Modeling The Piston Casting With Filling and Solidification of Al Alloy in Permanent Mould Using Magma Simulation Software

A project report
On
“MODELING THE PISTON CASTING WITH FILLING AND
SOLIDIFICATION OF AL ALLOY IN PERMANENT MOULD
USING MAGMA SIMULATION SOFTWARE”
Is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
R.S.S.MANOJ KUMAR - (139Y1A03A0)
S.VENKAT PRAMOD REDDY - (139Y1A03A3) N.SHANKAR - (139Y1A0381)
M.VENKATA CHENNA KESAVA - (139Y1A0374) P.NAVEEN - (139Y1A0390)
Under the esteemed guidance of
SRI.K.SUDARSHAN KUMAR, M.Tech

Assistant Professor
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

K.S.R.M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to J.N.T.U.A, Anantapur)
(NBA Accredited, an ISO 9001-2000 certified institution)
KADAPA-516003(A.P)
(2016-2017)
K.S.R.M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, KADAPA
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuram)
(Accredited by NAAC of UGC)
(An ISO 9001:2008 & 14001:2004 Certified Institution)
Kadapa – 516003 (A.P)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project report entitled “MODELING THE PISTON
CASTING WITH FILLING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF AL ALLOY IN
PERMANENT MOULD USING MAGMA SIMULATION SOFTWARE”
is the bonafide project work and submitted by R.S.S.MANOJ KUMAR (139Y1A03A0),
S.VENKAT PRAMOD REDDY (139Y1A03A3), N.SHANKAR (139Y1A0381),
M.VENKATA CHENNA KESAVA (139Y1A0374) and P.NAVEEN (139Y1A0390).
For partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of “BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING” of the JNTU Ananthapuram
under my supervision and guidance during the academic year 2016-2017.
Project Guide: Head of the Department:

Sri. K.SUDARSHAN KUMAR, M Tech Dr. K. RAJA GOPAL, M Tech, Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor, Professor and H.O.D.,
Mechanical Engineering Department, Mechanical Engineering Department,
K.S.R.M College of Engineering, Kadapa. K.S.R.M College of Engineering, Kadapa.
Date: Internal Examiner External Examiner

MODELING THE PISTON CASTING USING MAGMA SIMULATION SOFTWARE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We take this opportunity to show our gratitude to everyone who has helped us with all the
technical and general guidance throughout, to complete project. We would like to express our
heart-felt gratitude to our parents whom we wouldn’t have been privileged to achieve and
fulfill our dreams.
We profoundly thank Sri K.Sudershan, Professor in MED who has been an excellent guide
and also great source of inspiration to our works. We are grateful to our head of department
of Mechanical Engineering, Dr.K.Rajgopal (K.S.R.M College of Engineering) who has had
the major hand in enabling us to do our project. We are very much thankful to
Dr.V.S.S.MURTHY, M.Tech PhD, principal, K.S.R.M College of Engineering, for his
consistent help and encouragement to complete the Project work. We wish to express our
gratitude to the Sri. K.S.N. REDDY, K.S.R.M College of Engineering, for providing
required support.
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of
the task would be great but incomplete without the mention of the people who made it
possible when their constant guidance and encouragements crowns all the efforts with
success. I would like to thank Ms.C. Usha kiranmai, Executive academy and D.Ashok
Kumar Application Engineer, Magma Engineering Asia Pacific pvt ltd, for their technical
support and suggestions in the development of project.
Thanking you,
R.S.S.MANOJ KUMAR
S.VENKAT PRAMOD REDDY
M.VENKATA CHENNA KESAVA
N.SHANKAR
P.NAVEEN
K.S.R.M.COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT 1
LIST OF TABLES & FIGURES 2
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 HISTORY OF CASTING 5
1.2 STEPS INVOLVED IN CASTING 8
1.3 TYPES OF CASTING 10
1.4 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING 19
1.5 GRAVITY DIE CASTING 21
1.6 ALLOWANCES 23
1.7 CASTING METALS 25
1.8 CASTING DEFECTS 29
2. LITERATURE SURVEY 35
3. ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS 39
4. MODELING OF CAST MODEL 41
5. INTRODUCTION TO MAGMA SOFTWARE 48
6. SIMULATION PROCEDURE
6.1 PROCESS SIMULATION CONCEPT 50
6.2 3D GEOMENTRY DETAILS 50
6.3 DEFINITION OF SIMULATION PARAMETERS 51
7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 53
8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
8.1 MOLD FILLING 58
8.2 CASTING SOLIDIFICATION 62
8.3 METALLOGRAPHY & MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 65
8.4 SUMMARY OF RESULTS 68
9. CONCLUSION 69
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY 70
K.S.R.M.COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MODELING THE PISTON CASTING USING MAGMA SIMULATION SOFTWAR
ABSTRACT
A simulation tool, in which the process of modeling a real phenomenon with a set of
numerical formulae was chosen. The Simulation Software allows the user to find the defects
in the casting prior to the actual shop floor experiment. It also helps to produce the Sound
Casting right at first time by conducting virtual trails as per the given specifications.
In wide range of simulation software’s MAGMASOFT is said to be the second

most accurate. Flexibility to import any type of CAD model with predesigned casting
components for which MAGMA mesh is to be applied, specify the casting parts with
different materials and defining process parameters followed by simulation, here after Filling
and Solidification with Metallography could be obtained. Thus the obtained results would
help to optimize the CAD model using Design of Experiments with various Objectives.
Today, MAGMASOFT is used worldwide in 1800 Foundry Industries, Specifically for the
optimization of cast model in automotive and heavy industry applications.
Every manufacturer encounters a lot of defects in foundry. In the project it is

carried out by using Piston model. MAGMASOFT is a virtual simulation software, for this a
3D Solid model using Pro-E the Piston is designed and imported it into MAGMA and
Solidification was done to find the Thermal Feed Modulus in order to decide the Feeder and
Runner size, next followed by Simulation the Filling and Solidification of molten metal in
GDC process was done. After analyzing these results it is concluded that to reduce defects in
macro level as well as in micro level it is mandatory to improve the quality of casting by
Simulating the Piston with more Iterations.
On the whole, it is not possible to achieve a 100% Sound casting. The objective
here is Simulation Software is not a replacement of Foundry men in fact it is a tool only to
give the indication of defects.
K.S.R.M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 1

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Tables
Table-1.1: Casting Related Terminology 7
Table-7.1 Moduli of some common shapes 56

Table 6.1: Defining Shop Floor Parameter 52
Table 8.1: List of Results 68
Figures
Fig 1.1 General casting process 10
Fig 1.2 Sand casting steps 11
Fig 1.3 Lost Foam casting steps 13
Fig 1.4 Investment casting steps 14
Fig 1.5 Die casting process 15
Fig 1.6 Ingot casting process 16
Fig 1.7 Centrifugal casting setup 17
Fig 1.8 Continuous casting process 19
Fig 1.9 Gravity Die casting process 22
Fig 1.10 Blow Hole defect 32
Fig 1.11 Scar defect 32
Fig 1.12 Scab defect 33
Fig 1.13 Penetration defect 33
Fig 1.14 Cold Shut defect 33
Fig 1.15 Mismatch defect 34
Fig 1.16 Misruns defect 34
Fig 1.17 Hot tear defect 34
Fig 4.1 PRO/ENGINEERING TOOLBARS 44
Fig 4.2 Sketcher part of piston 45
Fig 4.3 3D Model of Piston 45
K.S.R.M.COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 2

Fig 4.4 3D Model of Core 46
Fig 4.5 3D Model of Gating system with Spru 46
Fig 4.6 Assembly of Cast Model 47
Fig 6.1 Step by Step process in Magma 50
Fig 6.2 Importing of 3D Geometry 51
Fig 6.3 Defining AL Parameters 51
Fig 6.4 Defining Shop Floor Data 52

Fig 7.1 Feed Modules 54
Fig 7.2 Metal Utilization of feeders of various forms 55
Fig 7.3 Freezing times for plate-shaped casting in different alloys 57
Fig 8.1 Temperature Distribution during Mold Filing 58
Fig 8.2 Temperature scale from initial to liquidus temperatures 58
Fig 8.3 Absolute velocity result 59
Fig 8.4 Turbulence result 59

Fig 8.5 Air entrapments 60
Fig 8.6 Cast Length result 60
Fig 8.7 Representation of Material Age 61
Fig 8.8 Representation of Wall contact 61
Fig 8.9 Solidification Temperature scale 62
Fig 8.10 Representation of Fraction Liquid 62
Fig 8.11 Predictions of Isolated Zones 63
Fig 8.12 Predictions of Hot Spots 63

Fig 8.13 Porosity simulation result 64
Fig 8.14 Die Soldering 64
Fig 8.15 Eutectic Cell Size 65
Fig 8.16 Fraction of AlFeSi 65
Fig 8.17 Fraction of Eutectic Phase 66
Fig 8.18 Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing 66

