SAT

BIOLOGY

A CONCISE
REVISION GUIDE

S A I S A G I R E D D Y
Forward
These are all my notes that I have compiled while studying for the
SAT Molecular Biology Test. Though I chose the “M” test, it is
equally sufficient for the test-takers who want to do the ecological
component. Only the last 20 questions are the change. You have
to learn everything for either of these tests anyway.

The intention of making this book is to make resources widely

available for everyone who wants to take the test. The notes in this
book helped me get a great score. I hope it serves you this same.

PS: I did not make a table of contents for this book. I urge you to
study it in the order made. I intermingled topics to provide an easy
transitional understanding.

Best,
Sai.
Biology SAT Subject Test

BIOCHEMISTRY
• Sweating cools, the body because of strong H-bonding between
water molecules.
• Blood maintains pH because of the bicarbonate buffering system.
• Correlation exists between heart attacks and structure of fatty acid.
• Mad cow disease is caused by a misfolded protein.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atom = Protons
Electrons
Neutrons subatomic particles

Charge Mass Location

+1 1 Nucleus
0 1 Nucleus
-1 0 Outside
Nucleus

• Atoms in the elemental state has a neutral charge because number of

(+) protons = number of (-) electrons.
• Electronic configuration determines reactions.
• Electrons in the lowest energy level are in the ground state.
• When an atom absorbs energy, its electron moves into a higher energy
level (Excited state).

Example: Photosynthesis – Chlorophyll, a molecule absorbs light energy

which boosts electrons to higher energy levels. These excited electrons
provide energy to make sugar as they return to ground state and release
energy absorbed.

(Don’t confuse isotopes with isomers) Isotopes are atoms with the same
number of protons but different number of neutrons.
They are chemically equal because the number of protons = number of
electrons.

RADIO ISOTOPES
• Measuring the age of fossils
• Medical diagnosis
• Treatment and research
• Tracer (CO2), tracking metabolic pathways

BONDING
A bond is formed when two atomic nuclei attract the same electrons.
Energy is released when a bond forms.
Energy is absorbed when a bond breaks.
Atom bonds for stability.

Main types of bonding are:

1. Ionic
2. covalent

1) Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred.

When an atom gains an electron = anion.
When an atom loses an electron = cation.
(E.g.) CNC (CI-, Na+, Ca2+ are necessary for cell, tissue and organ function).
2) Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. A molecule is formed.
Two atoms share one pair of electron- single covalent bond.
Two atoms share two pairs of electrons- double covalent bond.
Two atoms share three pairs of electrons- Triple covalent bond.

Covalent bonds are polar or non polar.

Polar covalent bond Non polar covalent bond

• Electrons shared equally • Electrons not shared equally

• Formed between alike atoms • Formed between different

atoms
H-H C=O
O=O H-O-H

INTERMOLECULAR ATTRACTIONS
There is the attraction between molecules. We need to know three.

POLAR-POLAR ATTRACTIONS
There is stronger attraction between polar attractions than between non-
polar attractions.

Polar
O

H H

Non-polar molecules
HYDROGEN BONDS
• FON (Fluorine, Oxygen, Nitrogen)

H- Bonding
• Keeps two strands of DNA bonded together.
• Causes water to stick together, responsible for many water
characteristics.

Non polar molecules

• Weakest (van der waals forces)
• Co2 (linear and balanced)

Hydrophobic (water-hating) and hydrophilic (water-loving).

Polar substances dissolve in water, non polar substances will not dissolve
in water.
• Like dissolves like

Non polar substances do not dissolve in water.

Scenario: Plasma membrane (phospholipids bilayer).
Only non-polar substances can go through it.
Polar substances pass through special hydrophilic channels.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
O
• Asymmetrical H H
• Polar

1) High Specific Heat Capacity

2) High heat of vaporization (2 260 000 J/kg)
3) High cohesion properties (capillarity)
4) Universal solvent
5) Strong cohesion-tension
6) Ice is less dense than water. (Spring overturn)

pH
• Is a measure of the acidity and alkanity of a solution
• - log [H+ (moldm-³)]
• <7 - acidic
• >7 - basic
• 7 - neutral
A solution of pH 1 is 10 times more acidic than pH 2 and 100 times more
acidic than pH 3

pH
Stomach acid 2
Orange juice 3.5
Carbonated drinks 3.0
Acid rain <5.6
Milk 6.5
Blood(human) 7.4
Sea water 8.5
Even a slight change in humans is dangerous. pH in living cells is close to
7. Buffers regulate pH. (E.g.) Bicarbonate buffer (HCO3-).

Acid Rain (SO2, So4, Co2)

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Compounds that contain carbon.
• Four types; Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, Nucleic acids

CARBOHYDRATES
• Quick energy
• Ig releases 4 calories of heat
• Rice, Pasta, bread and cookies.
• Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
• C6H12O6 (CnH2nOn)
• Glucose, galactose, fructose – isomers; different structures (different
physical and chemical properties)

Glucose
Disaccharides
• C12H22O11
• Monosaccharides joined by dehydration system or condensation.
Maltose

Glucose Glucose Glucose

Glucose Fructose Galactose

• Maltose, sucrose and lactose.

• Hydrolysis is the opposite of condensation (+H2O). It takes place via
digestion.

Polysaccharides
• Polymers of carbohydrates
• Important; Cellulose, starch, Chitin, Glycogen.
Found in plants
Cellulose: Make up plant cell walls
Starch: The way plants store carbohydrates
Found in animals
Chitin: makes in exoskeleton in arthropods and cell walls in mushrooms
Glycogen: The way animals store carbohydrates (stored in liver and
muscles)

LIPIDS
• Consists of fats, oils and waxes
• Common structure; 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Glycerol

There are two variables of fatty acids;

• Saturated (no double blood present)
• Unsaturated (a double bond is present)
Saturated fat
• Comes from animals
• Solid at room temperature
• Large quantities are linked with heart disease.
 • Butter
Unsaturated fat
• Comes from plants
• Liquid at room temperature
• 1g releases 9 calories in a calorimeter
• major component of cell membrane
• Some lipids are hormones

PROTEINS
• Proteins are polymers or polypeptides consisting of amino acids
joined by peptide bonds
•

• Complex macromolecules useful for growth and repair.

• Fish, poultry, meat, plants
• Ig releases 4 calories of heat
• S P O N CH – elements that make up protein.
• 20 different amino acids
• Enzymes are examples of proteins
• Dipeptides

Protein structure.
• Enzymes, membrane channel, hormones.
• Levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
Primary: Sequence of amino acids that make up the structure
Secondary: H-bonding within molecule (helical structure)
Tertiary; Shape of protein and shares how it functions
Quaternary: Consists of proteins with more than one chain (e.g.
Hemoglobin)

ENZYMES
• Large proteins
• Lower activation energy
• Work on a substrate
• Specific
• Induced fit model
• Re-usable
• Work with assistance from co-enzymes(vitamins) and co-factors
(minerals)
• Denature – lose their uniqueness
• Gastric Enzymes- low pH
Intestinal enzymes- high pH

Prions (misfolded version of a protein) proteins that cause diseases.

• infectious proteins that cause brain diseases.

Nucleic acids
• deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
• ribonucleic acids (RNA)
Both acids carry hereditary information.
• Polymers of nucleotides
• Nucleotide: phosphate, 5C sugar (deoxyribose ribose), nitrogenous
base.
• Bases: TAGCU
• A and G are purine
• C and T are pyrimidine
 • Purine bonds with pyrimidine.

THE CELL (to be continued)

17th century Holland – Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, using lenses he crafted,
was the first person to observe and document living cells.
1665- Robert hook developed a microscope to study cork tissue.
The work of a myriad of scientists led to the cell theory:
• All living things are made of cells.
• Cells are the basic unit of all organisms.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Most plant and animal cells have a diameter between 10um and 100um.
Some are smaller: RBC = 8um.
All cells have: plasma membrane and nucleic acid.

Prokaryotic Cell:
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
No membrane bound Membrane separated
organelles such as nucleus organelles such as nucleus
and mitochondria.

