SPE-193364-MS

Optimization of Placement of Flow Control Devices under Geological

Uncertainty in Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage

Siavash Nejadi, Stephen M. Hubbard, Roman J. Shor, Ian D. Gates, and Jingyi Wang, University of Calgary

Copyright 2018, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Thermal Well Integrity and Design Symposium held in Banff, Alberta, Canada, 27-29 November 2018.

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Abstract
Steam chamber conformance in Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) influences the efficiency and
economic performance of bitumen recovery. Conventional SAGD well completion designs provide limited
control points in long horizontal well pairs leading to development of a non-ideal steam chambers.
Developing advanced wellbore completions and optimizing downhole tool settings is critical to achieve
optimal steam distribution in heterogeneous reservoirs for optimal recovery.
This paper presents a workflow to optimize SAGD well completion design by using flow control
devices (FCDs). Optimum FCD placement, and specifications are determined in consideration of reservoir
heterogeneity. Uncertainties in spatial distribution of facies and rock types, reservoir rock and fluid
properties are represented by multiple equiprobable deterministic and stochastic geological realizations
using Monte-Carlo simulation. The methodology is based on constrained nonlinear optimizationtomaximize
the net present value (NPV) as the objective function. A coupled wellbore/reservoir simulation model of a
well pad is implemented in the study, and the efficacy of different scenarios with varied well designs are
assessed from evaluating bitumen production, steam injection, and well completion expenses.
Results indicate superior performance of the wells equipped with FCDs compared to conventional
concentric and parallel dual string well completion designs. For the cases examined, this translates to
an average 7% increase of the expected NPV for different well completion designs when using FCDs.
Furthermore, results show using zonal isolation in the well design is essential for compartmentalized
reservoirs such aspoint bar deposits with their significant heterogeneity.
Advanced wellbore completions provide sufficient tools to constrain steam injection and liquid
production into and from different well segments, and manage steam chamber conformance along the
horizontal well pairs, improve production efficiency, increase bitumen recovery, and reduce operating costs.
A novel workflow is presented to optimize advanced wellbore completions utilizing flow control
devices. This integrated assisted optimization approach considers uncertainties in geological properties, and
determines the optimal FCD parameters and well completion design with acceptable computational effort.
This integrated workflow allowed us to undertake a thorough evaluation of the key subsurface uncertainties,
and design an overall development plan. The probabilistic nature of the results legitimize quantifying the
uncertainties and identify associated risks for different completion strategies.
2 SPE-193364-MS