Fig 8.19 Tensile Strength 67
Fig 8.20 Yield Strength 67

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 HISTORY OF CASTING
Since the evolution of mankind, man has used his intelligence and creative
instinct to develop things that will reduce his labour. He shaped bowls, tools and weapons out
of stones and wood which was naturally found in nature. With the passage of time he
discovered other element in nature like gold, silver and copper which were readily available
in nature in the form of nuggets. He melted and shaped this metal according to his desires. He
probably discovered gold pebbles with stone and copper from the copper bearing ores that
line the fire pits. He found it easy to melt the iron, copper and gold using the firewood and
charcoal, and hence in different ages iron and copper became the most profusely used natural
materials.
Evolution of casting process: Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, mercury and tin are
known as the ‘magnificent metals’ since they were known to man from ancient times. The
basic process of melting of metals in furnace, using patterns and solidifying the metal in
mould has remained the same. Some ancient techniques like the lost form techniques and bell
casting techniques are still religiously followed.
Furnace: The earliest furnaces are simple and easy to operate, with bee wax used for
patterns and bellows for blowing air into the furnace. In the Iron Age probably ceramic ovens
were used to melt the metals. Crucible and later flame ovens were available for the melting of
Copper, tin and alloys.
Molds: Different types of mold made from clay, wax and loam were known from the early
times. The lost form technique was also prevalently used from the early times.
Patterns: The first patterns of casting were made probably 4000 years in mesoptoamical
from bee wax. A frog casted in copper is the oldest living proof of intricate patterns used as
early as 3200 B.C. Core were also used to provide intricate to the interior of the cast.
Different Ages of Casting: According to Biblical records casting technology can be

traced back to 5000 BC. It is possible that metal casting technology, using moulds originated
in the Middle East. However, there are suggestions that this process may have been

developed in India and China. It is said that the first steel products were made in India in 500
B. C., but the process was lost. The earliest records of casting methodology are the writings
of monk Theophilus Presbyter in his book Schedule Divers arum Atrium. He has described in
detail the casting of the famous Pursue and Head of Medusa.
The Casting is a crucial factor that leads to the progress of each civilization. The important
ages of the prehistoric times is named after the metal that was prevalently used in that age.
Some of the important ages and the relevance of casting in those ages are described below:
» Copper Age (7700-3300): Stone age is followed by copper age in the prehistoric
times. Mankind found copper in the fires from copper-bearing ore that he lined his fire
pits. Copper found an instant liking with man because it can be melted and molded
into any desired form. So, using clay as mold and bee wax for pattern, he designed
household good, weapon and religious times. The earliest living proof of copper was
the weapon found with Ortiz, the oldest naturally preserved mummy from 33000 B.C.
Ortiz carried a copper axe which seems to have been metal worked by the worker of
his tribe. Archaeological evidence suggests that copper is among the earliest metals
used by humans. Numerous digs all over the world indicate that copper was used to
make utensils, jewelry, and weapons. Copper is highly ductile, meaning that it can be
easily worked and pulled into wire. For cultures which had minimal or crude
metalworking abilities, copper would have been easy to shape and work with.
» The Bronze Age: (3300-1200): Eventually, he learned that tin could be mixed
with copper to produce a stronger, durable and attractive metal which was called bronze.
He found bronze favorable because it could be use to make artifacts and tools like knife,
armor, pottery, that we more durable and harder. In the early part of the bronze age the
naturally found bronze alloy was used, which has arsenic as an impurity. Tin bronze
was used in the later part of the age, since it required sophisticated techniques to melt
and cast the products. Bronze age originated in Turkey, Iran and Iraq which are known
as the cradle of civilization.

» Iron Age (1200 BC onwards): Iron age brought the systematic production of
metals. The advent of this age in every culture was coincidental in changes in
agricultural practice, religious beliefs and cultural beliefs. The Chinese mastered the
technique in 1000 BC which they used for the mass production of cast tools and farm
equipment. In Europe, the first iron products were casted thousand years later, which
included gun-barrels and bullets.
» Industrial Age (18th Century Onwards): Also known as the age of technical
revolution this age saw rapid increased in the demand for casted products. Mass
production was made possible by the invention of new machines in this age. Iron casting
was used not only for the creation of decorative objects but was also for the production
of machined component and house hold articles. Demands increased tremendously for
steel castings with the development of the airplane industry, the commercialization of
automobile, mass production of consumer goods, etc.
RELATED TERMINOLOGIES:
Flask Frame made of wood or other material used to enclose the molding
material
Hot isostatic A manufacturing process used mostly for aluminum-copper series to

pressing reduce porosity of metals and to reduce the scatter in mechanical
properties.
Toolmaker Craftsman skilled in constructing casting dies and similar metal tooling.
Riser Riser or feeder is built in the mold to fill with molten material, so that
shrinkage that happens during solidification can be compensated.
Cope & Drag Top and bottom halves of pattern, flask, mold, or core.
Metallurgy Study of the physical and chemical properties of metals and their various.
Study is also one of the various applications that the metal can used for.
Salvaging of Methods like hot isostatic pressing are used to save discarded or damaged
Castings castings for further use.
Vents Provision provided in the mold for the escape of gas formed during the
casting process.

Eutectic Melting point of two more metals that are combined to form the alloy. The
temperature melting point depends on the relative proportions of its ingredients.
Eutectic Mixture of the constituting elements is such a proportion that all the
mixture constituting elements melt simultaneously at a local temperature
minimum.
Solidus Temperature at which melting begins.
Liquids Temperature when melting is complete.
Nucleation A mixture of liquid and substances like clay or plaster of Paris.
Slurry Thin mixture of liquid and fine substances such as clay or plaster of Paris.
Fatigue Cracking of metal because of repeatedly applying some kind of load or

Failure pressure to and from the metal component. For e.g. if a metallic needle in
bended back and forth for a number of time it will break.
Table 1.1: Casting Related Terminology
1.2 STEPS INVOIVED IN CASTING

The metal casting process has been divided into the following major operations
 Casting Geometry
 Patternmaking
 Core making
 Molding
 Melting and pouring
 Finishing
Casting Geometry:
The process is referred as the study of the geometry of parts and plans, so as to
improve the life and quality of casting.
Patternmaking
To create a casting mold, a manufacturer must first design a physical model. The process of

fabricating this model is called patternmaking. Using computer-assisted design (CAD)

systems, the manufacturer designs dimensions and geometry of a mold, and then packs an
aggregate material, such as sand, concrete or plastic, around the pattern. Once the pattern is
removed, the mold cavity in the sand can be filled.
Core making
Many part designs require the inclusion of cores in the casting mold. Cores are solid materials
placed inside the mold cavity to create interior surfaces of a casting. For example, a metal
pipefitting will require a cylindrical core inside the mold cavity to create the hollow
construction of the components interior.
Molding
At this point, the manufacturer can create the casting mold. A material such as sand, plaster
or wax is used in expendable mold casting, whereas metal and other durable materials are
used in non-expendable mold casting techniques. The material fills the casting mold model
and is allowed to harden, at which point the manufacturer removes it from the cavity and the
casting of the component can now begin.
Melting and Pouring

Metal must be properly melted prior to being placed in the mold. Typically, this is done by
using what is known as a crucible. Crucibles are containers made of porcelain or another
melt-resistance substance in which a manufacturer can heat a metal beyond its melting point.
Once properly melted, the molten metal is poured into the casting mold to cool and harden.
Finishing
Because metal can sometimes fill in cracks in a casting mold or sprues, the
pouring channel for the mold, manufacturers must often finish the metal following casting.
This can be accomplished through a variety of finishing techniques, including sanding,
grinding and buffing. Once proper appearance and surface texture has been achieved, further
post-treatment processes such as painting or electroplating may be necessary for some
applications.

Fig: 1.1 General Casting Process
1.3 TYPES OF CASTING PROCESS
 Sand casting
 Lost Foam Casting
 Investment Casting
 Die Casting
 Ingot Casting
 Centrifugal Casting
 Continuous Casting
1.3.1 SAND CASTING:
Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process
characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an
object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in
specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand
casting process.

Molds made of sand are relatively cheap, and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry
use. In addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with
the sand. The mixture is moistened, typically with water, but sometimes with other
substances, to develop the strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate
suitable for molding. The sand is typically contained in a system of frames or mold
boxes known as a flask. The mold cavities and gate system are created by compacting the
sand around models, or patterns, or carved directly into the sand.
Process:
There are six steps in this process:
1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.

2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.
Fig: 1.2 Sand Casting Steps

1.3.2 LOST FOAM CASTING:
Lost foam casting technique (LFC) is known by different generic and

propriety names like lost foam, evaporative pattern casting, evaporative foam casting, full
mold, etc. Similar to the full mold process, in this process the pattern evaporates when the
metal is poured into the mold. Originally, full mold process was referred
to as Lost Foam Casting. But, later the two processes were clearly differentiated by the use
unbounded dry silica in LFC while bonded sand was used in full mold process. This process
gained world famous, when General Motors first implemented it to manufacture 4.3L, V-6
diesel cylinder head, in 1981.
Process: Lost foam casting is a type of metal casting process that uses expendable foam
patterns to produce castings. Expanded polystyrene foam is used which melts when molten
metal is poured into the mold. Firstly, a pattern is made from
using a variety of methods. For small volume runs the pattern can be hand cut or machined
from a solid block of foam, if the designs are simple enough it can even be cut using a hot-
wire foam cutter. If the volume is large, then the pattern can be mass-produced
by a process similar to injection molding. Pre-expanded beads of polystyrene are injected or
blown into a preheated aluminum mold at low pressure. Injecting steam into the tooling
cavity expands the beads. The beads will flatten against the tool surface and stick to one
another. After cooling, the pattern is ejected from the tool. The final pattern is approximately
97.5% air and 2.5% polystyrene. Secondly, pouring basins, runners, and risers can be hot
glued to the patter to form the final pattern assembly. The assembly is then coated with
refractory coatings, which prevents the sand mold from breaking during the casting process.
Finally, when the coating dries, the cluster is placed into a flask and surrounded with
un-bonded sand. Sand is compacted around the pattern by vibrating the table. Molten metal is
poured into this tight mold either mechanically or using automatic pouring machine. No flash
is formed, since there is no draft or parting line is used.
Application: Lost foam casting is used mostly for automotive applications. Cast iron,
aluminum alloys, steels, nickel and in some cases stainless steel and copper alloys are cast in
this process. The flexibility of LFC is useful in making complicated casting assemblies for
automotive parts like cylinder heads, weldments, etc. This simple and inexpensive method is
used in hobby foundry work.

Fig: 1.3 Lost Foam Casting Steps
1.3.3 INVESTMENT CASTING:
Investment casting, the modern refine and hi-tech variety of the ancient
lost form casting, this process is used to build aircraft engines for civilian and military
purpose. Investment casting is the foremost casting techniques of modern days which are
based on lost form casting, one of the oldest casting techniques. This Modern form of lost
wax process was developed during wartimes when it was found practical for many wartime
needs. Later, with the growth of the civilian aircraft industry in the 1980's investment
casting was largely in demand. Today, powered with modern computer technology, robotics
and modern casting techniques, 15% of the world's industrial casting is produced by
investment casting method.
Process: A pattern is made is wax and a wax gating system is separately arranged for
investment casting. The pattern and gating system are assembled and dipped in slurry of
refractory coating material like tetra ethyl silicate, ethyl alcohol, hydrochloric acid, silica,
magnesia, etc. The pattern is placed upside down and supported by flask. Now the molding
mixture is poured around the pattern. The mold mixture is a combination of sand and
materials like alumina cement, ethylsilicate, etc.