Contains single circular Human body contains 46

chromosome nuclear chromosomes in
each human body cell nuclei
Cells contain plasmids Does not contain plasmids
Ribosomes are smaller Ribosomes are larger.
Aerobic or anaerobic Only aerobic respiration
respiration
Cytoskeletal elements Cytoskeletal element
(microfilaments and (microfilaments and
microtubules) absent microtubules) present.
Most are unicellular Euglena and paramecium
are single celled. Many are
multicellular
1-10um 10-100um
Most have cell walls Most only have cell
membranes.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Carbon Dioxide + Water à Glucose + Oxygen

Ø Process by which light energy is used to make glucose (light

energy -> chemical energy)
Ø The process is done by all the plants(organisms) in the plant
kingdom as well as algae in the Protista kingdom.
Ø Photosynthesis is a reduction reaction because the C in the
CO2 is giving electrons/hydrogen (Reduction is the gain of
electrons or protein).

Structure of chloroplast (GSE)

• Organelle enclosed by double membrane
• Contains gene containing layers called thylakoids (light
dependent reactions)
• Stroma (Calvin cycle / light independent reaction takes place).
LIGHT AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS PIGMENTS
When light hits an object, it can be transmitted, reflected or absorbed.
Red color seen reflects red light, absorbs all other color of light.
Green plants reflect green light.

Photosynthetic pigments absorb light energy to carry out photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll Am- main, participate directly in light dependent reactions.
Chlorophyll B - green, absorbs all others.
Carotenoids- red, orange, yellow (carrots)
Phycobilins- red, found in red algae.
Red cells are absorbed!
Orange and yellow are reflected!

Light dependent and Light independent reactions

• Light dependent reaction (the light reaction) produce ATP and H+
• Light independent reaction (the dark reaction) to make sugar.
Light dependent
Ø Occurs in grana (thylakoids) - 100s of light absorbing photosynthesis.
Photosystem
A) Chlorophyll a
B) Antennae - chlorophyll b, carotenoids.

Ø External electrons escape from chlorophyll. They are replaced by

photolysis of water.
Ø As light is absorbed, electrons move from chlorophyll to electrons
transport chain(ETC)
Ø The energy from electrons pumps protons across mylakoids
membrane and creates proton gradients.
 Ø The PE stored is converted into ATP as protons slow through ATP
synthetase channel.

a) Electrons- replace those lost by chlorophyll in the light dependent

reaction
b) Protons; pass through ATP synthetase channel and get carried by
NADP to the stoma for light independent reaction.
c) Oxygen; Released from atmosphere.

Light independent reactions

• Occurs in stroma.
• The function is to produce sugar or PGAL, a 3C sugar.
In this reaction, CO2 combines with protons and electrons carried by NADP
from light dependent reaction to give PGAL.
Structure of the leaf
Waxy cuticle
Cuticle
Upper epidermis
Palisade mesophyll cells.
Spongy mesophyll cell
Lower epidermis
Waxy cuticle

The cell (continued)

All organisms are believed to have descended from a common ancestral
prokaryotic cell.

Theory of Endosymbiosis
• Essentially, smaller prokaryotes moved into larger prokaryotic cell.
E.g. chloroplasts and mitochondria.
A cell's form is dictated by function.

Nerve cell- Conducts electrical impulses

Long and spindly.
Nucleus
• Contains chromosomes made up of DNA wrapped with histones
(protein) to form a chromatin network
• Chromosomes have genes, a specific length of DNA that code for
polypeptides
• Nucleus is surrounded by electively permeable membrane or
envelopes that contains pores to allow large substances such as
RNA to come out.

Nucleolus
• Non-dividing permanent region inside nucleus of a cell.
• Components of ribosomes are synthesized here.
• Not a membrane bound structure but tangles of chromatin with
unfinished ribosomes.
• One or two nuclei are commonly visible.
Ribosomes
• Site of protein synthesis
• Made up of rRNA+ protein
• Free in cytoplasm or bound to ER
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• System of membrane channels that traverse the cytoplasm.
• RER; has ribosomes so protein synthesis
Transport throughout cytoplasm
• SER; makes steroids hormones and lipids
Connects RER to Golgi bodies
Carbohydrate metabolism

Golgi Apparatus
• Lies near the nucleus and consists of flattened sacs of membranes
next to each other surrounded by vesicles.
 • They modify, store and package substances produced in the RER
• Golgi Apparatus secretes those substances to other parts of the cell
and to the cell surface for export of other cells (exocytosis)

Lysosome
• Sac of hydrolytic enzymes enclosed in a membrane.
• Main site of intercellular digestion.
• Renews itself by breakdown and regeneration
• Apoptosis (programmed cell death) is carried out by lysosomes
• Plant cell do not usually have lysosomes.

Mitochondrion
• Site of cellular respiration.
• Outer membrane and folded inner called Cristal
• Important enzymes are in crista.
• They have their own DNA.
Cell division
Mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis:
• Growth and repair of body
• Produces two genetically identical body cells (same chromosome
number)
• Diploid (2n)
Meiosis:
• Occurs in sexually reproducing cells
• It produces gametes (sperms and ova)(½chromosome no. of parents)
• Each resulting in haploid (n).

Any discussion must first include the structure of the chromosome.

A chromosome is a highly coiled and condensed strand of DNA.
A replicated chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids, where 1 is an exact
copy of the another.
Centromere holds two chromatids together.
Spindle fibers connect the centromere to the centrosome.
The cell cycle
All cells pass through a sequence of growth and division known as the cell
cycle. *The rate and timing is very important.
Frequency of cell division varies.
E.g. skin cells constantly divide throughout one’s life. Nerve and muscle cells
lose ability to divide and remain in G0 phase.
Stem cells from human embryos retain the ability to divide indefinitely. The
cell cycle is strictly regulated by many proteins; some are called cyclins.
Some are internal regulators making sure mitosis is required when it is being
done. (certain conditions met).

Others are:
• Growth factors (external regulators) (speed, slow, stop).

The cycle cell has 5 stages;

1. G1
2. S
3. G2
4. Mitosis (division of nucleus)
5. Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm)
To move from one phase to the other, the cell must pass through three
checkpoints; At each checkpoint, specialized cells determine whether cell is
ready to proceed to the next phase.

G1 - Newly divided cell enters after mitosis. Cell increases in size and
prepares to replicate DNA.
G1 Checkpoint - Cell is healthy and contains adequate resources and if DNA
is undamaged, growth factors stimulate DNA synthesis during 5phase.
Otherwise, will enter G0 phase.
S phase: DNA is synthesized by replication.
S checkpoint: Synthesis is monitored for errors. If everything is normal,
growth signals stimulate cells to proceed to G2.
G2 phase- produce organelles and other components that will populate two
fully working cells.
G2 checkpoint- All chromosomes must be replicated and no other types of
damage done. Then it can enter mitosis.

Cell division is a strictly monitored process. If errors occur, it can be deadly

and cause diseases like cancer.

Interphase
90% of a cell's life is spent in interphase.
Interphase- Chromosomes replicate one or more nucleus seen. Nuclear
membrane intact.

Mitosis
• Actual division of the nucleus
• PMAT
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
 • Telophase

Prophase
• Chromosomes condense and become visible.
• Nucleus disappears
• Spindle fibers form extending from one centrosome to another.
• Centrioles migrate to the poles.
• Nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate.
Metaphase
• Chromosomes line up single filed located on the equator of metaphase
plate.
• Centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cells
• Spindle fibers run from centrosomes to centromeres.
Anaphase
Centromeres of each chromosome separate and spindle fibers pull sister
chromosomes apart.

Telophase
• Chromosomes cluster at opposite ends of cell and nuclear membrane
reforms.
• Chromosomes unthicken and form strands.
• Nuclear membrane reforms.
Cytokinesis
• Division of the cytoplasm.

Animal cells- A cleavage furrow forms and cytoplasm is separated.

Plant cell- Cell plate forms. A sticky middle lamella keeps cells together
MEIOSIS
• Form of cell division in which cells having the diploid chromosome
number (2n) produce gametes (sex cells) with haploid chromosome
number (n).
*Meiosis I
*Meiosis II
Meiosis I
• Reduction division
• Synopsis- Chromosomes pair up with homologue so that crossing over
can occur.
• Crossing over- Exchange of genetic information within homologues
series (ensures variety)
• Homologues series then separate. Failure to separate is non-
disjunction.
• Chromosomes line up and separate independently (how one pair
separates has no effect on how another pair separates)
• Each resulting gametes is unique.