Introduction
The Lower Cretaceous McMurray Formation hosts the majority of bitumen in the Athabasca oils sands
– the largest known resourceof bitumen. The McMurray Formation is composed of large-scale fluvial-
estuarine point bars and other laterally accreting channel systems that are highly heterogenous. Ithas been
interpreted as having three stratigraphy subdivisions, consisting ofa lower continental (fluvial), a middle
fluvial-estuarine unit (point bar dominated), and an upper marginal marine deposit(Carrigy 1959, Durkin et
al. 2017). The repeated erosional cut and fill events within the McMurray have led to nested, and multiple
stacked structures. Similarly, laterally accreting channel systems, such as point bar deposits, that consist
inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) of sandwiched sand-siltstone sequences and abandoned mud channels,
lead to very complex sedimentary facies relationships, where rock types change both laterally and vertically
over very short distances.
Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) has been the most promising processto produce bitumen
resources from Athabasca oil-sands deposits(Butler 1991). The SAGD well configuration typically consists
of two parallel horizontal wells located at short distance one above the other. Steam is injected into the upper
well and fluidsare produced from the lower well. A typicalwell completion in SAGD is that of concentric
or parallel dual strings in the wellbore. These design schemes have limitations: they provide limited control
on steam injection and liquid production along horizontal sections and adversely affect steam chamber
conformance. Operational difficulties, drilling, well completion as well as reservoir parameters moderate
overall SAGD performance. This includes hydraulic gradients and pressure drop in the tubular, injectivity
and productivity variations along the wellbore due to plugging and formation damage, heat exchange, energy
loss to bottom water, nonparallel well pair placement, well undulation, and most importantly reservoir
heterogeneity and structure. The conventional SAGD well completion needs tobe modified to efficiently
deliver steam throughout the reservoir interval, improve liquid production performance, and minimize steam
breakthrough.
Various well completion strategies and downhole tools have been examined to improve steam injection
and bitumen production flow conformance. Scab liners (tubular completions) have been successfully
implemented in SAGD production well completions to facilitate heat conformance across the horizontal
section. Scab liners have been effective in protecting electrical submersible pumps, reducing sand
production, and reducing the steam-to-oil ratio (SOR). Sections of blank liners have been implemented in
SAGD production and injection well completion design. Completion designsusingblank pipes have been
implemented to introduce variable open-to-flow areas and to meet desiredskin factors. It improves overall
performance by means of diverting flow paths between injector and producer, providing control over steam
distribution, and preventing steam short circuiting where distance between producer and injector is less than
target values (e.g. less than 4 meters). Scab liners may also be run across non-reservoir rock interval. Slotted
liners with various slot density, wire wrapped, punched, and other completion screens with various open
to flow area are also designed and utilized to control inflow to the producer and outflow from the injector.
However, they provide limited control on fluid flow rates over the entire length of the horizontal sections.
Flow control devices (FCD) have been implemented in advanced wellbore completions to improve flow
performance. FCDs have been used for many years in conventional waterflood applications to improve oil
recovery factor (e.g. Brekke et al. 1994, Augustine et al. 2006, Lorenz et al. 2006). FCDs restrict flow by
creating flow rate dependent pressure drops. The differential pressure is generated by diverting the flow in
through the application of restricted long channels (helicoid or labyrinth), small ports (orifice and nozzle),
or a combination of both. A significant factor in the application of FCDs is the long-term reliability of
the device, where it can regulate flow over the life time of the well(e.g. 25 years). However, FCDs are
passive in nature and fluid flow cannot be regulated based on process feedback. Inthe case of excessive
gas or water production in a segment of an oil well, the device cannot be adjusted in real-time to counter
the effects of higher mobility of these fluids in the reservoir. Devices equipped with sliding sleeves have
SPE-193364-MS 3

been implemented to adjust and make changes to the number of ports or modifythe open-to-flow area of
the device to enhance production performance. Autonomous FCDs have also been designed and utilized
in wellbore completions to actively counter highly mobile gas flow and regulate flow rate. These devices
self-regulate the drawdown by changing the flow restriction, creating both improved reservoir performance
and well operation. Autonomous flow control devices have been implemented with limited success, mainly
because their continuous operating life is short and relative high cost.
Applications of passive FCDs in SAGD well completions have shown success to improve production
performance. They provide sufficient control to regulate steam distribution along the injector, fluid
production in the producer, and prevent steam breakthrough. Long term durability and compatibility of the
devices with high temperature operating conditions of thermal recovery processes have increased their field
trials and applications.
Many authors have reported and discussed application of FCDs in thermal recovery processes. The first
application of FCDs in thermal oil recovery processes was in Surmont in which a SAGD well pair were
completed with liner deployed devices. FCDs improved steam chamber conformance (demonstrated by 4D
seismic) with superior production performance (Stadler 2013). Installation of FCDs in Suncor Energy's
MacKay and Firebag fields have demonstrated successful results as well. Specifically wells with steam
breakthrough have shown improvements in production performance (Lastiwka et al. 2017). Few authors
have focused on optimizing FCD design and placement integrating dynamic reservoir flow performance.
Ghesmat and Zhao (2015) have presented general well completion strategies using scab liner and flow
control devices for reservoirs with different structures. Kyanpour and Chen (2013, 2014) have implemented
reservoir simulation and wellbore modeling to determine the size and position of flow control devices
considering reservoir heterogeneity. Becerra et al. (2014) implemented dynamic reservoir simulation and
wellbore simulation to evaluate the integrated performance of ICDs in Mackay River SAGD wells.
This paper presents an automated approach to optimizing placement of flow control devices in SAGD
well pair completion. The methodology utilizes a coupled wellbore/reservoir model to simulate both
reservoir fluid flow behavior and detail wellbore hydraulics. The qualities of the well completion design
parameters and their impact on production are assessed by calculating the net present value; NPV is
considered as the basis for optimization. The optimal well completion design using FCD demonstrates
improvement in bitumen production and reduction of the SOR, compared to the conventional dual tubing
toe and heel steam injection. Furthermore, application of FCDs leads to using smaller diameter production/
injection liners, using less material and steel for well completion, hence lower capital costs.