The mold is placed in an inverted position and heated, which helps the wax that flow down to
be collected for reuse. A specific temperature is maintained in the mold for pouring of the
alloy and for helping preserve the intricate casting designs. When the wax completely melts
out, the void space is filled with molten metal. Burnout process helps in removing the wax
and gas-forming material formed in the mold.
Application: Jet propulsion for military and civilian aircrafts gave investment casting the
foremost status in the casting industry. From heavy casting of 300Kg to small casting of 30
kg, this casting method is used for as wide for hi-tech industrial applications. This process is
more expensive than sand casting in terms of the casting techniques, but the equipment is
relatively cheaper. But still, investment casting is largely relied on for complicated designs
that cannot be casted using any other method. Investment casting finds widespread
application in spacecraft, jet engines, etc. Though this industry is heavily depended on the
aircraft industry, it is find our new field of application to broaden its horizon.
Fig: 1.4 Investment Casting Steps
1.3.4 DIE CASTING:
Die casting is a widespread non-expendable technique the which metal are forced
into the mold cavity under high pressure. Die casting mold that are known as dies can be used
repeatedly to produce castings in a variety of sizes, shapes and wall thickness. The mold
cavities are designed with intricate designs that enables in producing complex shapes with
accuracy, surface finish and attractiveness. Today, the die casting process is constantly
getting refined by improving the alloys and the casting process.

Process: In the die casting process molten metal or other materials are forced, under high
pressure into the cavities of the steel mold. Dies are two part molds that are made of alloy
tool steel, the fixer die half and the ejector die half. The die or mold is fabricated with the
impression of the component that is to cast. There are four types of dies:
 Single cavity to produce one component

 Multiple cavity to produce a number of identical parts
 Unit die to produce different parts at one time
 Combinations die to produce several different parts for an assembly
The molten metal is injected into the die under high pressure and high speed, which helps in
producing a casting that is smooth and precise as the original mold. The pressure is
maintained on the mold until the hot metal solidifies. When the metal is hardened, the die is
opened to remove the casting.
There are several variations on the basic process that can be used to produce castings for
specific applications. These include:
 Squeeze casting - A method by which molten alloy is cast without turbulence and gas
entrapment at high pressure to yield high quality, dense, heat treatable components.
 Semi-solid molding - A procedure where semi-solid metal billets are cast to provide
dense, heat treatable castings with low porosity.
Fig: 1.5 Die Casting Process
Application: Die casting is most suitable for casting medium sized parts with complex
details. Die-casting is the largest casting technique that is used to manufacture consumer,

commercial and industrial products like automobiles, toys, parts of sink faucet, connector
housing, gears, etc. Most die castings are done from non-ferrous metals like aluminum,
magnesium, etc.
1.3.5 INGOT CASTING:
An ingot is a piece of relatively pure material, usually metal, that is cast into a
shape suitable for further processing. In steelmaking, it is the first step among semi-finished
casting products. Ingots usually require a second procedure of shaping, such as cold/hot
working, cutting, or milling to produce a useful final product. Non-metallic and
semiconductor materials prepared in bulk form may also be referred to as ingots, particularly
when cast by mold based methods. Precious metal ingots can be used as or as a currency
reserve, as with gold bars.
Process: Ingots are manufactured by the freezing of a molten liquid (known as the melt) in a
mold. The manufacture of ingots has several aims. Firstly, the mold is designed to completely
solidify and form an appropriate grain structure required for later processing, as the structure
formed by the freezing melt controls the physical properties of the material. Secondly, the
shape and size of the mold is designed to allow for ease of ingot handling and downstream
processing. Finally the mold is designed to minimize melt wastage and aid ejection of the
ingot, as losing either melt or ingot increases manufacturing costs of finished products.
Fig: 1.6 Ingot Casting Process

1.3.6 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING:
Centrifugal casting or rotocasting is a casting technique that is typically

used to cast thin-walled cylinders. It is used to cast such materials as metal, glass, and
concrete. It is noted for the high quality of the results attainable, particularly for precise
control of their metallurgy and crystal structure. Unlike most other casting techniques,
centrifugal casting is chiefly used to manufacture stock materials in standard sizes for further
machining, rather than shaped parts tailored to a particular end-use.
Process: In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated continuously about its axis at
high speeds (300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal is poured. The molten metal is
centrifugally thrown towards the inside mold wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The
casting is usually a fine-grained casting with a very fine-grained outer diameter, owing to
chilling against the mould surface. Impurities and inclusions are thrown to the surface of the
inside diameter, which can be machined away.
Casting machines may be either horizontal or vertical-axis. Horizontal axis machines are
preferred for long, thin cylinders, vertical machines for rings.
Most castings are solidified from the outside first. This may be used to encourage directional
solidification of the casting, and thus give useful metallurgical properties to it. Often the inner
and outer layers are discarded and only the intermediary columnar zone is used.
Centrifugal casting was the invention of Alfred Krupp, who used it to manufacture cast
steel tires for railway wheels in 1852
Fig: 1.7 Centrifugal Casting Setup

Application: Typical parts made by this process are pipes, flywheels, cylinder liners and
other parts that are axi-symmetric. It is notably used to cast cylinder liners and sleeve
valves for piston engines, parts which could not be reliably manufactured otherwise .
1.3.7 CONTINUOUS CASTING:
Continuous casting is the process whereby a molten metal solidifies into

continuous forms of strips and billets that can be further worked upon in the finishing mills.
These "semi finished" billet, bloom, or slab is casted by using open ended mold and water
spray technique. The continuous casting process was developed only in 1950, before that
steel was poured into a stationary mold to form 'ingots'.
Sir Henry Bessemer, the inventor of Bessemer converter got the patent for casting the metal
between two contra rotating rollers. This casting process helps in eliminating many steps in
the casting process like ingot teeming, stripping, primary rolling, etc. To now this method is
used to casting steel strips.
Process: A seemingly simple process, the continuous casting is a technically sophisticated

process that could be developed properly only 50 years ago, while the casting industry has a
history of more than 5000 years old. In continuous casting, molten metal is poured into an
open-ended mold that can be made of graphite or copper. Graphite molds are widely used
both in vertical and horizontal continuous casting. Most molds are made from isostatically
pressed graphite. However, extruded graphite molds can also be used for vertical casting of
large ingots.
The metal is first melted in a furnace and poured into a ladle. From the ladle the hot metal is
transferred into the tundish. The hot metal is poured into the continuous casting machine
from the tundish. The mold is water cooled. When the hot metal is poured into the furnace,
the metal near the walls cools first forming a skin like thin strip, while the metal at the inside
is still molten.
The thin shell like solidified metal withdraws from the mold and passes through a
straightening roller. In the chamber the strand is water sprayed which prevents porosity. The
thin strip, now called a strand, rolls on a rotating roller. After solidification, predetermined

lengths of strands are cut into pieces using mechanical shears or travelling oxyacetylene
torches. The cast sizes are called strips, billets, slabs etc.
Continuous casting can be better controlled by making the process automated. The two
common types of continuous casting are horizontal and vertical continuous casting. Long
shapes of simple cross section like round, square and hexagonal rods can be done in a short,
bottomless, water cooled metal mold.
Fig: 1.8 Continuous Casting Process
Application: A great tonnage of continuous casting is done using cast steel. Other metals
that are continuous casting are copper, aluminum, grey cast irons, white cast irons, aluminum
bronzes, oxygen-free copper, etc. Metals are cast as ingot for rolling, extrusion, or forging,
and long shapes of simple cross section are cast as round, square, hexagonal rods, etc.
1.4 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING
Introduction: Permanent mold casting is the process in which the molds are made of
metals like cast iron or steel. This casting technique is favored because mass production of
castings can be done in a single run, thus helping in reducing manufacturing expenditure. In
addition, permanent mold casting is an in expendable casting process, can be fully automated.

Process: In permanent mold casting molds are made of metals but the patterns can be made
either of sand or metals. The molds are made using metals like cast iron or steel. These metal
molds expand on heating or when hot metal is poured into it. Therefore, while making the
mold, it is not expanded as is done with sand and plaster molds. But, care must be taken to
maintain the thermal balance during the casting process.
Metals are poured over the patterns to shape them into the required mold shapes. Unlike sand
and plaster molds, permanent molds are not flexible to all types of patterns. Once the mold is
set, the pattern is drawn out to reveal the coarse mold cavity. These cavities are to be
machined to be made smooth. Cavity is then coated with a layer of refractory materials like
clay or sodium silicate that makes the mold cavity heat resistant, allows easy ejection of the
casting and increases the life of the mold. Machined gates are then attached to the mold.
For casting, the mold is first preheated and molten metal poured into the cavity and solidified.
Once the metal is set, it is removed from the mold and the permanent mold is closed again to
repeat the casting process. The casts take a week’s time to solidify.
Types of Permanent Molds: Gravity Permanent Mold: It the flow of the metal into the
mold using the force of gravity. Gravity pouring is of two types: static pouring where the
molten metal is poured from the top and; tilted pouring where the mold is slanted and the
metal is poured into the mold using a basin. Gravity permanent mold casting produces
accurate casting than shell mold castings.
Low-Pressure permanent Mold: In this process only very little amount of forces is
used to push the metal into the mold. Low-pressure permanent mold casting process enables
producing uniform castings with excellent dimensional accuracy, perfect surface finish and
superior mechanical properties.
Applications: Permanent mold casting process is used to cast products from iron,
aluminum, magnesium, and copper based alloys. Typical permanent mold casting
components include gears, splines, wheels, gear housings, pipe fittings, fuel injection
housings, and automotive engine pistons, timing gears, impellers, compressors, pump parts,
marine hardware, valve bodies, aircraft parts and missile components.

Advantages:
 Suitable for high volume casting ceramic.

 Quality of heavier casting improves with better use of tooling's and equipment.
 Casted products have better tensile strength and elongation than sand castings.
 Mass productions can be done is a single production run, which reduces the
manufacturing cost.
 Products have excellent mechanical properties.
1.5 GRAVITY DIE CASTING
Gravity die casting or permanent mould casting as the name suggests is a

process wherein the liquid metal is poured into metallic moulds without application of any
external pressure. The liquid metal enters the cavity by gravity. Gravity die casting (GDC) is
different from High Pressure Die Casting (HPDC), where the liquid metal is injected into the
metal mould under very high pressures for production of thin walled smaller castings with
better dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
In the design of dies for GDC, usage of “cores” is an important issue. The
undercuts and the hollow shapes are produced with the help of additional mould parts called
“cores”. For simple shapes without any under cuts the metallic cores could be used, whereas
for undercuts and complex hollow shapes, which are difficult to retract, sand or plaster of
Paris cores are employed. The gravity die casting process is suitable for high volume
production of non-ferrous alloy castings of Aluminum, Magnesium, Copper and Zinc base
alloys and to limited extent fore cast iron castings. Castings can be manufactured by
operation of dies manually or by automatic devices or through die casting machines
depending on the quantum of production. The die materials used are gray cast iron and steels.
Typical economical volume of production is around 75,000-1, 00,000 pieces per die. After
this the die wear causes component integrity to be lost. The economical volume of production
of castings per die will be around 75,000 pieces.
The GDC process has several advantages. The process is suitable for mass
production with better reproduction; dimensional accuracy and surface finish than
conventional sand castings. A minimum wall thickness of 3.0 mm can be cast. Exceptionally,
2mm wall thickness is cast over small areas.