MEIOSIS II
• This stage is similar to Mitosis but does not have a special name
• Sister chromatids separate
• Division maintains haploid number
• Completes meiosis.
CELL RESPIRATION
A series of oxidative reactions by which cells release energy stored in
glucose and transfer it to ATP.

Aerobic respiration.
Glucose + Oxygen à Water + Carbon Dioxide
ATP
Consists of adenosine and 3 phosphates.

*The Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix

*The electron transport chain takes place in the cristae membrane.

Anaerobic;
• Glycolysis
• Alcoholic Fermentation
• Lactic acid fermentation
Aerobic
• Glycolysis
• Link reaction
• Krebs cycle
• Electron transport chain (chemiosmosis)

Aerobic respiration- Oxygen is present.

It consists of an anaerobic phase(glycolysis) and an aerobic phase (citric
acid cycle chemiosmosis- oxidative phosphorylation)
Glycolysis
* One molecule of glucose breaks down into two molecules of pyruvate
* Occurs in cytoplasm
* Each process is controlled by a different enzyme
* 2 ATP supply Activation Energy
* 4 ATP are produced so net gain is 2 ATP.
* 1 Glucose +2ATP = 2 Pyruvate + 4 ATP + 2 NADH

Citric acid cycle- Krebs cycle

• First stage of aerobic respiration
{Link Reaction: Pyruvate + coenzyme A (vitamin derivative) = Acetyl CoA}
• Occurs in matrix
• Products; 1 ATP, 1 FADH2, 3NADH
• Byproduct is CO2.

NADH and FADH2

• Coenzymes that carry electrons and protons from glycolysis and Krebs
cycle to the electron transport chain.
• NAD+ (oxidized).
FAD+ (oxidized)
NADH (reduced)
FADH2 (reduced)
• Conclusion; NADH = 3ATP
FADH2 = 2ATP

ETC, chemiosmosis and oxidative phosphorylation.

NADH and FADH2 transport highly energized electrons from the citric acid
cycle to the electron transport chain (ETCs) within cristae membranes of
mitochondria.
As electrons pass through ETC, this energy is used to pump protons across
cristae from matrix to outer compartment.
The whole purpose of the ETC is to establish a proton gradient.
Once formed, gradient is maintained as H+ cannot flow back except through
ATP synthase channels.

Proton gradient (causes PE to be generated for phosphorylation of ADP to

form ATP) represents potential energy.
Oxygen has a strong attraction for H+ and é. It pulls H+ and é through the
whole cycle and acts as the final acceptor.

H+ + O2- + é = H2O( product).

This is the water vapor we exhale.

Details of cell respiration

• Carriers are named cytochromes in ETC. (cristae)
• Every mitochondrion has 1000’s

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
This process consists of glycolysis (alcoholic/lactic Acid) fermentation
 (Glycolysis). Alcoholic fermentation(alcohol+co2)
Glucose. Pyruvate
Lactic acid (lactic acid fermentation)
Certain cells convert Pyruvate acid into ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and co2. E.g.
yeast – bread (co2 causes bread to rise)
wine (ferments sugar to alcohol)

Lactic acid fermentation

During strenuous exercise.
When oxygen is restored, Lactic acid is conned to liver to remake into
Pyruvate acid.

Classical genetics
Father of modern genetics: Gregor Mendel (1859). He conducted
experiments with garden peas. He brought mathematical laws of probability
to explain inheritance.
He produced 3 laws
• Law of dominance
• Law of segregation
• Law of independent assortment.

Probability
Likelihood that a particular event would happen.
E.g flipping a coin- heads or tails = 50% or ½
 T T
t Tt Tt
Flipping a coin 3 times- getting heads= ½×½×½= ⅛
t Tt Tt
You multiply because each is a separate event.

Law of dominance
When two homozygous (pure) for opposing traits are crossed, the offspring
will be hybrid (carrying two different traits), but will express the dominant trait.
Trait that is hidden in the recessive trait.

Parents TT × tt
Pure tall Pure short

Offspring: Tt (All hybrid tall)

Law of dominance
• All offspring are tall.

Law of segregation
During the formation of gametes, two traits carried by each parent separate

Tt

T-gametes-t

Mono hybrid cross

A cross between two organisms hybrid for a single trait such as;
Tt × Tt ( T= tall, t= dwarf) 3:1 ratio(phonotypic)
1:2:1(genotypic ratio

Mono hybrid example

Fi: Tt × Tt
T t
T TT Tt
t Tt tt

Fe: TT, Tt or tt
Backcross or Testcross (BB or Bb)
It is a way to determine whether an individual plant or animal showing the
dominant trait is actually homozygous or heterozygous.

Genotype; Individual or unknown genotype (B-) is crossed with

homozygous recessive (bb).
If individual is homozygous dominant, all offspring will show dominant and
be a hybrid(Bb). If it is hybrid, we can say the ½ offspring or at least one will
show recessive trait.
Therefore, if any offspring is recessive, unknown parent is hybrid.

If a phenotypic ratio of 1:1 is seen, it means a hybrid is crossed with a

homozygous recessive.

Law of independent Assortment

This law applies when a cross is carried out between the individuals that are
hybrid for two traits on separate chromosomes.
During gametes formation, the genes for one trait(such as height, T or t) are
not inherited along with the genes for another trait(such as seed color Y or
y). The example will use the following traits; T=tall, t=dwarf, Y=yellow, y=
green
It all depends on how homologues chromosomes line up.

Example- A dihybrid cross

Tt Yy × Tt Yy

TY Ty tY ty
TY TTYY TTYy TtYY TtYy
Ty TTYy TTyy TtYY Ttyy
tY TtYY TtyY ttYY ttyY
ty TtYy TtYy ttYy ttyy

Phenotypic ratio of dihybrid cross is 9:3:3:1

Mendelian inheritance works with the gene which has two alleles. There
are other genes who are not this type.

Incomplete dominance
This basically means blending.
• A long watermelon (LL) is crossed with a round watermelon (RR)
produces all oval watermelon (LR)
This occurs because neither trait is dominant.

Two pink flowers crossed (RW)

R W
R RR RW
W RW WW

Codominance
Both traits show.
E.g MN blood group in human
• M
• N
• MN
All three are molecules on the surface of the red blood cell.

Multiple Alleles
Most genes in a population exist in only allelic forms. When there are more
than two Alleles, we call this situation multiple Alleles; A, B, O, AB.
A and B are codominant.
Blood group O can be written as ii.

Blood types;
A Homo: AA
A Hetero: Ai
B Homo: BB
B Hetero: Bi
AB Hetero: AB
O Hetero: ii

Polygenic Inheritance
Varying characteristics such as hair and skin color vary on a continuum so
they are called polygenic inheritance.
Genes located on a sex chromosome are called sex linked-gene.
78 Y-linked genes
100 X-linked genes
Mutations of X-linked genes affect males, not females because females have
two X chromosomes whilst males only have one.
Recessive (color blindness, hemophilia) - sex-linked traits are more common
than dominant.
All daughters of affected fathers are carriers
X Y Affected father
X XX XY
X XX XY

Genes and Environment

Environment affects genes (e.g.) fruits, flies.
Hot environment, F. flies that are homozygous recessive for vestigial wings
grow very long.

Sex influential inheritance

Male female
BALD BALD BB
BALD NOT BB
NOT NOT bb

Laboratory procedure that analyzes size, shape and number of

chromosomes. Scientists prepare and photograph chromosomes during
metaphase.

46 Chromosomes
44 autosomes
2 sex chromosomes

The pedigree
This is a family tree showing phonotype of one trait for every family member.
Female – carrier- hair shaded
Male - exhibits trait- full shade

Mutations
• Refers to an abnormality in the genome. They can occur in somatic
(body) cells and cause cancer.
• They can occur during gametogenesis and affect future offspring.

Gene Mutation - caused by a change in one DNA sequence.