Methodology
In this section, various components of the optimization algorithm are discussed in detail. The key techniques
involved in the optimization procedure and determination of the location of flow control devices in the
SAGD well completion designs are highlighted.

Optimization Algorithm
Considering the general optimization problem to minimize an objective function (f)

Eq 1

wheref(x) is a continuous differentiable function in Rn, and x is constrained to upper (xu) and lower (xl)
bounds. To find the optimal solution for the application a robust optimization algorithm is required.
The multiphase fluid flow in porous media, SAGD process, and its relationship to the well completion
parameters are inherently complex and non-linear, rendering the process of adjusting design parameters
to minimize a cost function challenging. The problem of well completion design optimization in a SAGD
4 SPE-193364-MS

process can be described as a non-convex, non-linear optimization problem. Furthermore, it is a constrained

problem with potential multiple local minima. The Genetic Algorithm (GA)was first proposed by Holland
(1975) and is a useful method tosolve both constrained and unconstrained optimization problems that is
based on a natural selection process (Mitchell 1996). Other methodologies like pattern search (Torczon
1997) have been successfully implemented for global optimization of complex problems as well. However,
these techniques require lots of iterations and their application in optimization related to petroleum
reservoirs, in which a numerical simulator is used as the forward model, is both costly and time consuming.
A common app roach is to combine global optimization techniques with gradient based optimization
that would speed up the process. Two-phase procedures have been proposed for the global optimization of
parameters. Generally, these methodologies use sampling in the first step to generate k number of starting
points. The initial sets are within the upper and lower bounds of the problem and at the same time they
fulfill linear and non-linear constraints. Next, it executes optimization from these multiple starting points.
The algorithm is performed in parallel mode and is divided on multiple CPUs. The framework tends to be
globally convergent; however, since individual runs are independent, it requires significant computation.
In this research, the performance of an algorithm based on Trust-Region (Han 1977)is evaluated. A
modified version of the solver that suits integer programing problemsis used (Boland et al. 2015). Trust-
Region methods are iterative methods in which a model (mk) approximates the loss function (f) and this
model is minimized in a neighborhood of the current iterate (which is the trust region). Trust-Region method
(TRM) is effective to solve nonlinear programing problems. The trust region framework is essentially a
local minimization scheme and therefore requires modification to be effective as a global method.
Several researchers have proposed novel methods to adapt trust-region algorithms for global
optimization. In a Trust-Region algorithm, the corresponding optimization problem is iteratively solved
within an enclosed region. This is in contrast with the line search methods in which the gradient directions are
used to find the successive iterates by using steepest descent. Addis and Leyffer (2006) have proposed a two-
step procedure in trust-region framework for global optimization. Agarwal and Biegler (2013) implemented
a reduced order model for constrained optimization using a trust-region. Exler andSchittkowski (2006)
proposed a sequential quadratic programing (SQP) method in a trust region framework to solve mixed
integer nonlinear programing problems. Boland et al. (2015) have proposed trust region method based on
a piecewise affine model for mixed integer programing.