Castings ranging from few grams to ~100 Kgs of Aluminum alloy can be
cast. There are reports of some foundries producing cylinder blocks of around 300 Kgs by
GDC. As the component size and complexity increases the process becomes more expensive
and becomes uneconomical. It will also cause difficulty in handling the die and in extracting
the casting from the die with reduction in dimensional accuracy and soundness of the casting.
The GDC process is capable of achieving 20% higher mechanical properties

than that of a sand casting because of faster rate of solidification imparting better grain size.
The process can be automated and also can produce semi-gravity die-castings employing
sand or plaster of Paris cores for production of interior details.
Fig: 1.9 Gravity Die Casting Process
Advantages:
 Good dimensional accuracy

 Smoother cast surface finish than sand casting
 Improved mechanical properties compared to sand casting
 Thinner walls can be cast compared to sand casting
 Reverse draft internal pockets and forms can be cast in using preformed sand core inserts
 Steel pins and inserts can be cast in to the part

 Faster production times compared to other processes.

 Once the tolling is proven, the product quality is very repeatable.
 Outsourced Tooling setup costs can be lower than UK sand casting.
1.6 ALLOWANCES
Allowances are very important in design of pattern. Although the pattern is used to produce a
casting of required dimensions. it is never kept dimensionally identical with that of casting. A
pattern is always longer in size as compared to the final casting. Because it carries certain
allowances due to metallurgical and mechanical reasons.
Patterns are not made to the correct sizes of the castings this extra sizes given on the pattern
is called "pattern allowance". Pattern allowances given for the purpose of compensating the
metal shrinkage, to provide extra metal for machining, to avoid metal distortion and for easy
withdrawal of pattern from mould and for rapping. If allowances are not given on the pattern,
the casting will become smaller under size.
The various types of pattern allowances are
1. Shrinkage allowances or contraction allowances.
2. Machining allowances or finish allowances.
3. Draft allowances or taper allowances.
4. Distortion allowances or camber allowances.
5. Rapping allowances or shake allowances.
1.6.1 Shrinkage allowances:-
When molten metal is poured into the mould it will solidify and cool. During cooling the
metal will shrink and reduced in size to compensate this pattern is made longer than the
required casting. This extra size given on the pattern for metal shrinkage is called "shrinkage
allowance".
If shrinkage allowance is not given, the casting will become smaller. Shrinkage allowances
for various metals are

Cast iron, malleable iron 10mm/m
Steel 20mm/m
Brass, copper, Al 15mm/m
Zinc, lead 25mm/m.
1.6.2 Machining or finished allowances:-
All the castings are to be machined to finish the rough surface and to remove excess metal.
For this purpose the pattern is made larger than the required casting this extra size added to
the pattern for machining purpose is called “machining or finished allowance”. In general a
machining allowance of 3 mm is given for ferrous metals Iron & steel. For non ferrous metals
like Brass and Aluminium machining allowances of 1.5 mm is given.
1.6.3 Draft Allowances:-
When a pattern is removed from the mould the edges of the mould
may be damaged. This can be avoided by giving a taper on the vertical sides of the pattern is
called “draft or taper allowance “.
The draft usually given in each case depends upon a
1. Length of the vertical side.
2. Intricacy of the pattern.
3. Method of moulding.
1.6.4 Distortion or camber allowance:-
Some castings, because of their shape and size may wrap or distort during cooling. This is
due to uneven metal thickness. To avoid this shape of the pattern is slightly bent in the
opposite direction. For example, a casting of U-shape may distort and the lefts become
divergent, instead of being parallel. To avoid this, the legs are slightly bent convergent. So
after cooling, the legs will become parallel and correct.

1.6.5 Rapping allowance:
Before removing the pattern from the mould, the pattern is shake side to side. This is called
rapping. So the mould cavity may become large. To avoid this pattern is made slightly small.
This allowance given on the pattern is called Rapping allowance. This is a negative
allowance.
1.7 CASTING METALS

Introduction:
The discovery of metals was the stepping stone towards civilization. The metal
are known to man form the pre biblical times and different civilizations used the metal to
make products for religious, hunting, weapon, house hold and ornamental purpose. Now, man
is dependent on metal for cooking to traveling. A separate department called the metallurgy
studies the entire process of working the metals for various applications.
Pure metal are chimerical element, which cannot be further broken down into other
substance. There are hundreds of such substances, of which some are found in the free stare
and other are found in combination with silicon or other elements. Metals are generally shiny,
strong, hard, brittle and good conductors of electricity. But, they have varying amount of each
properties. Some metal like mercury are found in the liquid state on the other hand metals
like lithium are very heavy.
Each element has its own characteristics according to which they can be used for different
purposes. Some are malleable which means they can be stretched and pulled while other is
ductile which means that they can be hammered and squeezed.
Metalworking Process: The main process involved in extracting the ore is to melt the
ore by heating. Some ores are found relatively pure in nature and others are to be extracted
from the complex ores. Different methods are used to remove the impurities like pounding
the metal to chip of the impurities or by reshaping the raw ores. However, the predominantly
used method is of melting the ores and separating the metal from the other elements. The
removal of impurities can be done two times. First, when the ingot is made near the mines
and the second time when the intro is melted for reworking at the craft production sits away
from the source of the ore. When the metal is melted at a high temperature the molten metal

gets deposited in the bottom and the impurities better known as slag floats on the top. The
process of removing the metal from the impurities is known as smelting. After which the
extracted metal is shaped into blocks or bars that is known as ingots so that it is easy for
storage, transportation and further processes. Example of smelting is when copper or is
reduced to copper through mixing carbon with the ore and heating the combination. Casting
and forging are the most widely used method for shaping the metals into different products.
Forging: Forging also known as hammering method, forging are of two types hot
hammering and cold hammering methods. Softer metals like copper and bronze can be
shaped into weapon or other items by just hammering. But metal like irons are to be heated so
they are soft enough to be shaped into the required form. When the metal is heated the
crystalline structure in weakened, therefore the finished product e.g. sword in plunged into
water so that the crystal structure is restored and the product becomes hard.
Casting: The most widely used metalworking method; casting can be done only if the metal
is completely melted. Therefore, iron came later into use, because iron cannot be melted at
ordinary temperature and other sophisticated methods are required to melt it. From the
prebiblical time lost wax techniques was prevalently used and even today in some part of
India this technique is used to cast bronze product like idols and statues.
Alloys: Metals in its pure state generally does not satisfy the properties required for casting.
Hence, in most cases metal have to combine with other element so that they acquire favorable
qualities for the product like strength, ductility, malleability, etc. In an alloy, two or metal
combine to form a new metal that has all the properties required for a particular application.
Aluminum for instance is light in weight but soft and ductile. When aluminum is combined
with other metals, the alloy formed is still light weight, but stronger, harder and resistant to
corrosion. The realization of the wide application of alloys was the main reason for the
industrial revolution.
The alloying process: The process of alloying helps in bettering the physical properties
of the main metal that is used like iron and steel. During the alloying process the main
changes happens in the engineering properties like ductility and malleability and to some
extent in physical properties like density, reactivity, etc. The scientific reason behind the
change is properties in because the smaller atoms are tightly compressed by the forces of the

larger atoms. Since the alloy is a mixture of two or more metals it does not have a single
melting point. There is a melting range, which is known as the liquidus point in the metal
melts.
Metals used for alloying: Alloys can be made of one or more metals. The main metals
used are aluminum, copper, iron etc. and the alloying metals used with them are tin, zinc,
molybdenum, etc. In many cased the alloy is better known by the main material metal that it
constitutes of. For e.g. an iron rod is made from an alloy but it is known by the name of its
main component iron. The metals and alloys used for metal casting are broadly divided into
ferrous metals and alloy that contain iron, and non ferrous metals and alloys that does not
contain iron.
Ferrous Metals
Some common ferrous metals include alloy steel, carbon steel, cast iron and wrought iron.
These metals are prized for their tensile strength and durability. Carbon Steel – also known as
structure steel – is a staple in the construction industry and is used in the tallest skyscrapers
and longest bridges. Ferrous metals are also used in shipping containers, industrial piping,
automobiles, railroad tracks, and many commercial and domestic tools.
Ferrous metals have a high carbon content which generally makes them vulnerable to
rust when exposed to moisture. There are two exceptions to this rule: wrought iron resists rust
due to its purity and stainless steel is protected from rust by the presence of chromium.
Most ferrous metals are magnetic which makes them very useful for motor and electrical
applications. The use of ferrous metals in your refrigerator door allows you to pin your
shopping list on it with a magnet.
Steel:
Steel is made by adding iron to carbon which hardens the iron. Alloy steel becomes even
tougher as other elements like chromium and nickel are introduced. Steel is made by heating
and melting iron ore in furnaces. The steel can is tapped from the furnaces and poured into
molds to form steel bars. Steel is widely used in the construction and manufacturing
industries.

Carbon Steel:
Carbon steel has higher carbon content in comparison to other types of steel making it
exceptionally hard. It is commonly used in the manufacturing of machine tools, drills, blades,
taps, and springs. It can keep a sharp cutting edge.
Alloy Steel:
Alloy steels incorporate elements such as chromium, nickel and titanium to impart greater
strength and durability without increasing weight. Stainless steel is important alloy steel
made using chromium. Alloy steels are used in construction, machine tools, and electrical
components.
Cast Iron:
Cast iron is an alloy made from iron, carbon, and silicon. Cast iron is brittle and hard and
resistant to wear. It’s used in water pipes, machine tools, automobile engines and stoves.
Wrought Iron:
Wrought iron is an alloy with so little carbon content it’s almost pure iron. During the
manufacturing process, some slag is added which gives wrought iron excellent resistance to
corrosion and oxidation; however, it is low in hardness and fatigue strength. Wrought iron is
used for fencing and railings, agricultural implements, nails, barbed wire, chains, and various
ornaments.
Non-Ferrous Metals:
Non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, lead, zinc and tin, as well as precious metals
like gold and silver. Their main advantage over ferrous materials is their malleability. They
also have no iron content, giving them a higher resistance to rust and corrosion, and making
them ideal for gutters, liquid pipes, roofing and outdoor signs. Lastly they are non-magnetic,
which is important for many electronic and wiring applications.