Chromosome Mutation – may undergo (DAS; Deletion, Addition, Substitution
- caused by non-disjunction)

NON-DISJUNCTION
Happens during meiosis where homologues chromosomes do not separate
as they should. One gamete receives 2 chromosomes. If this unites with
another gamete, the zygote will have extra chromosome.
• Any abnormal chromosome condition is called aneuploidy
• If a chromosome is present in triplicate, this is called trisomy
• People with 3 #21 chromosome have down’s syndrome, also known
as Trisomy 21.
• Triploid(3n) – extra set of chromosomes in a cell e.g. cells in an
endosperm or cotyledon of a sees are triploid
• Cells with more than one 3 sets are polyploids. Scientists breed plants
to be polyploids - gives large flowers and fruits.

Chromosomal Aberrations (DITNP)

• Deletion
• Inversion
• Translocation
• Polyploidy
• Non-disjunction
All these happen to single chromosomes.

Molecular Genetics
DNA is the molecule of heredity (deoxyribonucleic acid)

SEARCH FOR INHERITANCE MATERIALS

Griffin (1927) – bacterial transformations.
A.M.M (1944) – confirmed that Griffin transferred DNA molecule.
Hershel and Chase (1952)- proved that DNA is the molecule of heredity.
Rosalind Franklin (1950-1953)- showed DNA is helical
Watson and Crick (1962, Nobel prize)– Proved DNA structure as a double
helix.
Meselson and Stahl- (1953)-The scientists proved the hypothesis of Watson
and Crick that DNA undergoes semiconservative replication.
• Bacteria in medium containing N-15
• They are then moved to medium containing 14N
• After replications, Bacteria contains 1 heavy strand and 1 light strand
which proves semiconservative replication.
Structure of deoxyribonucleic acid
• DNA is a double helix (twisted ladder)
• It is made up of two complementary strand (polynucleotides) running
in opposite direction from each other.
• It is a polymer made up of nucleotides
• Nucleotide; (PSB) A phosphate molecule
5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
Nitrogenous base
• For DNA, one of the four nitrogenous bases are possible; TAGC,
Thymine, adenine, guanine, cytosine.
• AG – Purine (A bonds with G), CT – pyrimidine (G bonds with C).
• The nucleotides of opposite chains are linked via hydrogen.

DNA replication in eukaryotes

• This refers to making an exact copy of DNA.
• Two products each contains one old strand and one new strand
(semiconservative replication).
*Replication occurs during interphase of the life cycle of a cell.
*DNA polymerase catalyzes the replication of the DNA. It also proof-
reads, fixing errors and minimizes the occurrence of mutations.
• DNA is unzipped at the hydrogen bonds that connects the two
polynucleotides.
• Each strand is a template for the new strand: A-T and C-G. E.g. old
strand AAATCGGAC and new strand TTTAGCCTG(complement)
Each time DNA replicates, some nucleotides at the end of the Chromosomes
are lost. To protect loss of genes of the end of chromosomes, some
eukaryotic cells have special nonsense nucleotide sequences of the end of
chromosomes that repeat 1000’s of times. These protective ends are called
telomeres.
Structure of Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• Single stranded helix.
• Polymer made up of nucleotides
• PSB structure
• Consists of nucleotides; Uracil, adenine, guonine, cytosine.
• Three types of RNA; mRNA(messenger RNA), tRNA(transfer RNA),
rRNA(ribosomal RNA).

Messenger RNA (mRNA) – Made from DNA template during transcription.

mRNA comes code to ribosomes where message is translated. mRNA
breaks down after transcription.
Transfer RNA – Clover leaf shaped molecule that carries specific amino acid
molecules to mRNA at the ribosome to help form a polypeptide during
translation.
Ribosomal RNA – makes up part of the ribosomes. Every ribosome is made
up of a large and small subunit. Each subunit is made up of proteins and one
or more rRNAs.

From DNA to Protein.

• Transcription
• RNA processing
• Translation

TRANSCRIPTION
• Process where DNA makes RNA. DNA code is transcribed into a colon
sequence in mRNA, following base pairing rules; A with G and C with
G.
(E.g.) AAA TAA CCG GAC
UUU AUU GGC CUG
Transcription begins when RNA polymerase (enzymes) binds to one strand
of DNA to the promoter region. RNA polymerase seperates components any
strands and add nucleotides (a process called elongation).When RNA strand
reaches stop codon, A terminates elongation, and RNA peels away from
DNA strand allowing DNA helix to form.
Transcription needs only one DNA strand whereas replication needs two.

RNA processing
After transcription, before RNA is shipped out, it is spliced by enzymes called
SnRNPs(snurps). Introns are removed from extrons and placed back
together.

mRNA into protein (translation)

Process by which mRNA is converted into a. Amino acid sequence.
• Occurs at the ribosome
• Amino acids to cytoplasm are carried by tRNA to the codons of mRNA
according to base pairing rules.
• Various codons can code for the same amino acid.

GENE REGULATIONS
Every cell doesn’t constantly produce polypeptides it has no ability to make.
CELLS ARE NOT ALWAYS NEEDED.
This means every gene is not turned on all the time.
Gene regulations area is found in bacteria DNA in an area called OPERON
(cluster of genes and switches that turn them on and off). It is not yet
completely understood.
Two types;
• Lac(inductive) – turned on by environment.
• Repressible OPERON – Always on unless wanted turned off.
Parts: Promoter (binding of RNA polymerase) and operator (binding site for
repressor.
Mutations
Changes in genetic material. They occur spontaneously.
Raw material for natural selection.
Point mutation
Base pair mutation
Sickle cell anaemia; point mutation in haemoglobin coding gene.

GENE MUTATIONS (karyotype is performed)

• Deletion
• Insertion
• Substitution
Chromosome mutations
Aneuploidy is used to refer to any abnormal chromosome condition.
The human genome (an organism's genetic material).

Genetic engineering and recombinant DNA(taking DNA from two sources

and combining them in one cell)
Recombinant DNA is used a lot in genetic engineering.
Restriction Enzymes
“molecular scissors”- cut sites specifically.

Gel electrophoresis
Polymerase chain reaction
PCR- DNA piece can be rapidly copied or amplified.

Animal behavior
Behavior refers to the way in which an organism responds to changes in
internal or external changes in environment. E.g. innate and learned.
Behavior changes in response to a stimulus. The study of behavior and its
relationship to evolutionary origins is ethology.
Famous scientists in the field of etymology;
• Karl von Frisch (KF) – honeybee communication and bee waggle
dance.
• Konrad Lorenz(KL) – imprinting.
• Niko Tinbergen (NT) – fixed action pattern.
Fixed Action pattern
• Innate, stereotypical behavior that can’t be stopped once begun.
• Caused by sign stimuli (between some species, releasers)
• Stickleback fish – red color

Learning
Responses of organism are modified by experience
Learning ability depends on size of brain and time of life.

Habituation
Tapping a hydra – first shrinks but then continues ignoring stimulus
Associative learning
One stimulus links to another through experience.
 • Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning

Imprinting
• Learning that occurs during a sensitive or critical period in the early life
of an individual (irreversible for that period).
• Duck kids following mother.

Social behavior
Two or more animals interact with each other
• Cooperation
• Organic behavior
• Dominance hierarchies.
• Altruism
• Territoriality

THE HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM

• Histamine
• Interferons
• Allergens
We live in a sea of germs. As a result, the human body has developed a
complex system of defenses to fight pathogens
 1- Nonspecific defense
There are two lines of defense;
First line of defense
Barrier that helps prevent pathogens from entering the body.
• Skin blocks pathogens
• Mucus membrane trap microbes
• Cilia sweeps mucus with trapped microbes
• Stomach acid kills germs that enter through nose and mouth.
Second line of defense
To reduce speed of microbes to different areas
• Inflammatory response: Swelling, redness, soreness. This is to
increase blood supply by extension white blood cells.
i. Histamine triggers vasodilation, increases blood
supply and phagocytes. Histamine is also responsible
for common cold.
ii. Increase body temperature, speeds up immune
response and makes it more difficult for microbes to
function.
• Phagocytes (macrophages) – extend pseudo pools and engulf huge
numbers of microbes over a long period of time.
• Interferons – Released by immune system to block infections.

