" or the capacity reduction under non-
passive filter is PLL= 2.33992 pu. Therefore, the additional
sinusoidal current of transformer is 2 % only.
losses calculated due to harmonic current flowing through
TABLE II. RESULTS OF MPS 25MVA TRANSFORMER WITH AND transformer are 134,292.6 W.
WITHOUT PASSIVE HARMONIC FILTER Then, the RMS of maximum non-sinusoidal load current can
Load characteristics Without With be calculated from (27) as follows:
passive filter passive filter Imax = 0.94 pu
∑ Ih 2 (pu) 1.00893 1.00026
K-Factor 4.95067 1.35083
Imax = 1143.99 A
THDi % 44.14 4.28 Equivalent MVA = 23.5 MVA
FHL( Eddy Current Harmonic 4.9509 1.350967 In this case the transformer capability with the given non-
Loss Factor) sinusoidal load current and maximum local loss density is
FHL_Stray (Stray Harmonic Loss 1.080422 1.00377
Factor)
approximately 94 % of its sinusoidal load current capability.
DC losses , Pdc 57,902.49 W 57,404.92 W So "De-rating" or the capacity reduction under non-sinusoidal
Other Stray losses , POSL 23,445.16 W 21,781.81 W current of transformer is 6 %.
D (De-rating of transformer) 0.82 0.98
Winding Eddy Current Losses, 71,490.03 W 14,440.47 W
PEC VII. CONCLUSION
Load Losses, PLL (pu) 2.341787 1.631185 This paper has presented calculations of K-Factor, no-load,
Additional losses due to and load transformer losses under harmonics. The calculations
harmonics 134,292.6 W 93,545.7 W based on two strategies; the first strategy is the maximum non-
sinusoidal load losses using rated eddy current losses with and
2) Maximum permissible non-sinusoidal load current without harmonic passive filter. The second strategy is the
calculation using maximum eddy current losses maximum non-sinusoidal load losses using maximum eddy
The maximum eddy current loss density is determined using current losses with and without harmonic passive filter. From
the IEEE C57.110-1998 standards as: the calculated results, it is found that the additional losses are
PEC −Max =
2.8 P EC −R
(27) reduced in the both strategies when using harmonic passive
1.5× I 2
LL −R ×R
2 filter. Also, the maximum permissible rated load current is
Hence, increased while, De-rating of transformer is reduced in the
PEC −Max = 0.70588 (pu) both strategies when using harmonic passive filter. However,
adding the passive harmonic filter to the system is considered
The maximum eddy current loss density is assumed to be in an effective technique for harmonic mitigation and alleviation
the region of winding hottest spot. The rated local loss density of harmonic losses effects upon transformers. In this paper the
is calculated from (24); PLL-R = 2.084 pu. The calculation of influence of nonlinear loads on transformer losses has
local loss density PLL to equal to PLL-R using normal loss eddy investigated according to conventional method (IEEE standard
current equation can be calculated using (25). Then, the value C57-110).
of RMS of maximum permissible non-sinusoidal load current
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