Aluminium:
Aluminium is lightweight, soft and low strength. Aluminium is easily cast, forged, machined
and welded. It’s not suitable for high-temperature environments. Because aluminum is
lightweight, it is a good choice for the manufacturing of aircraft and food cans. Aluminium is
also used in castings, pistons, railways, cars, and kitchen utensils.
Copper:
Copper is red in color, highly ductile, malleable and has high conductivity for electricity and
heat. Copper is principally used in the electrical industry in the form of wire and other
conductors. It’s also used in sheet roofing, cartridge cases, statutes, and bearings. Copper is
also used to make brass, an alloy of copper and zinc.
Lead:
Lead is a soft, heavy, malleable metal with a low melting point and low tensile strength. It
can withstand corrosion from moisture and many acids. Lead is widely used in electrical
power cables, batteries, building construction and soldering.
Zinc:
Zinc is a medium to low strength metal with a very low melting point. It can be machined
easily, but heating may be required to avoid cleavage of crystals. Zinc is most widely used in
galvanizing, the process of applying a protective zinc coating to iron or steel to prevent rust.
1.8 CASTING DEFECTS
A casting defect is an undesired irregularity in a metal casting process. Some defects can be
tolerated while others can be repaired, otherwise they must be eliminated.
1.8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS:
There are many classifications of defects which result from many different causes. Some of
the solutions to certain defects can be the cause for another type of defect.

The following defects can occur in sand castings. Most of these also occur in other casting
processes.
Shrinkage defects:
Shrinkage defects can occur when standard feed metal is not available to compensate
for shrinkage as the thick metal solidifies. Shrinkage defects can be split into two different
types: open shrinkage defects and closed shrinkage defects. Open shrinkage defects are open
to the atmosphere, therefore as the shrinkage cavity forms air compensates. There are two
types of open air defects: pipes and caved surfaces. Pipes form at the surface of the casting
and burrow into the casting, while caved surfaces are shallow cavities that form across the
surface of the casting.
Closed shrinkage defects, also known as shrinkage porosity, are defects that form within the
casting. Isolated pools of liquid form inside solidified metal, which are called hot spots. The
shrinkage defect usually forms at the top of the hot spots. They require a nucleation point, so
impurities and dissolved gas can induce closed shrinkage defects. The defects are broken up
into macroporosity and microporosity (or microshrinkage), where macroporosity can be seen
by the naked eye and microporosity cannot.
Gas porosity:
Gas porosity is the formation of bubbles within the casting after it has cooled. This occurs
because most liquid materials can hold a large amount of dissolved gas, but the solid form of
the same material cannot, so the gas forms bubbles within the material as it cools. Gas
porosity may present itself on the surface of the casting as porosity or the pore may be
trapped inside the metal, which reduces strength in that vicinity.
Nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen are the most encountered gases in cases of gas porosity. In
aluminum castings, hydrogen is the only gas that dissolves in significant quantity, which can
result in porosity. For castings that are a few kilograms in weight the pores are usually 0.01 to
0.5 mm (0.00039 to 0.01969 in) in size. In larger casting they can be up to a millimeter
(0.040 in) in diameter.
To prevent gas porosity the material may be melted in a vacuum, in an environment of low-
solubility gases, such as argon or carbon dioxide, or under a flux that prevents contact with
the air. To minimize gas solubility the superheat temperatures can be kept low. Turbulence
from pouring the liquid metal into the mold can introduce gases, so the molds are often

streamlined to minimize such turbulence. Other methods include vacuum degassing, gas
flushing, or precipitation. Precipitation involves reacting the gas with another element to form
a compound that will form dross that floats to the top. For instance, oxygen can be removed
from copper by adding phosphorus; aluminum or silicon can be added to steel to remove
oxygen
Pouring metal defects:
Pouring metal defects include misruns, cold shuts, and inclusions. A misrun occurs when the
liquid metal does not completely fill the mold cavity, leaving an unfilled portion. Cold shuts
occur when two fronts of liquid metal do not fuse properly in the mold cavity, leaving a weak
spot. Both are caused by either a lack of fluidity in the molten metal or cross-sections that are
too narrow. The fluidity can be increased by changing the chemical composition of the metal
or by increasing the pouring temperature. Another possible cause is back pressure from
improperly vented mold cavities.
Misruns and cold shuts are closely related and both involve the material freezing before it
completely fills the mold cavity. These types of defects are serious because the area
surrounding the defect is significantly weaker than intended. The cast ability and viscosity of
the material can be important factors with these problems. Fluidity affects the minimum
section thickness that can be cast, the maximum length of thin sections, fineness of feasibly
cast details, and the accuracy of filling mold extremities. There are various ways of
measuring the fluidity of a material, although it usually involves using a standard mould
shape and measuring the distance the material flows. Fluidity is affected by the composition
of the material, freezing temperature or range, surface tension of oxide films, and, most
importantly, the pouring temperature. The higher the pouring temperature, the greater the
fluidity; however, excessive temperatures can be detrimental, leading to a reaction between
the material and the mold; in casting processes that use a porous mould material the material
may even penetrate the mould material.
The point at which the material cannot flow is called the coherency point. The point is
difficult to predict in mold design because it is dependent on the solid fraction, the structure
of the solidified particles, and the local shear strain rate of the fluid. Usually this value ranges
from 0.4 to 0.8.

Metallurgical defects:
There are two defects in this category: hot tears and hot spots. Hot tears, also known as hot
cracking, are failures in the casting that occur as the casting cools. This happens because the
metal is weak when it is hot and the residual stresses in the material can cause the casting to
fail as it cools. Proper mold design prevents this type of defect.
Hot spots are areas on the surface of casting that become very hard because they cooled more
quickly than the surrounding material. This type of defect can be avoided by proper cooling
practices or by changing the chemical composition of the metal.
1.8.2 Types of casting defects

1. Blow Hole:
It is a gas hole or gas cavity which is occurs at the surface or the internal part of casting. It is
due to gas interrupted into the casting due to poor ventilation. Mostly it is occur at surface
which makes a circular of oval shape gas hole. These defects can be seen after machining of
surface.
These defect cause due to improper venting system, excessive gas or moisture contain and
due to low permeability of sand and high temperature of sand. It is also due to low pouring
temperature of metal.
Fig: 1.10 Blow Hole Defect

2. Scar:
Scar is generally occurring at flat surface and it is due to improper venting or permeability of
sand. The blow is covered by the thin layer of metal.
Fig: 1.11 Scar Defect

3. Scab:
This is also known as slag inclusion of sand inclusion. This is look like as slag inside the cast
and very difficult to remedy because generally it does not occur at single point. This defect
generally occurs due to defective mould or core, low binding strength of moulding material
or sand. It is also due to low permeability of sand.
Fig: 12 Scab Defect
4. Penetration:
This defect occurs when fluidity of molten metal is high. When mould is porous and does not
enough stronger to resist molten metal, this defect occur. The liquid metal penetrates the
mould and mix with sand. This gives uneven casting surface.
Fig: 1.13 Penetration Defect

5. Cold shut:
It is the basic defect which generally occurs. It is occur when the molten metal flow through
two different paths. When the two stream of molten metal comes in contact and solidify
before they mix completely, some bubbles form between them. This phenomenon is known
as cold shut. It is also known as cold lap.
Fig: 1.14 Cold Shut Defects

6. Mismatch:
It is defect due to mismatch of cope and drag. It is also known as shift. When the cope shift
relative to drag known as mold shift and when drag shift known as cope shift. It is due to the
bouncy of the molten metal, loose box pins etc.
Fig: 1.15 Mismatch Defect

7. Misruns:
Misruns are a phenomenon when the cast materials solidify before the proper filling of
mould, this results presence of incomplete cavity filling. It is due to too thin wall thickness,
improper gating system, slow pouring, damaged pattern and poor fluidity of molten metal.
Fig: 1.16 Misruns Defect

8. Hot tear:
A hot tear or crack is generally not visible because the casting has not separated into
fragments. This is occurring due to uneven cooling and improper position of chills. This is
generally occur where abrupt section change. This is occurring during solidification of
casting when the solid portion has not sufficient strength to resist tensile force.
Fig: 1.17 Hot Tear Defect

Chapter 2
Literature Survey
Solidification Simulation:
The solidification process involves the transformation of the hot liquid metal to solid and then
subsequent cooling of the solid to the room temperature. Solidification of molten metal after
being poured into a mold cavity is an important phase in the casting process which greatly
affects the product quality and yield. During the past two decades, computer modeling of
solidification simulation has been widely used in foundry with an aim to:
 Predict the pattern of solidification, including shrinkage cavities and associated defect
predictions.
 Perform over a range of ferrous metals like steel, grey iron, ductile iron, nonferrous
metals like aluminum, copper etc. to precious metals like gold, silver etc.
 Simulate solidification in various orientation of casting, with various metal-process
combinations, so that optimal position can be selected.
 Provide the choice of the quality level like amount of porosity to tolerate, thereby
producing castings in an acceptable range of quality.
Mathematical Modeling
The field variables are the temperatures at all nodal points varying with time. Thermal
properties like thermal conductivity, density, specific heat are also varying with temperature
and hence the problem becomes non-linear transient in nature. The governing equation of
heat conduction in a moving fluid is given as
In this expression Q represents the rate of heat generation, u, v, w are the velocities in the
directions x, y, and z respectively. K, ρ, c are thermal conductivity, density and specific heat
respectively. The heat flow should also satisfy boundary conditions, which may be specified

as constant temperature at boundary or as known temperature gradient normal to the

boundary-specifying surface. In solidification of casting, Q is zero.
Where, S1 and S2 represent the portions of boundary on which these two boundary
conditions are specified. On application of these boundary conditions the governing equation
reduces to:
Where, T and q are temperature and heat flux respectively. Initial condition gives information
of temperature at starting time. Boundary condition in different regions (solid-liquid
interface, casting-mold interface and outer surface of mold) is calculated by using energy
balance.
Physics Based Solidification Analysis
The major approaches used to solve solidification problems are finite difference, finite
element methods. In finite difference method assumption is made that material property does
not vary with temperature and then the transient heat conduction equation becomes (Kreith,
1980).
In this method the casting and mold regions are subdivided into small intervals of constant
space and time and the equation is solved by explicit finite difference method. In finite
element method, variational approach method and weighted residue method are used to solve
the problem of heat flow. In variational approach method a function is needed and
minimization of this function is equivalent to solving the governing equation of the problem.