Specific line of defense

• This consists of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell). Both originate
in the bone marrow. Once matured, they circulate in the blood, lymph
and lymphatic tissue.
• Both recognize a specific antigen (anything that triggers immune
response).
B- lymphocytes- Produce antibodies to fight antigen (humoral response)
T- lymphocytes- produce hand to hand combat to fight pathogens (cell
mediated response)
ANTIBODIES
Each antibody can bind to only one antigen. E.g Antibody + antigen= antigen-
antibody complex (gobbled up by phagocytes).
Clonal-Selection
Antigen enters body and binds to either B or T lymphocyte. Once separated,
very metabolically active.
Lymphocyte

Plasma cell memory cell

(Neutral antigen) (remain circulating giving
Primary immune response Future resistance)

Type of immunity
Active;
• Natural- got disease
• Artificial- injected disease
Passive;
• Natural- mother to baby (breast milk)
• Artificial- antibodies injected.

ABO blood types;

ABO antibodies circulate in blood plasma and bind with ABO antigens in the
event of improper transfusion (danger)
A: lab test is done before- cross match
O: No antigens (universal donor)
AB– universal recipient (no antibodies)
Blood type Antigens for Antibodies against
A A B
B B A
O - A&B
AB A&B -

Aids (HIV is a retrovirus). Cells that have Aids are T helper cells

Animal physiology
• Animals are multicellular eukaryotes
• Heterotrophs (acquire nutrients by ingestion)
• Animals in detail; hydra(cnidarian)
• Earthworm (Annelida)
• Grasshopper (Arthropoda)

Movement and locomotion

• Characteristics of all animals
• Locomotion is the movement from one place to another.
• Some (e.g.) hydra and sponges are sessile (do not move). Hydra
moves its tentacles and stings prey that come near it.
• Some Arthropods; crab or grasshopper have an exoskeleton which
offers protection. It is made up of chitin.
• Endoskeleton grows with animals while exoskeleton does not grow
with animals.
• Worms have a hydrostatic skeleton.

Body temperature regulation

• Most life exists between 0°C and 50°C
• Animals must create a suitable environment for themselves.
• Oceans are the most stable temperature environment.
TERMS
Ectotherm- heated from outside. Closest in meaning to cold blooded. (e.g.
reptiles.)
Endotherm- maintains a constant body temperature (birds and mammals
only).

EXCRETION
Removal of metabolic waste: CO2, H2O, nitrogenous waste.

Ammonia
• Very soluble in water and highly toxic
• Excreted by water animals, e.g. fish and hydra
Urea
• Not as toxic as ammonia
• Excreted by earthworms and humans.
• Formed a liver from ammonia.
Uric acid
• Paste like substances- insoluble in water
• Not toxic
• Excreted by insects, birds, reptiles and minimum water loss

HYDRA(phylum)- cnidarian
• Digestion Occurs through gastrovascular cavity
• Has only one opening- food enters and waste comes out the same way.
• Cells or gastrodermis secrete enzymes for digestion.
Nervous system
• All cnidarians have unique cells called cnidocytes, has stingers called
nematocysts
• Nerve net- Entire organism responds

Body plan:
• Polyp (primitive and radial)
• Ectoderm and endoderm
• Middle layer mesoglea
Reproduction
• They reproduce by budding

EARTHWORM- phylum Annelida

• Helps aerate soil
• Food is ingested. It moves through the esophagus and the crop where
it is stored, then gizzard.
Nervous and transport
• Gases pass by diffusion
• Has heart; arteries, capillaries and veins (closed circulatory system.)
Excretion
• Has a paired nephridia to every part of the body to remove waste.
Reproduction
It is a hermaphrodite so it has both male and female reproductive organs.

GRASSHOPPER- phylum Arthropoda

Digestion
Similar to earthworm, has a crop and gizzard.
Differences;
• Has parts for tasting and crushing
• Gizzard contains chitin plates for grinding
• Malpighian tubules in digestive tract remove nitrogenous waste.
Respiration
• Internal respiratory system.

Nervous and transport

• Nervous system similar to earthworm
• Open circulatory system.

THE CELL (Chapter continued)

Vacuole
• Single membrane-bound structure
• Stores substances for cell
• Paramecium and amoeba have contractile vacuole(pump excess
water out of the cell)
• Plant cell and human cells have large central vacuole for storage.
Vesicle
• Tiny vacuole
• Found in axis of neuron to give out neurotransmitter into synapses.
(acetylcholine)
Plastids
• Double membrane
• Plants and algae
• Leucoplasts - colorless and store starch
• Chromoplasts- carotenoid pigments storage (a lot of colors).
Cytoskeleton
Complex network of protein filament that extends throughout cytoplasm and
gives the cell its shape and enables it to move.
Microtubules (protein tubules)
+ cilia, flagella and spindle fibers
Microfilament -protein actin, help support shape
Centrioles and centrosomes
Only animal cells process them. Lies outside nucleus and organize spindle
fibers required for cell division.
Two centrioles at right angles to each other make up the centrosome.
Centrioles and spindle have the same structure, made up of microtubules.

Cilia and flagella

Same 9+2 arrangement. Both are made up of Microtubules. They have some
internal structure but only difference: cilia is short while flagella is tall.
Cell walls: not found in animal cells.

Cytoplasm and cytosol

Entire region between nucleus and plasma membrane. Cytosol refers to the
semi-liquid portion of the cytoplasm. Process called cyclosis, organelles are
suspended and get moved around by cyclosis.
Cell or plasma membrane
• Controls what gets in and out of the cell.
• Fluid mosaic
• Phospholipid bilayer
• Cholesterol make it more stable

Transport into and out of the cell

• Selectively permeable
• Solvent
• Solute
• Hypertonic - more solute than other solution
• Hypotonic - having a lower sac than another solution
• Isotonic - Equal amount of solute in solutions

Passive transport
Movement of molecules down a concentration gradient from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration. Never needs energy (e.g.)
diffusion (passive, sample and facilitated.)

Simple diffusion
 • Movement of particles from a higher concentration to a lower
concentration
• Deeper gradient, faster rate
• Earthworms respiratory system is based on diffusion
• Human respiratory system in alveoli is based on respiration
Facilitated Diffusion
In neurons, calcium ions are transported across calcium channels by
facilitated diffusion

Osmosis
Diffusion of water across a membrane. Flows down a gradient (flows to
hypertonic solution.
Active transport
Active transport is the uptake of particles against a concentration gradient. It
requires energy (e.g. function of contractile vacuole in paramecium and
amoeba.)

Exocytosis
Release of molecules from a cell (e.g.) synapse area of the nerve cells and
- vesicles containing acetylcholine- required for synapse to pass from one
cell to another.
Endocytosis
Cell absorbs molecules and forms new vesicles

Pinocytosis
Uptake of small dissolved molecules

Phagocytosis
engulfing of large particles or even small organisms by pseudopods
Cell membrane wraps around particles and enclosed them, forming a
vacuole. This is how human WBCs engulf bacteria. This is how amoeba
feeds.

Receptor- meditated endocytosis

Enables a cell to take up very large quantities of a substance.
Way in which cells take in cholesterol from blood; Extracellular substances
bind to specific receptors on the cell membrane and are drawn into the cell
as vesicles.
Sodium -potassium pump(Na-k pump)
This Na-k pump is used in nerve cells to return nerve cells to resting state
after an impulse passes.
Overview of active and passive Transport

Life functions
Refer to the common acronym “GRIMNER”

Microscopes
• Compound microscope
• Phase contrast microscope
• Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
• Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Ways to study cells
• Ultracentrifuge
• Freeze facture
 • Tissue culture

REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

Most animals have seasons of reproductive activity. The periodic nature of
animals is controlled by hormonal and environmental cues. Periodic nature
allows animals to:
• Conserve resources
• Reproduce when environmental favor growth of offspring.
I. Asexually only - identical to parents (favorable if environment is
stable)
II. Sexually only - more variation (more success in changing
environment)
III. Alternate between two.

Pathogenesis
• Eggs develop without being fertilized.
• Adult is haploid
E.g. honey bees: male is haploid and female is diploid.