Problem formulation - Decision variables

In this implementation, the location of the flow control devices are the decision variables. The specifications
and design parameters of FCDs are assumed identical for all devices and flow distribution along the
horizontal sections is regulated by changing number of devices in different parts of the well. The basic
idea is to consider that FCDs are installed on every liner joint (or other variants:every other joint, every
four joints), further flow conformance is optimized by assigning an OPEN/SHUT flag to different devices.
In which SHUT (zero) means the device is not present in the joint and a blank pipe is installed, whereas,
OPEN (one) is basically installing FCD on the liner. This procedure leads to specifying or tuning the SAGD
performance a zero/ one flag for the pipe joints installed in the horizontal well.
To improve the performance of the optimization algorithm, it is desired to reduce the size of problem
as much as possible without losing the essence of the problem. The model variables (FCD locations) are
reconstructed to maximize the optimization performancetrade-off better than those initially selected. In this
methodology we propose dividing the horizontal sections into a few sectors and to tune the number of
tools in each sector. This straightforward procedure reduces the dimension of the parameter space. The total
number of tools per each section is constrained to prescribed limits. The total number of sectors is a function
of reservoir structure, heterogeneity, and well deviation survey and varies from one well pair to another. In
this study the well is divided into six sections with equal length and the number of FCDs per each section
are ranging from zero to three.
SPE-193364-MS 5

Loss function
The evaluation of well completion performance is quantitatively computed by the net present value. NPV
calculation includes discounting of daily cash flow over a period of time. Field production and injection
rates as well as field operating costs, and economical parameters are included in the calculation.

Eq 2

wheretk is the time of the cash flow in days, trefis the time to which cash flow is discounted, Rt is the net
cash flow, and D is the discount rate. In this problem, net cash flow (Rt), which is cash inflow minus cash
outflow, is defined as follows

Eq 3

whereQprd oil denotes the oil production rate (STB/Day), Qprdwtris the water production rate (STB/Day),
Qinjwtris the steam injection rate (Cold Water Equivalent STB/Day). roil, rtrsoil, and rrtroil are oil selling price,
transportation and treatment costs, respectively. The combination of these three terms (ro)is considered
equivalent to 50 $/bbl. rsteam is the steam generation cost, rtrtwtr, and rdiswtrare the produced water treatment
and disposal costs. Water handling and steam generation costs are considered to be a function of injected
steam with cost (rw) assumed to be 8 $/bbl CWE. The NPV is then defined as:

Eq 4

Table 1—Economic parameters for optimization.

Oil Price 50 $/STB

Considering Transportation and Treatment Costs

Operating Costs 8 $/bbl CWE

Steam injection, produced water treatment, and
disposal

Discount Rate 10%

Forecast model
The forecast model (g) is applied to the proposed sample of model parameters advancing the model
for the production period of SAGD operation. Model equations pertinent to multiphase fluid flow in
SAGD reservoirs are described by material balance, momentum balance, energy balance, phase behavior
descriptions, and numerous auxiliary relations. This extremely non-linear system of differential equations
is solved numerically using methods such as finite differences:

Eq 5

where, m denotes, model parameters (porosity, permeability, well completion parameters, FCD parameter,
…), u state variables (saturation, pressure, and temperature), d production data, and g is the forward model
(simulator). In this application, the Eclipse thermal simulator (2018) was used as the forecast model.
The simulator is applied to a SAGD reservoir sector model. The built in Multisegment Wells option was
6 SPE-193364-MS

implemented in the software to evaluate wellbore hydraulics, heat transfer, and multiphase flow in multiple
string and model FCD performance in the well completion.

Case Study and Results

The reservoir model is constructedfrom the Surmont Phase 1 SAGD project located approximately 70km
southeast of the city of Fort McMurray, AB, Canada. The formation under development is the Cretaceous
McMurray. A typical vertical profile of the McMurray Formation in the area used for this study shows an
overall fining upward sequence composed of a series of upward fining cycles. It consists of a meander-
belt deposit in the upper most part of the McMurray Formation and two underlying older deposits. Thin,
regionally deposited fine-grained sandstone and mudstone cover the meander-belt deposit in the study area.
The top of reservoir (cap rock) is defined by a marine flooding surface at the base of the Wabiskaw Member.
To enhance the predictive capabilities of the modeling, detailed geological features of the meandering
channel belt deposits are considered in model construction. The geological model not only reflects the
complex rock properties in three-dimensional (3D) space but also includes spatial distribution characteristics
of inner structural elements. Durkin et al. (2017) have implemented high quality 3D seismic data of the
uppermost part of the McMurray Formation and identified depositional elements comprising the fill of
channel bodies. This includes point bars, counter point bars, side bars, and abandoned channel fills. In this
part of the reservoir each depositional element is constructed as a separate zone in the model, which captures
the 3D representation of the geobody. Each zone is then internally layered based on bedding characteristics
(e.g., dipping lateral-accretion surfaces in point-bar deposits).
The other two underlying older McMurray deposits have been mainly characterized by using well log
data. Due to the poor quality of the seismic information, the 3D structure of the depositional elements is not
well defined. The information acquired from dip meter and other petrophysical data is implemented to define
layering and populate rock properties. Figure 1 depicts the stratigraphic subdivisions and the geomorphic
elements of the confined meander belt in the study model.