In weighted residual method the metal is assumed to be in complete contact with the mold
surface (no air gap is formed) and it is also assumed that metal property does not vary in a
particular element because it is very small. Again the transient heat conduction equation is
shown in above equation. Boundary conditions are same as discussed in mathematical
modeling of solidification analysis. Solving above equation by weighted residue method
gives nodal temperatures at the metal and mold node.
Geometry Based Modeling
The other approach of analyzing solidification simulation is based on the geometry of part.
This includes vector element method, which is described below:
Vector Element Method
This method determines feed path and location of hot spot inside the casting, which uses the
direction of the largest thermal gradient at any point inside a casting to move along a path
which leads to a hot spot (a local maxima of temperature with gradients tending to zero).
Figure 2.5: Isothermal contours & temperature gradients (Ravi, 2010)
Figure 2.5 shows iso-solidification contours for a stepped casting section, where Ti is
temperature associated with a Pi (point on the contour), G is largest temperature gradient at
Pi. Region where gradients tend to zero represent the location of the hot spot Ph. The path
connecting the points Pi to Ph represents the feeding path in reverse. The above approach for
locating hot spots and tracing feed metal flow paths reduces the complexity of computation

by at least an order of magnitude as there is no longer the need to determine temperature

exhaustively at all points inside a casting (Ravi and Srinivasan 1996).
Summary of Literature Survey
 Three types of contractions occur during solidification namely liquid contraction,

solidification contraction and solid contraction.
 Feeding system is needed to compensate for volumetric contraction during
solidification and solid contraction.
 A casting (along with feeders) should be designed in such a way that, controlled
progressive directional solidification is achieved, so as to minimize solidification
related defects.
 Seven feeding rules are important for feeder design which considers essential
requirements of feeding system. Violation of any of the rule can result in bad feeder
design.
 Quality and yield of the casting largely depends upon casting feeding system design,
driven by solidification phenomenon.
 An approach to optimize the feeder is based on solidification simulation to predict
exact defect location.
 The objective of feeding system optimization is to minimize the feeder volume by
achieving directional solidification along the feed path.
 In recent years feeder optimization problem is addressed by use of numerical
optimization, topology optimization method, expert based system etc., but these
approaches are very complex and are computationally expensive.
 Framework for feeder design and optimization gives guideline about finding suitable
feeder-casting location point to connect feeder on casting surface and also algorithm
for feeder optimization driven by solidification simulation.
 Stopping criterion for the optimization technique decides number of iterations that has
to be carried out, to achieve optimal solution and amount of time employed in
obtaining the convergence point.

Chapter 3
ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
INTRODUCTION:
Since aluminum was discovered over 200 years ago, it has remained to be one of the
most abundant metals. It is used for a wide range of engineering applications and it can be
manipulated to any shape depending on the requirements at hand. Apparently, die casting
aluminum has proved to be environmentally and sustainable. This is from the fact that about
95% of the metal can be recycled.
This reduces the amount of waste in the environment. In fact, it is a non-ferrous metal that is
commonly diecast in the world today. Again, die casting aluminum is generally cost
effective. This is basically due to the intrinsic physical and chemical properties of aluminum.
This is the main reason why it has been adopted globally. To decide whether to use aluminum
alloys for a particular application, you need to understand the basic physical and chemical
properties.
Properties:
Superior corrosion resistance: This explains the reason why these die cast parts are
used in chemical and petroleum industries. This metal cannot be attacked by most organic
and inorganic compounds. This is due to the fact that it reacts with atmospheric air to form a
thin oxide layer that is inert. In some instances, the die cast parts can be processed using the
electrolytic oxidation process.
Lightweight: It has an average density of 2.70 g/cm3. The aluminum alloys are some of the
lightest alloys available. This implies that the die cast components can be used in applications
where the overall weight of the product should be reduced as much as possible. They are
commonly used in the aerospace industry.
Superior thermal and electrical properties: This is due to its position in the
periodic table. Aluminum has an oxidation no. +3. It has free electrons that can conduct
electricity and thermal energy. This is actually the main reason why they form a perfect
alternative for copper. Its electrical conductivity can be estimated to about 36 m/Ohm mm².

High operating temperature: This is the main reason why the die cast aluminum parts
can be used in a number of electrical applications. These include heat sinks, electrical
connectors, thermometer covers, etc. This is also the main reason why the die cast parts are
used as utensils. On average, the aluminum alloys have a melting point of about 660 °C.
Strength and hardness:
Generally, the aluminum alloys are stiff with superior strength to weight ratio. This explains
the reason why they can be used as rails.
Aluminum Alloys
The K-alloy: this aluminum allow is known to possess the following key properties:
resistance to corrosion improved cooling and zero post die casting operations.
Alloy 413: superior die casting properties and it possess good fluidity and guarantee better
pressure tightness.
Alloy 383: it possesses the following key properties: dimension stability, ease of casting
and good mechanical properties. It has superior corrosion resistance too.
Alloy B390: it is known for its superior wear resistance and high hardness. They are
mainly used to die cast the internal combustion engine pistons.
The A360: it is mainly used to cast aluminum parts where pressure tightness and fluidity is
a priority. It maintains corrosion resistance and strength even at elevated temperature.
Alloy A413: its properties are similar to that of the alloy A360. This alloy is mainly used
to die cast hydraulic cylinder components.
Alloy A380: it has good thermal and mechanical properties. Its performance properties are
similar to most alloys listed above.

Chapter 4
MODELING OF CAST MODEL
Introduction to CAD:
Computer aided design {CAD}, also known as computer –aided design and
drafting [CADD],is the use of computer technology for the process of design and design-
documentation. Computer Aided Drafting describes the process of drafting with a computer.
CADD software, or environments, provides the user with input-tools for the purpose of
streamlining design processes, drafting, documentation, and manufacturing processes. CADD
output is often in the form of electronic files for print or machining operations. The
development of CADD-based software is indirect correlation with the processes seeks to
economize. Industry-based software [construction, manufacturing, etc.] typically uses vector-
based [linear] environments whereas graphic-based software utilizes raster-based [pixilated]
environments.
CADD environments of involve more than just shapes. As in the manual

drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information,
such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific
conventions. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional [2D] space,
or curves, surfaces and solids in three-dimensional [3D] objects.
CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications,

including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural
design, prosthetics, and many more.CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation
for special effects in movies advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and
power of computers means that even engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous
economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational
geometry, computer graphics [both hardware and software], and discrete differential
geometry. The design of geometric model for object shapes, in particular, is often called
computer- aided geometric design [CAGD].
Current computer-aided software packages rang from 2D vector-based

drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modelers. Modern CAD packages can also
frequently allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from

any desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of
dynamic mathematic modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD- computer-aided
design and drafting. CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting of
all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and
industrial structures (hospitals and factories).
CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D

drawings of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from
conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of
assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to
design objects.
CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of

computer-aided technology, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a
greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to layout and develops work on
screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.
Types of CAD software:
2D CAD:
Two-dimensional, or 2D, CAD is used to create flat drawings of products

and structures. Objects created in 2D CAD are made up of lines, circles, ovals, slots and
curves. 2D CAD programs usually include a library of geometric images; the ability to define
hatching patterns; and the ability to provide a bill of materials generation. Among the most
popular 2D CAD programs are AutoCAD, CAD key, CADDS 5, and Medusa.
3D CAD:
Three-dimensional (3D) CAD programs come in a wide variety of types,

intended for different applications and levels of detail. Overall, 3D CAD programs create a
realistic model of what the design object will look like, allowing designers to solve potential
problems earlier and with lower production casts. Some 3D CAD programs include Autodesk
Inventor, Co Create Solid Designer, Pro/Engineer Solid Edge, Solid Works, UnigraphicsNX
and VX CAD, CATIA V5.

3D Wireframe and Surface Modeling:
CAD programs that feature 3D wireframe and surface modeling create a

skeleton-like inner structure of the object being modeled. A surface is added on later. These
types of CAD models are difficult to translate into other software and are therefore rarely
used anymore.
Sold Modeling:
Solid modeling in general is useful because the program is often able to

calculate the dimensions of the object it is creating. Many sub-types of this exist.
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) CAD uses the same basic logic as 2D CAD, that is, it
uses prepared solid geometry objects to create an object. However, these types of CAD
software often cannot be adjusted once they are created. Boundary Representation (Brep)
solid modeling takes CSG images and links them together. Hybrid systems mix CSG and
Brep to achieve desired designs.
Introduction to Pro/Engineer Wildfire 5.0:
Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire 5.0 is powerful software used to create complex designs with great
precision. The designintent of any threedimensional (3D) model or an assembly is defined by
its specification and its use. You can use the powerful tools of Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire 5.0
to capture the design intent of any complex model by incorporating intelligence into the
design. Once you understand the feature-based, associative, and parametric nature pf
Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire 5.0, you can appreciate its power as a solid modeler. To make the
designing process simple and quick, this software package has divided the steps of designing
into different modules. This means each step of the designing is completed in a different
module. For example, generally a design process consists of the following steps:
 Sketching using the basic sketch entities.

 Converting the sketch into features and parts.
 Assembling different parts and analyzing them.
 Documenting parts and the assembly in terms of drawing views.
 Manufacturing the final part and assembly.