Hermaphrodites
Some stationary animals are hermaphrodite (both male and female part).
They can mate with any animal of their species.

Sexual Reproduction
Haploid sperm(n) fertilizes larger haploid egg(n) and forms diploid (2n)-
zygotes. Zygotes then goes through cleavage, gastrulation and
organogenesis.
Fishes and amphibians perform external fertilization. Rate of predation for
zygote is high.
Birds, reptiles and mammals carry out internal fertilization.
Fermentation Development Egg Parental
guide
Fish External External Many None
Amphibians External External Many None
Reptiles Internal External(inside Few Some
egg)
Birds Internal External (inside Few Much
egg)
Mammals Internal Internal Few Much

Asexual Reproduction
Genetically identical to parent- carries advantages
Types
• Fission
• Budding
• Fragmentation
• Pathogenesis

Sexual Reproduction
Variation (especially in rapidly changing environments).
Human male reproductive system
• Testes- male gonads, site of sperm formation
• Vas deferens- carries sperm from epididymis to the penis
• Prostate gland- secretes semen directly into urethra
• Scrotum- Sac that holds testes (cooler temperature allows sperm to
survive).

Female reproductive organs

• Ovaries- where meiosis occurs and secondary oocytes form prior to
birth.
• Oviduct or Fallopian tubule- fertilization occurs; egg moves through
Fallopian tubule to uterus.
• Uterus- where the blastula stage of the embryo will implant and
develop during the 9-month gestation.
• Vagina- Baby comes out through cervix and vagina
• Cervix- mouth of uterus
• Endometrium- lining of uterus.
Menstrual cycle
• Series of changes of the ovary and uterus that is controlled by
hormones.
• Females release gametes every 28 days (puberty to menopause). This
release of egg is one of four stages of the cycle.
Hormonal control
Hypothalamus releases GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone). This
stimulates anterior pituitary gland to release FSH and LH which in turn
stimulates ovary and progesterone to be released by the ovary.
Embryonic development
(n) +(n) = (2n)
This 2n (Zygote undergoes various mitotic divisions(cleavage) hollow ball
called blastula.
Gastrulation (continuation of the process- differentiation)
Three layer of embryo is formed. It is called gastrula.
Ectoderm (skin and nervous), mesoderm (muscle, blood and bones) and
endoderm (organ)
Organogenesis
• Needs to differentiate into various organs. Becomes a fetus now.

Extra- embryonic membranes (bird embryo)

• Chorion- allows diffusion of respiratory gases
• Yolk sac- encloses yolk, food for growing embryo
• Amnion- enclosed embryo in protective amniotic fluid.
• Allantois- homologous to embryo (placenta) places from which gases
come and go place which waste goes too.

PLANTS
Include all multi-celled, eukaryotic, photosynthetic autotrophs. Cell walls are
made of cellulose. They store carbohydrates as starch. Scientists believe
that modern multi-celled plants are evolved from Green algae “chlorophyta”,
(live in fresh water).

Characteristics of plants
• Bryophytes
 • Tracheophytes

Bryophytes
• Primitive- no muscular tissue
• Live in most environments
• Tiny because no lignin for support
• Mosses, liverworts and hornworts.
Tracheophytes
• Have vascular tissue; xylem and phloem.
• Include ancient seedless plants like ferns
• Modern plants with seeds (gymnosperms and angiosperms) included.

Gymnosperms (conifers)
Cone bearing plants. Seeds are on the surface of cones. They can undergo
various modifications.
Angiosperms (flowering plants)
• Seeds develop inside ovary. After pollination, ovary becomes the fruit
• Monocotyledons and eudicots(dicotyledons)

Characteristics Monocots Dicots

Cotyledons One Two
Vascular turbid Scattered In a ring
Leaf variation Parallel Net like
Floral parts 3s 4s or 5s

Monocots provide food for most of the world.

CLADOGRAM FOR PLANTS
Shows evolutionary relationship among 4 main groups of plants using
presence or absence of vascular tissue, seeds and flowers.

• Cellulose cell walls

• Roots and root hairs absorb to water and nutrients from the soil
• Stomata opening and closing.
• Waxy cuticles on leaves
• Gametangia (protective jackets containing gametes and zygotes)
• Sporopollenin (is found in the walls of spores and pollen.)

How plants grow

Plant always grow because they have meristem tissues that continually
divides.

Plants;
• Primary growth – vertical growth
• Secondary growth

New cells arise from growth layer called the apical meristem. Root growth is
concentrated near root tip.
The three zones are
• Zone of cell division
• Zone of elongation
• Zone of differentiation

Lateral growth or increase in the girth.

Roots
Absorb nutrients, anchor plant and store food.
We need to know the difference between monocot and dicot roots (dicot-
less complex, monocots- more complex).
 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

Digestion
• Breaking down large food molecules into smaller ones
• Absorbing these molecules.
Fats into glycerol and fatty acids
Starch into monosaccharides
Nucleic acids into nucleotides
Protein into amino acids.

Vitamins and minerals are small enough so that they do not need to be
digested.
Digestive tract is 30 feet long, and made up of smooth muscles. These
smooth involuntary muscles push food via peristalsis. These muscles are
controlled by ANS (autonomic nervous system).

MOUTH
• Mechanical and chemical digestion begins here
• The enzymes, salivary amylase, in saliva begin starch digestion.
• Tongue and teeth work together to break down food mechanically.
• Types of teeth depends on diet; canine, incisors and molars

ESOPHAGUS
• No digestion; food is moved by peristalsis to stomach

STOMACH (cardiac and pyloric splincter)

 • Mechanical and chemical digestion occurs here.
• Protein digestion begins here
• Stomach secretes gastric juice (HCI and protein enzymes)
• HCI – breakdown of protein and activated pepsin.
• Enzyme rennin aids I the digestion of milk
• Acidic pH (2 to 3).
• Excessive acid may cause ulcers to form, (Helicobacter Pylori) -
bacteria that can cause ulcers.

Small intestine
Digestion is completed here.
• Nutrients are absorbed here
• pH = 8
• It is 6 meters’ long
• Digestion is finished in the duodenum
• Amylase, protease, lipase, nuclease
• Peptides (e.g. trypsin and chymotrypsin continue to breakdown protein)
• Nuclease breakdown nucleic acids into nucleotides
• Lipase breaks down fats
• Millions of finger-like projections line the small intestine and absorb all
small nutrients

Villas – capillaries absorb glycerol and fatty acids.

Gas exchange
Air enters nasal cavity. It is moistened, warmed and filtered.

Nasal cavity- larynx- Trachea- Trachea- bronchi- lungs- alveoli.

Humans have an internal respiratory surface.
Breathing in:
• No cage expands
• Diaphragm contracts going down
• Expands cavity
• Decrease pressure

Medulla: In brain acts breathing rate with respect to level of co2 (pH in blood)
pH <7.4 (more co2, so increases breaking).
Oxygen is corned around by blood (hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin)
co2 is carried in the plasma (buffering system).

Circulation
Human possess a closed circulatory system consisting of arteries, veins and
capillaries

Arteries
• Blood carried away from heart under enormous pressure.
• Contains elastic fibers, smooth, muscle and collagen fibers(EGC)
Veins
• Blood carried back to heart with very little pressure
• EVC has valves
Capillaries
• 1 cell stick
• Diffusion to growth and nutrient (1 cell thick)
Blood
• Contains plasma
• 4-6 litters available
Mechanism of blood clothing
• Serum = plasma – clothing factors.
• Calcium = necessary for blood clothing
• Clothing factors are released by damaged tissue and platelets
Components of blood
• Plasma
• Red blood cells(Erythrocytes)
• White blood cells(leucocytes)
• Platelets (Thrombocytes)

THE HEART
• Beats around 70 beats per minute
• Pacemaker = Sino-atrial node(SAN)
• Average B.P = 120/80.
• Systolic to ventricle = contracts, diastolic to heart= relaxes.
Remember;
Pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood.
Pulmonary vein is the only vein that carries oxygenated blood.