Figure 1—Stratigraphic subdivisions and the elements of the confined meander belt in the
model. The two solid black lines show the well deviation survey of the producer and injector that
are drilled in the lower most stratigraphic subdivision, near the base of McMurray Formation.

Five main lithofacies comprise the depositional elements in the study region as described in Durkin et al.
(2017). These include, Sandstone, Siltstone-clast Breccia, Sandstone-dominated IHS, Siltstone-dominated
IHS, and Siltstone. Facies distribution for the geological model is constructed by distributing facies within
each depositional element by using conditional sequential indicator simulation (SIS), as implemented in
SPE-193364-MS 7

GSLib (Deutsch and Journel 1997). Facies distributions (histogram) are constrained to the depositional
elements and the proportions are derived from petrophysical interpretations at the well locations. For
instance, in the Abandoned Channel the dominant facies is Siltstone and the proportions of other facies are
negligible, whereas in a Point-Bar, all rock types are present. In modeling facies, local facies observations
(conditioning hard data at the well locations) as well as facies variability from secondary trend information
are considered in SIS simulation. An exponential variogram model with anisotropyis used.
Petrophysical rock properties and flow zones are further generated considering the lithofacies model.
Porosity distribution is modeled using Sequential Gaussian Simulation within each facies. Permeability
population is performed according to the permeability-porosity relationship. Non-Stationary Sequential
Gaussian Simulation is used for permeability (Machuca-Mory and Deutsch 2012). Figure 2 shows the
permeability distribution of the model. The hydraulic units of the dynamic model are correlated to
corresponding defined lithologic facies. The hydraulic units were used in this study to define endpoint
saturations, initial water saturation (Swi), residual oil saturation (Sorw), relative permeability, and capillary
pressure curves in the model.
The upscaled reservoir model for the purpose of optimization, consists of 60,000active cells. The
dimensions of the model are roughly90m × 1200m × 70m in cross-well, downwell, and vertical directions,
respectively. The model represents a SAGD wellpair model. Figure 1shows the location of the horizontal
producer and injector with respect to the reservoir stratigraphic units. The producer and injector are operated
at constant bottom-hole pressure as the primary constraint with steam trap control as subordinate constraint
for the producer. The SAGD process is operated for 25 years and bitumen production rate and steam injection
rates are exported for NPV calculations. Table 2 summarized the reservoir parameters and constraints of
the model.

Figure 2—Permeability distribution of the upscaled dynamic model

used in the optimization algorithm (vertical exaggeration is 7.5 times).
8 SPE-193364-MS

Table 2—Parameters of the dynamic reservoir model for case studies.

Grid Size (upscaled dynamic model) 1.5m (cross-well) × 50m (downwell) × 1.5m
(vertical)

Reservoir Depth 400m

Average Porosity 35%

Average Horizontal Permeability 3500 mD

Average Vertical Permeability 2100 mD

Average Oil Saturation (Reservoir Facies) 80%

Initial Reservoir Temperature 7°C

Circulation time 80 days

Relative Permeability End Points:

    Oil-Water System     Sorw=0.40, Swc=0.12

    Oil-Gas System     Sgc=0.05, Sorg=0.40

Base Case Model

A case was set up to establish a basis for comparison by examining the application of FCDs and the
performance of parameter optimization. Base case is the conventional dual tubing completion with simpletoe
and heel steam injection and liquid production. The standard 219.1mm (8 5/8 in) slotted liner with 114.3mm
(4 ½ in) toe and heel tubing strings was used for the injector and the standard 177.8mm (7 in) slotted liner
with 114.3mm (4 ½ in) toe and heel tubing strings was used for the producer well completion. Figure 3
depicts the well completion design for the Base Case model.