PRO/ENGINEER TOOLBARS:
Fig: 4.1 PRO/ENGINEER TOOLBARS
In Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire 5.0, the toolbars are at two locations, the Top Tool chest and the
Right Tool chest. The area on the top of the drawing area, where the toolbars are present, is
called the Top Tool chest and the area on the right of the drawing area, where the toolbars are present,
is called the Right Tool chest. The toolbars that initially appear on the screen are shown in the Figure.
You appear on the screen are shown in the Figure. You will notice that all toolbar buttons are not available.
Available after you open a new or an existing file. Only those buttons that are required for the current session
are activate. As you proceed to enter one of themodes provided by Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire
5.0, you will notice that the toolbar buttons required by that mode are activated. To make the
designing easy and user-friendly, this software package provides you with a number of
toolbars. Different modes of Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire 5.0 display different toolbars. Some of
the frequently used toolbars are shown in Figure.

Solid modeling of Cast Model using PRO-E:
The solid modeling of the cast model was made with the help of CAD tool PRO-E as shown
in below figures. By using the following dimensions, we have designed the piston
Fig: 4.2 Sketcher Part of Piston
3D Model of Piston:
The line diagram of piston shown in the above is extruded by using Revolve command and
3D model is obtained is shown in below figure.
Fig: 4.3 3D Model of Piston

3D Model of Core:
The line diagram of core with dimensions is shown in below figure.
The line diagram of core is extruded using revolve option, then we obtain the 3D model of
Core
Fig: 4.4 3D Model of Core
3D Model of Gating system with Sprue:
Fig: 4.5 3D Model of Gating system with Sprue

Assembly of Cast Model:
The 3D models of piston, feeder, gates and Sprue are assembled together in the assembly
module of Pro-E with necessary constraints.
Fig: 4.6 Assembly of Cast Model

Chapter 5
INTRODUCTION TO MAGMA SOFTWARE
ABOUT MAGMA SIMULATION TOOL:
MAGMA is the second world’s leading castings simulation software globally.
The name MAGMA stands for robust and innovative casting solution as well as a strong
partnership with the metal casting industry. By combining casting process knowledge with
simulation competence, MAGMA partners with our customers to use our expertise to their
advantage in the profitable optimization of castings and casting process. With a commitment
to casting excellence, we actively work with our customers to integrate the progressive
technology of simulation into their operations. MAGMA’s product and service portfolio
includes the powerful, modular simulation software MAGMASOFT, with the newest release
MAGMA 5, as well as engineering service for casting design and optimization.
Today, MAGMASOFT is used throughout the metal casting industry, especially for the
optimization of cast components in automotive and heavy industry applications.
Worldwide, MAGMA employs more than 200 people in development, support, sales &
marketing, and administration, of which 105 are in Aachen. The company also has offices
and subsidiaries in the United States, Singapore, Brazil, Korea, Turkey, India, China and the
Czech Republic. More than 45 software developers, who are experienced from foundry, build
one of the industries most powerful “casting competence centers".
MAGMA Giessereitchnologie GmbH was founded in 1988 and is headquartered in Aachen,

Germany. A global presence and support are guaranteed by offices and subsidiaries in the
USA, Singapore, Brazil, Korea, Turkey, India, China and the Czech Republic. Additionally,
more than 30 qualified partners represent MAGMA around the world.
MAGMA’s target is
 To establish MAGMASOFT as an optimization tool in foundries.

 To consider all the relevant physical processes of the production in foundries, to allow
for their description through simulation technology.
 To predict (quantitatively) all properties relevant for the quality of casting.

 To further develop the software MAGMASOFT from simulation to an optimization

tool.
MAGMA-Committed to Casting Excellence:

Magma is a developer and supplier of software for casting process simulation.
The company was founded in 1988 and has its Headquarters in Aachen, Germany.
MAGMA’S product and service portfolio includes simulation software MAGMASOFT, with
the newest release MAGMA5, as well as engineering services for casting design and
optimization. The software is used world-wide by foundries, casting buyers and designers,
especially for the optimization of cast components in automotive and heavy industry
applications. German newspaper suddeutsch Zeitung cities MAGMA amongst the global
market leaders for simulation software for casting processes.
Worldwide MAGMA employs more than 200 people in software development,

support, marketing, and administration, of which 90 are in Aachen. The company also has
offices and subsidiaries in the United States, Singapore, Brazil, Korea, Turkey, India, China,
and the Czech Republic.
MAGMA5 is the standard solution for the simulation of casting processes

.the software stands for the prediction of the entire casting component quality and process
chain by providing a better understanding of mould filling ,solidification and cooling and
allows the quantitative prediction of mechanical properties, thermal stresses and distortions of
the resulting casting. Simulation accurately describes a cast components quality up-front
before production starts and the casting method can be designed with respect to the required
component properties. this not only results in a reduction in pre-production sampling as the
precise layout of the complete casting system leads to energy ,material, and tooling savings.
MAGMA5 consist of base module and a set of additional modules that

cover all steps of the casting production. The range of application of MAGMA solutions
comprises all cast alloys, from cast iron to aluminium sand casting, permanent mould and die
casting up to large steel castings .the software supports the user in the modeling of the
component, the determination of melting practice and casting method through to model and
mould making, sheet treatment, and finishing. This saves costs consequently along the entire
manufacturing.

Chapter 6
SIMULATION PROCEDURE
6.1 Process Simulation Concept
The step by step process which is carried out during simulation in MAGMA is explained by
a flow chart below
Fig: 6.1 Step by Step process in Magma
6.2 3D GEOMETRY DETAILS:
After completing the design, the model from design tool is carried to MAGMA
simulation in .stp format. The models are imported one by one, piston, core, riser and gating
system. When these parts assembled a permanent mould will be created around the model.

Fig: 6.2 Importing of 3D Geometry
6.3 DEFINITION OF SIMULATION PARAMETERS:
Fig: 6.3 Defining AL Parameters

Fig: 6.4 Defining Shop floor Data
INPUT PARAMETERS IN SECONDS

Die Preparation Time 10
Spraying Time 2
Blowing Time 3
Delay Time 3
Pouring Time 3
Ejection Time 4
Table 6.1: Defining Shop Floor Parameters

Chapter 7
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
STEP 1: The 3D solid model of the piston designed by using Pro-E is imported into
MAGMA.
STEP 2: After importing the 3D solid model followed by above mentioned simulation
procedure, initial solidification was done to find hot spots, Thermal Feed Modulus.
STEP 3: Design of feeder by making use of thermal feed modulus obtained from the above
which decides the feeder and runner size.
IMPORTANCE OF FEEDING SYSTEM
During the process of casting solidification, liquid metal starts solidifying from the mold
boundary till it reaches to certain point/points in the mold-cavity known as hot spot/spots.
This hot spot region is a local temperature maximum, which effectively feeds adjacent
regions in the casting. Since molten metal shrinks in volume during solidification (1-5% by
volume) in the mold cavity, a portion of fresh molten metal should be fed or compensated to
make up for the shrinkage at the hot spot region. However, the fresh molten metal cannot be
fed to an isolated non-solidified metal completely surrounded by solidified metal, due to
which porosity defects such as a cavity and other void regions are formed. The cavity thus
formed is called a shrinkage cavity which is one of the most serious casting defects and
accounts for maximum casting rejections.
The most important aspect of designing a sound and defect free casting is design of perfect
feeding system. Feeding system design includes use of feeders, insulation around a feeder,
provision of chills, and exothermic pads which ease or facilitates molten metal flow,
microscopically, to the hot spot regions. Feeders are applied to the casting to compensate the
solidification shrinkage and providing the directional solidification (from casting to feeders)
so the last solidification points are shifted to the feeders. Therefore suitable design of feeding
system (number, position, size and shape of feeders) is a key for production of sound
castings. Hot spot must be inside the feeder to ensure defect free casting.

FUNCTION OF FEEDER:
During casing, a reservoir of liquid metal, called RISER or FEEDER is used to compensate
for the shrinkage that takes place during pouring temperature up to solidification which must
be adequate to satisfy the liquid and solidification shrinkage requirements of the casting.
In addition, the riser itself will be solidifying, so the total shrinkage requirement to be met
will be for the riser/casting combination. The total feeding requirement will depend on the
specific alloy, the amount of superheat, the casting geometry, and the molding medium. The
shape of a casting will affect the size of the riser needed to meet its feed requirements for the
obvious reason that the longer the casting takes to solidify, the longer the riser must maintain
a reservoir of liquid metal.
A variety of methods have been devised to calculate the riser size needed to ensure that liquid
feed metal will be available for as long as the solidifying casting requires, they are
1. Shape factor method

2. Geometric method
3. The modulus method
In MAGMASOFT, they use Modulus Method to calculate the riser geometry, which is more
efficient.
Fig: 7.1 Feed Modules

Description: The color scale is indicating the maximum Feedmod in the casting as marked
it is showing 1.3cm.Based on this Feedmod value feeder size could be decided.
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING IN DESIGN OF FEEDER :
The feeder must satisfy both of the following two requirements:
 Heat transfer criteria
MC: MN: MF = 1: 1.1: 1.2

Where MC, MF and MN are modulus of feeder, modulus of casting, and modulus of the neck
of feeder at the junction of casting respectively. For calculation of modulus of an object, see
below figure 7.2
 Feed volume criterion

VF ≥ α VC / (ε - α)
Where ε is the efficiency of the feeder, α is the solidification shrinkage, and VF and VC are
volume of feeder and casting respectively. For efficiency of differently shaped feeders, see
Fig The higher of the two values of feeder volume given by above equations satisfies both
requirements and thus taken as the actual volume of the feeder.
Fig. 7.2: Metal utilization of feeders of various forms.

(a) Cylindrical, (b) Hemispherical, (c) Reverse Tapered Head and (d) Exothermic sleeve

Table 7.1: Moduli of some common shapes
These are different feeder shapes with different efficiencies; usually for small castings
cylindrical feeders are widely used. For larger castings, cylindrical feeders with spherical
bottom (side location) or spherical top (top position, blind type) are widely used.
DETERMINATION OF FEEDER SHAPE
According to Chvorinov, solidification time increases as the volume to area ratio or the
modulus, M, increase. Thus
t α (V/A) ² or, t = CM²
Where, t is solidification time, and C is constant.

According to eq. (3), a sphere, having the smallest modulus per unit volume, is the ideal
shape for a feeder. But a spherical feeder practically too difficult to mould and consequently
cylindrical feeders are mostly used.
For a relationship between casting shape (M) and its solidification time (t) for various
Metals and alloys see below figure

Fig 7.3: Freezing times for plate-shaped castings in different alloys and moulds.
By these methods we designed the feeder and placed at appropriate location.
STEP 4: Filling and solidification of molten metal in GDC process was done with the above
model and results are discussed as follows.