Evolution
Change in genes of a population over time. There are two types;
• Micro-evolution: Changes in one gene pool of a population over
generation
• Macro-evolution: Refers to specialties (formation of an entirely new
specie)

Remember; individuals never change or evolve. A population is the smallest

group that can evolve. A population is all the members of a species in one
place.
Evidence of evolution
• Fossil record
• Comparative Anatomy - (divergent) homologous, (convergent)
analogous, vestigial)
• Comparative biochemistry
• Comparative Embryology
• Molecular biology (cytochrome c)
• Biogeography.
Lamarck vs Darwin
Lamarck “contemporary of Darwin. He also developed a theory of evolution.
A major part of Lamarck's statement was “use and reuse”
Darwin - Naturalist and author
When he was 28 (1831), he left England as the HMS beagle to visit the
Galapagos islands, south America, Africa and Australia. He collected and
sampled a plethora of animals. He developed the THEORY OF NATURAL
SELECTION.
Darwin’s Theory of natural selection
• Population tend to grow exponentially, to overpopulate and exceed
resources.
• Overproduction: compete for resources, struggle for existence
• Variation present in a population.
• Survival of the fittest.

Evolution and doing resistance

Not all forms of evolution occurs slowly. When antibiotics were first made,
bacteria stains which are resistant appeared. When all susceptible died,
these remained and multiplied among population to evolve.
Types of natural selection
• Directional
• Diversifying or disruptive
• Stabilizing
Mutation
Changes in genetic materials and are raw materials for evolutionary change.
A single point mutation can introduce a new allele into a population.

GENETIC DRIFT
Change in gene pool due to chance. There are two types;
• Bottleneck effect- natural disasters
• Founder effect- new species form by escaping and isolation.

Gene flow
Movement of alleles into or out of a population. It can occur as a result of
migration of fertile individuals.

Population stability - Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium

Hardy and Weinberg, two scientists, developed a theorem that described a
stable, non evolving population. That is, one in which allelic frequency does
not change. For example, allele frequency doesn’t change in a 1000 years;
0.5
Characteristics of Hardy Weinberg equilibrium
• The population must be very large- small population will have a large
change if a small change is issued. For a large population, it will be
diluted so no change will occur.
• Population must be isolated from other population. No migration
population because that could alter allele frequencies.
• No mutation
• Mating must be random
• No natural selection
Hardy Weinberg equation
Enables to circulate allele frequencies in a population. It can be applied to
complex situations; we will use a simple example for explanation.
Gene locus with only two Alleles
P= dominant allele; p+q= -1
Q= recessive allele; p²+2pq+q²=1
Monohybrid cross
A a
A AA Aa
a Aa aa
p²=AA
2pq=2(Aa)
q²=aa

ISOLATION AND NEW SPECIES FORMATION

A species is a group of organisms who can interbreed and produce fertile
offspring.
Formation of new species:
• Geographic isolation
• Polyploidy
Six different types of isolation commonly cause the new species formation;
• Geographic I
• Polyploidy
• Habitat I
• Behavioral I
• Temporal I
Patterns of evolution (DCPCA)
• Divergent evolution
• Convergent evolution
• Parallel evolution
• Coevolution
• Adaptive radiation
Theories about evolution
• Gradualism (abandoned)
• Punctuated equilibrium (believe in now)
• Spontaneous Generation
How life began
All organisms alive today represent <3% of all the organisms that ever lived.
>97% of all life has gone extinct.
Radio-isotopes dating tells us that the earth is 4.6 billion years old. After the
big bang, Earth’s surface cooled and formed a crust. Ancient environment
had methane(CH4), NH3, H2O, N2- No free oxygen.
Intense heat, lighting and UV radiation. Radiation formed first cell.
Heterotroph Hypothesis
First cells were anaerobic heterotrophs (prokaryotes). Absorbed organic
material as food.
First cell evolved 3.5 billion years ago.
Eukaryotic cells made 1.5 billion years ago(Endosymbiosis)

Mass Extinction
• Permian
• Cretaceous
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Works on maintaining homeostasis
• Endocrine system secretes hormones whilst the nervous system
secretes neurotransmitters
• In one case, epinephrine functions both as a flight or fight hormone
(adrenal gland) or can send message from one nerve to another.
Ductless glands(endocrine)- short term or long term
• Adrenaline (epinephrine)
• Ecdysone (controls metamorphosis in insects)

Tropic Hormones are ones that stimulate other hormones to have a far-
reaching effect. E.g. Anterior pituitary gland makes TSH to go and stimulate
thyroid to make thyroxine.
Pheromones; In urine of a dog comes a message between different
individuals of the same species.
Can also be used as a cell signaler.
Hypothalamus (thermostat- regulates hunger and thirst); Acts as endocrine
gland giving out oxytocin and ADH (stored in posterior pituitary)
It is part of the brain. It serves as the connection between the endocrine
system and the nervous system of the body.
Stress- signals adrenal gland to send out some epinephrine.
Anterior Growth hormone
Pituitary LH
FGH
TSH
Posterior Oxytocin
Pituitary ADH
Thyroid Thyroxine
Pancreas- islets of Insulin
langer hans Glucagon
Adrenal gland Adrenaline
Testes Testosterone
Ovaries Estrogen
Progesterone

Feedback
• Positive feedback
• Negative feedback
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Consists of;
• Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system- all nerves outside the CNS.
The peripheral nervous system is further divided and subdivided into various
systems.
Outline
• Sensory- convey information from nerve endings
• Motor- stimulates voluntary and involuntary muscles
• Somatic; voluntary muscles
• Autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic); involuntary muscles

Nervous system

CNS ANS

Sensory motor

Somatic autonomic

Sympathetic parasympathetic
There are three types:
• Sensory neurons
• Intermediate neurons
• Motor neurons

The Reflex Arc

Inborne, automatic and protective.
All living cells exhibit a membrane potential; difference between cytoplasm
(negative charges) and Extracellular fluid (positive charge).
Average: -50mv to -100mv. (-) indicates inside is more positive than outside.
Resting potential; -70mv
This is maintained by active sodium potassium pump. Pushes out ions that
leak inwards.
Action potential
• Can only be generated in axon of neuron
• Sodium flood in when channels open
• Potassium flood out when channels open
• This reverses polarity and is called action phase
• The pump then restores everything.
Depolarization
Repolarization- retracting period (ensures impulse moves one way)
Action potential is an “all-or-nothing” event. Stimulus is either strong enough
or not at all. Threshold is -50MV.
SYNAPSE
Impulses cross synapses chemically.
Terminal branches contain vesicles consisting of a neurotransmitter
substance.
Depolarization causes Ca2+ to gather at the terminal branch. This causes
neurotransmitters to go out and bind to other neuron. This releases the
impulse by exocytosis.

EYE AND EAR

Excretion

Removing Co2 and H2O from cell, respiration, nitrogenous wastes from
protein metabolism.

Organs of excretion;
• Skin
• Lungs
• Liver
• Kidney- main organ
Types of muscles;
• Smooth or involuntary- blood vessels and digestive trait.
• Cardiac- myogenic
• Skeletal

Biological diversity
Taxonomy is a system by which we name and classify all organisms, living
and extinct.
The system we use today was developed by Carl Linnaeus. It is a system
of binomial nomenclature.
Every animal has a two-part name. E.g. Human= homo sapiens
Level of organization taxa;
• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
Extremophiles - organisms that live in extreme environments.
1960’s
• Monera (prokaryotes)
• Protista
• Fungi
• Animalia
• Plantae
• Archaebacteria (contains extremophiles)
Today, we have a different system in place;
• Archaea
• Eukarya
• Bacteria
Three main classification system
Bacteria
• All are prokaryotes
• Anaerobes and aerobes
• Decomposers
• Many are pathogens
• Genetic engineering
• Some do conjunction (sexual Reproduction)
Archaea
• Unicellular
• Prokaryotes
• Includes extremophiles – MTH; methanogens, Halophiles and
Thermophiles.
Eukarya
• Have nucleus and internal membrane which include; protista, fungi,
animals and plants.
Using high school biology textbooks, obtain general knowledge about;
Protista, fungi, plants and animals.
 ECOLOGY

Ecology is the study of the interaction of organisms with their physical

environment and with each other.
Population- group of organisms of a single species living in the area who
can interbreed and interact with each other.
Community- Consists of all the organisms living in one area
Ecosystem- Consists of all the organisms in an area with respect to the
abiotic factors that interact with them
Biotic factors- living organisms
Abiotic factors- non-living factors
Biosphere – global ecosystem
Niche- an organism’s way of life.