Figure 3—Typical parallel toe and heel dual tubing well completion.

FCD Optimization Case Study

This case involved application of FCDs in well completion. A sub-criticaltype FCD available in the industry
was used and the location of devices are optimized. For the purpose of optimization, 168.mm (6 5/8in) liners
are used for both injector and producer. The well completion with FCD optimization implements smaller
diameter liners in both producer and injector. Using smaller diameter liners reduces capital cost. Figure 4
depicts the well completion design with FCDs for optimization model.
SPE-193364-MS 9

Figure 4—Well completion with liner deployed flow control devices in both injector and producer.

Optimization Results
The best NPV found for this case study is just greater than $7M which is higher than the base case model
with dual tubing string toe and heel completion which achieved just under $6M. This translates into roughly
7% increase in the expected net present value. Furthermore, application of liner deployed FCDs provide
control over the entire length of the horizontal section and eliminates the need for a long tubing string. A
short tubing (7" tubing string) landed near the liner hanger is required for lifting the production fluids. Figure
5 illustrates the function values versus optimization method iterations. The red line depicts the function
value for the base case model and the black circles represent the iterations. In this study, the algorithm finds
the global optimum of the problem with approximately 80 iterations. The computations took about 10 days
CPU time using 4 processors (Intel® Xeon® E3-1225 3.31 GHz) and 8GB RAM.

Figure 5—Loss function values for the optimization algorithm. Black dots depict the function
values for each iteration and the solid red line shows the function value for the base case model.
10 SPE-193364-MS

In Figure 6, a comparison of the optimum case and the base case is presented. Cumulative oil production
and SOR for both cases are presented. The application of FCDs improves bitumen production performance
by means of improving steam chamber conformance, hence improved oil recovery at a lower heat loss.

Figure 6—Cumulative Oil production and Steam Oil Ratio (SOR) for the optimized
model –6 5/8"liner deployed FCD well completion – compared to the base case.

The optimal FCD placement for this example are illustrated in Figure 7. The optimum location of the
FCDs is a function of pressure drop in the device and tubulars, reservoir structure, reservoir heterogeneity,
and well deviation survey (generally well undulation) for both injector and producer. To consider the
combined effect of aforementioned parameters, a detailed model considering both fluid flow in the reservoir
and the horizontal wells is required.
SPE-193364-MS 11

Figure 7—Optimal FCD placement for the injector and producer (vertical exaggeration is 7.5 times).

Conclusions
A novel optimization workflow for well completion design using flow control devices has been proposed
in this paper. The proposed method determines the number of devices in each SAGD wellpair and their
optimal placement. Reservoir structure, and detailed reservoir heterogeneity obtained from a comprehensive
geological modeling of point bars are taken into consideration in the optimal device placements. The
application of FCDs in SAGD well completion design leads to higher bitumen recovery at lower steam to oil
ratio, and at the same time reduces capital costs by means of using smaller diameter liner and eliminating the
need for a toe tubing string. The optimization method was applied to a case study taken from ConocoPhillips
Surmont Phase 1 project.
The optimization algorithm presented in this paper, uses minimal iterations compared to previously
implemented algorithms available in the literature. The algorithm entails implementing a revised Trust-
Region method which has been modified for solving mixed integer problems. The algorithm finds the
global minimum of the problem with tremendous savings in computational efforts that can be achieved in
comparison to other algorithms like Genetic Algorithm. Although in this paper, the focus has been on the
optimization of the location of flow control devices, the Trust-Region method has the potential to be applied
for optimization of other non-linear problems.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support fromthe University of Calgary's Canada
First Research Excellence Fund (CFREF) program on unconventional resources. Academic licenses for
the Eclipse reservoir simulator, and Petrel are provided by Schlumberger. Data for the field case study are
provided in part by ConocoPhillips. The authors also wish to thank Paul Durkin and Jordan Curkan for their
assistance with seismic and geological interpretations.

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