Chapter 8
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
8.1 MOLD FILLING ANALYSIS
8.1.1 Filling Temperature

The below results show the Temperature distribution during the Mold Filling.
Fig: 8.1 Temperature Distributions during Mold Filling

The color scale reads temperature of molten metal from Initial (7000°C) to Liquidus
temperature (5700°C).
Fig: 8.2 Temperature scale from Initial to Liquidus temperatures

The marked values are indicating Liquid metal temperature at the end of Filling. Temperature
drop observed from 700oC to 570oC (i.e. 130oC drop). More temperature drop may lead to
cold shuts.
8.1.2 Filling Velocity
This image shows the Liquid metal velocity while filling
Fig: 8.3 Absolute Velocity Result

Marked areas are showing velocity above 1.5m/s in the Ingate area during filling, which is no
harm to the mold.
8.1.3 Turbulence
Fig: 8.4 Turbulence Result

The marked areas are showing the Turbulence in the casting, which may lead to temperature
loss during filling.
8.1.4 Air Entrapment
Fig: 8.5 Air Entrapments
8.1.5 Cast Length

Cast length is the liquid metal travel distance from ingate to the end of casting in mm
Fig: 8.6 Cast Length Result

8.1.6 Material Age
Fig: 8.7 Representation of Material Age
Material Age is the age liquid metal in casting in seconds.

8.1.7 Wall Contact
Fig: 8.8 Representation of Wall Contact

Wall contact is the liquid metal contact with the walls of mold in seconds

8.2 CASTING SOLIDIFICATION

8.2.1 Temperature
Fig: 8.10 Solidification Temperature Scale

8.2.2 Fraction Liquid
Fig: 8.11 Representation of Fraction Liquid

Fraction liquid shows that directional solidification of liquid metal during solidification at
50% of feeding effectivity, here it is possible to predict the isolated areas which may lead to
shrinkage porosity
The result shows the Fraction of Liquid melt during the solidification at a particular time

Observation: During the solidification it is possible to identify the most hotspot zone in
the castings as marked), these areas may prone to shrinkage porosity.
Fig: 8.12 Predictions of Isolated Zones
8.2.3 Hot Spot Fs time
Fig: 8.13 Predictions of Hot Spots
Image shows the Hot Spot Fs (Fractional solidification) time of the Casting.
These results help to predict the last solidified regions and longer the time leads to change in
morphology of microstructure.

8.2.4 Porosity:
These are the last solidified areas in the casting, which is leading to Shrinkage porosity.
All the marked areas are prone to shrinkage porosity.

Fig: 8.14 Porosity simulations Result
8.2.5 Die Soldering on Die

The marked areas are prone to Die Soldering ,this happens when the temperature at the die
surface goes beyond its Critical value there will a change in the phase at the point where the
liquid metal is in contact with Die and thus leads to Die Soldering on Die.
Fig: 8.15 Die Soldering

8.3 METALLOGRAPHY-EUTECTIC CELL SIZE
Fig: 8.16 EUTECTIC CELL SIZE
Eutectic cell size is ranging between 0.1 – 0.6mm
8.3.1 Fraction of AlFeSi
Fig: 8.17 Fraction of AlFeSi
AlFeSi phase is ranging between 1.3 – 1.4%

8.3.2 Fraction of Eutectic Phase
Fig: 8.18 Fraction of Eutectic Phase
Fraction of Eutectic Phase found between 99 - 100%
8.3.3 Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing
Fig: 8.19 Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing
Dendrite arm Spacing is ranging between 13 - 24μm, which is said to be good as it possess
high tensile strength.

8.3.4 Minimum Tensile Strength
Fig: 8.20 Tensile Strength
Minimum Tensile Strength found from 211MPa - 250MPa
8.3.5 Minimum Yield Strength
Fig: 8.21 Yield Strength
Minimum Yield Strength found from 162MPa - 179MPa

8.4 Summary of Results:
 There is Temperature drop observed with the existing runner system.
 Liquid metal velocity has found to be within the range.

 There is air entrapment noticed that can be eliminated by vents.
 Turbulence is noticed, but within the range, if higher can be minimized by increasing
number of gates.
 Shrinkage porosity is observed. (This can be eliminated by increasing the feeder size)
Filling Results Outcomes
Filling Temperature High temperature drop i.e.130°c
Filling Velocity All necessary areas are in accepting range

i.e.1.5m/s
Turbulence Slight turbulence in some areas
Solidification Analysis
Fraction Liquid Isolated zones are identified
Porosity Top areas of cast model leading to shrinkage

porosity
Metallography Results
Eutectic Cell Size Ranging between 0.1 – 0.6mm
AlFeSi Phase Ranging between 1.3 – 1.4%
Fraction of Eutectic Phase Found between 99 -100%
Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing Found between 13 - 14µm, which is favorable
Mechanical Properties
Minimum Tensile Strength Found from 211 – 250MPa
Minimum Yield Strength Found from 162 – 179MPa
Table 8.1: List of Results

Chapter 9
CONCLUSION
According to the results, we can say that some of the necessary corrections mentioned above
are need to be taken to improve the quality of casting model and to decrease the defects.
Maximizing casting yield, is an important consideration in the casting industry. An increase
in casting yield decreases production costs; with increased yield, production of the same
number of Castings, requires less melted metal and fewer heats, as well as reduced labor and
material costs required for production. Also, higher yield usually has the side benefit of lower
filling costs.
Here the effective way to improve casting yield is through riser and gates optimization, where
“optimized” means (1) the riser has the minimum possible volume to provide sufficient feed
metal to the casting, without the riser pipe extending into the casting; and
(2) Increasing the number of Gates used, to avoid turbulence.
Computer simulation of the casting process is becoming an indispensable tool in the effort to
increase casting yield. Through the use of simulation, foundries are able to evaluate
modifications to casting designs without going for production, thus saving time, material
resources, and manpower. However, computer simulation must be applied on a case-by case
basis, and its effective use requires expertise as well as accurate data for many process
variables.

Chapter 10
BIBLIOGRAGHY
1. John Campbell OBE FREng Professor of Casting Technology, University of

Birmingham, UK, “The new metallurgy of cast metals Castings”, publications by
Replica Press Pvt. Ltd, India.
2. Dr. A.K.M.B. Rashid Professor, MME Department, BUET,”Design of Gating and
Feeding Systems”.
3. Rajendra Prasad Gulyam Indian Institute of Science 7 PUBLICATIONS,
“Application of Concept Of Modulus in Nonferrous Foundries”.
4. Prof. B. Ravi Department of Mechanical Engineering INDIAN INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY BOMBAY, “Casting Feeder Design Optimization”.
5. R.A. Hardin, S. Ou, K. Carlson, and C. Beckermann, “Relationship between Casting
Simulation and Radiographic Testing: Results from the SFSA Plate Casting
Trials,” 1999SFSA Technical and Operating Conference, 1999.
6. G.K. Sigworth and C. Wang, “Mechanisms of Porosity Formation during
Solidification: A Theoretical Analysis,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions
B, Vol. 24B, pp. 349-364, 1993.
7. Shukri M.I. and Elbasheer A. M., “An expert system for designing gates and risers
for small and medium size castings,” Sudan Engineering Society Journal, 52(46),
39-47, 2006.
8. Bishop E.F. and Pellini W.S., “The Contribution of Risers and Chill-Edge Effects
to Soundness of Cast Steel Plates,” AFS Transactions, 58, 185-197, 1950.
9. “Feeding Range”, Cast Metals Research Journal (AFS), June 1975, Volume 11, No. 2

Modeling The Piston Casting With Filling and Solidification of Al Alloy in Permanent Mould Using Magma Simulation Software

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A project report

R.S.S.MANOJ KUMAR - (139Y1A03A0)

S.VENKAT PRAMOD REDDY - (139Y1A03A3) N.SHANKAR - (139Y1A0381)

M.VENKATA CHENNA KESAVA - (139Y1A0374) P.NAVEEN - (139Y1A0390)

Under the esteemed guidance of

SRI.K.SUDARSHAN KUMAR, M.Tech

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Project Guide: Head of the Department:

Date: Internal Examiner External Examiner

S.VENKAT PRAMOD REDDY

M.VENKATA CHENNA KESAVA

LIST OF TABLES & FIGURES 2

In wide range of simulation software’s MAGMASOFT is said to be the second

Every manufacturer encounters a lot of defects in foundry. In the project it is

K.S.R.M COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 1

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table-7.1 Moduli of some common shapes 56

Fig 1.6 Ingot casting process 16

Fig 1.7 Centrifugal casting setup 17

Fig 1.8 Continuous casting process 19

Fig 1.9 Gravity Die casting process 22

Fig 1.10 Blow Hole defect 32

Fig 1.11 Scar defect 32

Fig 1.12 Scab defect 33

Fig 1.13 Penetration defect 33

Fig 1.14 Cold Shut defect 33

Fig 1.15 Mismatch defect 34

Fig 1.16 Misruns defect 34

Fig 1.17 Hot tear defect 34

Fig 4.1 PRO/ENGINEERING TOOLBARS 44

Fig 4.2 Sketcher part of piston 45

Fig 4.3 3D Model of Piston 45

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Fig 4.4 3D Model of Core 46

Fig 4.5 3D Model of Gating system with Spru 46

Fig 4.6 Assembly of Cast Model 47

Fig 6.1 Step by Step process in Magma 50

Fig 6.2 Importing of 3D Geometry 51

Fig 6.3 Defining AL Parameters 51

Fig 6.4 Defining Shop Floor Data 52

Fig 8.2 Temperature scale from initial to liquidus temperatures 58

Fig 8.3 Absolute velocity result 59

Fig 8.4 Turbulence result 59

Fig 8.8 Representation of Wall contact 61

Fig 8.9 Solidification Temperature scale 62

Fig 8.10 Representation of Fraction Liquid 62

Fig 8.11 Predictions of Isolated Zones 63

Fig 8.12 Predictions of Hot Spots 63

Fig 8.16 Fraction of AlFeSi 65

Fig 8.17 Fraction of Eutectic Phase 66

Fig 8.18 Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing 66

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Fig 8.19 Tensile Strength 67

Fig 8.20 Yield Strength 67

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1.1 HISTORY OF CASTING

Different Ages of Casting: According to Biblical records casting technology can be

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Hot isostatic A manufacturing process used mostly for aluminum-copper series to

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Solidus Temperature at which melting begins.