Properties of population
• Size
• Density – mark and recapture
• Dispersion; clumped, uniform and random
Population growth
Every population has a biotic potential(maximum rate at which population
could flourish under ideal conditions)
Exponential growth
Best model for growth.

Reproductive strategies
Take advantage of opportunity- r strategists (e g) insects.
K- strategists – maximize populations near carrying capacity e.g mammals.

Limiting factors
Density – dependent
Density – independent

INTERACTIONS
Competition – competitive exclusion principle
Predators

FEEDING
Animals have evolved a variety of ways to feed.
Herbivores feed on plants
Carnivores eat other animals
Detritivores are animals that feed on plants and animals that have died,
decomposed into organic detritus.
Mutualism – bacteria in intestine (shelter). It produces vitamins for the
human.
Commensalism – One organism benefits while the other is neither
benefitted or advantaged. E.g. barnacles attached to whale obtain nutrients
but whales don’t know about these barnacles.
Parasitism – One organism benefits whilst the other is harmed (e.g) tapewy
in human intestine.

Producers
Convert light energy to chemical energy. Mostly green plants – aquatic
producers, (diatoms and phytoplankton).
Energy and productivity in a good chain
Productivity – rate at which organic matter is created in a good chain by
producers.
Gross primary productivity – amount of energy converted to chemical time.
Net P.P. = GPP – energy used by producers for respiration.

Biological magnifications
Organisms at higher level trophic levels will have a greater concentration of
accumulated toxins stored in their body then those of lower trophic levels.
(E.g.) due to DDT, the bald eagle almost went into Extinction.
Decomposers
• Bacteria and fungi
• Recycle nutrients within a food chain
Ecological Succession
Most ecosystems are dynamic, always changing. Population increases and
decreases around carrying capacity. Ecological Succession comes after an
alien predator or a disaster.
If rebuilding starts from a bare state with not even a soil, it is called primary
ecological Succession.
Main focus = soul building
First organisms will be pioneer organisms. Final community is called the
climax community.
Secondary Succession – when climax community was previously indicated.

BIOMES
• Very large areas of the earth.
• Distribution depends on the; amount of rainfall and temperature of area.
Examples of biomes;
• Marine – largest/ most stable
• Tropical rainforest- most diversity
• Dessert – greatest temperature fluctuations
• Temperature grasslands
• Deciduous forest
• Taiga forest – largest terrestrial biome.
Chemical cycles;
• Water cycle
• Carbon cycle
• Nitrogen cycle
Eutrophication is a big issue.
Biological control instead of pesticide spraying
• Crop rotation
• Introduce natural enemies
• Natural toxins
• Insect birth control
Absorption of nutrients and water
Plants use their roots to absorb nutrients and water from the sail. Those then
must be absorbed by the cells themselves.

APOPLAST AND SYMPLAST

Apoplast - water moves through cell walls and the intracellular specie at the
end.
Symplast – waves moves through cell cytoplasm and plasmodesmata to
move to main terminal.

Mycorrhizae
In mature plants where old roots don’t have root hairs. Mycorrhizal supply
the plants with water and minerals. A symbiotic relationship exists between
mycorahizae and new plant. Mycorahizae increase the amount of nutrients
a plant would absorb.
Rhizobium
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria
• In-root nodules of leguminous plants
• N2 to NH4+
TYPES OF ROOTS
Taproot – large, single root that gives rise to lateral branch roots. Some
taproots are modified for storage. (E.g) carrots, beetroot and turnips
Adventitious roots – are roots that are above the ground.
Aerial – plants/ trees in swamps etc
Prop – roots of a com plant.

STEM
The function of the stem is support.
• Allows leaves to receive most light
• Stem transport water and minerals from the soil
STRUCTURE
Vascular tissue runs in length called vascular bundles. Each bundle contains
xylem on the inside.
• Xylem on the inside
• Phloem on the outside
The leaf – made to maximize sugar production
• Epidermis – protection
• Waxy cuticle – prevent water loss
• Guard cells – contracts the opening of stomates
• P. Mesophyll – photosynthesis
• S. Mesophyll – photosynthesis, gaseous exchange
• Veins – carry water and nutrients

STOMATES
When plant cells do respiration, may take in O² and give out Co2.
When plant cells do photosynthesis, they take in Co2 and give out O²

Evolutionary trends in Animals

Organisms began primitive in
Trend of evolution;
• Specialization of tissues
• Germ layers (two or triploblastic)
• Body symmetry (radial or bilateral)
• Development of head and body cavity formation
Sponges – Losses federation of cells. Can sense and react to environment
but have no real nerve or muscular tissue.
Germ layers
• Main layers that form various tissues and organs of the body.
Ectoderm – skin and nervous system
Mesoderm – bone, muscle and blood
Endoderm – organs

Body symmetry
Primitive – radical symmetry
Complicated – bilateral symmetry
Development of a head(cephalization)
Along with a bilateral symmetry, a head is developed. All systems are in the
posterior end.
Body cavity formation
Coelom – fluid filled body cavity surrounded by mesoderm tissue. Primitive
animals with no coelom are called acoelomates. Complex animals with no
coelom are called coelomates.

Characteristics of animals
You should be familiar with a common phyla and representative Animals
• Porifera – sponges
• Cnidaria – hydra and Jellyfish
• Platyhelminthes – flatworms including tapeworm
• Nematodes – roundworms
• Annelids – segmented worms like earthworms, leeches
• Mollusks – squids, octopuses, slugs, clams and snails
• Echinoderms – Sea stars (star fish and sea orchids)
• Chordates – fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals.
• Athropoda – insects, crustacean (shrimp, crab), arachnid(spider)

Characteristics of mammals
• Homeotherms
• Belong to phylum chordates
• Nourish babies with milk
• Endotherms

Characteristics of primates
Humans are primates, (just think of yourselves to name characteristics!).
Types of plant tissue:
• Dermal
• Vascular
• Ground – meristem tissue or growth tissue.
Transport in plants
Just like animals, plants need to transport water, nutrients and gases.
Xylem:
• Tracheids, (secondary cell walls are hardened with lignin)
• Vessel elements
Water is pulled up via;
• Transpirational pull
• Cohesion Tension

Phloem:
• Save tube elements
• Companion cells
Both of the above are for translocation.

PLANT REPRODUCTION
Can produce sexually and asexually.
Asexual Reproduction
Plants can clone themselves or reproduce asexually via vegetative
propagation.
Sexual Reproduction
Reproduction in powering plants; the flower is the sexual organ.
• Petals – attract animals that will pollinate the plant
• Sepals – outermost circle of leaves. Enclose bud before it opens and
protects the female while it develops.
• Pistils or carpels: female part – stigma, style and ovary.
• Ovary – contains ovals where ova are produced
• Stamen: Male part of the flower – anther and filament.
Pollination and fertilization in flowering plants
• Begins with pollination. 1 pollen with 3 haploid nuclei (1 tube nucleus)
and (2 sperm nuclei) lead on sticky stigma of the flower
• Absorbs moisture and germinates producing pollen tube that burrows
into style of pistil.
2 sperm nuclei travel down into ovary.
• One inside ovary, 2 sperm nuclei must enter through micropyle, one
fertilizes the egg and one becomes the embryo (2a).
• The other sperm nuclei fertilizes two polar bodies and becomes an
endosperm or cotyledon – food for embryo.
Summary
• 1 sperm nuclei (n) fertilizes the egg(n) becoming the embryo(2n)
• 2 sperm nuclei (n) fertilizes two polar bodies (n)(n) to become 3n
cotyledons or endosperm of seed
After ovule becomes seed and ovary becomes fruit.

The seed
Parts:
• Protective seed coat
• Embryo
• Cotyledon or endosperm (food for embryo)
In monocots, food reserves remain in the endosperm.
In dicots, food reserves are transported to cotyledon (so no endosperm)
Mosses and other Bryophytes
Mosses are green, carpet-like plants covering forests, they are primitive.