Fourth Administration

SESSION LEARNING NUMBER 1 -
1.- INFORMATIVE DATES.
- Institution : Banking Studio’s Peruvian Center.

- Date : July 26th , 2018
- Cycle : Fourth – night.
- Unit :
-
- Activity : The present perfect tense
- Bibliography : Business English – Cycles IV. Cambridge University.
2.- MEANS AND MATERIALS.
- Down - English book.

- Eraser
- Proyector and PC.
- Human resources.
3.- CONCEPTUAL CAPACITIES.
- Writing.
- Write sentences in affirmative, negative and interrogative form in present perfect tense
4.- PROCEEDING CAPACITIES.
- To final the class students will be competent to make sentences in present perfect tense.
5.- ATTITUDES.
- Students show interest in learn about the present perfect tense.

- Show cooperation among classmates.
- Show respect to the opinions.
6.- PROBLEM.
- Present perfect tense

- Students have difficulties to application the present perfect tense
7.- EXPLORATION. (25 MINUTES)
- Teacher starting the exploration writing sentences in present perfect tense and make questions about the tense of the
sentences. Then teacher ask to students about the theme that we are going to develop today. Students say: The present
perfect tense Teacher write on the board.
-
8.- THEORETICALIZATION. (15 MINUTES)
- Teacher makes an explanation about the present perfect tense

9.- APPLICATION. (25 MINUTES)
- Students fill makes sentences in affirmative, negative and interrogative form.

- Homework. Write one dialog using their imagination
10.- EVALUATION. (15 MINUTES)
- In personal form Students write sentences in present perfect tense.
……………………………………………………………….
ELOY PAREDES PAREDES.
ENGLISH TEACHER.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
In the PRESENT PERFECT TENSE, we use have like auxiliary and the past participle of the verbs.
The conjugation is the follow:
I have… Yo he, he…
You have… Usted ha, tus has…
He has… El ha…
She has… Ella ha…
It has… Ello ha…
We have… Nosotros hemos, hemos…
You have … Ustedes han, vosotros habeis…
They have… Ellos han…
CONTRACTIONS.
I’ve
You’ve
He’s
She’s
It’s
We’ve
You’ve
They’ve
FINANCE AND ACCOUNT VOCABULARY.
Insert your card Inserte su tarjeta

Enter your PIN Introduzca su clave
Incorrect PIN Clave incorrecta
Enter Aceptar
Correct Corregir
Cancel Cancelar
Other amount Otras cantidades
Insucient funds Fondos insuficientes
Remove card Retire su tarjeta
Examples.
AFFIRMATIVE.
I have inserted my card in the ATM.

She has entered her PIN in wrong way.
Anthony has entered incorrect PIN of his card.
They have entered other amount in the ATM.
Maria has corrected the mistakes in her accounts
We have canceled our banking accounts.
You have had insouciant funds to pay the banking accounts
Peter has removed card of ATM, before withdraw cash.
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NEGATIVE.
I haven’t inserted my card in the ATM

She hasn’t entered her PIN in wrong way.
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INTERROGATIVE.
Have you inserted your card in the ATM? Yes, I have or; No, I haven’t
Has she entered her PIN in wrong way? Yes, she has or; No, She Hasn’t.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Who are they? What have they done?

What has happened?
Linda has just walked outside with Grandmother. She wears an apron. So far, she has finished
cleaning and washing. She has also gathered seeds and crumbs.
Now Linda and Grandmother are outside. Linda has just dropped some seeds on the ground to
feed the birds. The birds have not come yet.
Recently, Grandmother has moved in with Linda's family. She now enjoys living with them.
Grandmother has already sat down on the bench. She also wears an apron. She has just
finished cooking.
Click here to download the full worksheet: Present Perfect Story 1.

Present Perfect Story 2
Who is she? What has she done? What has happened?
Recently, it has snowed in Maria's town. In the last week, it has snowed three times. Maria has
always loved the snow. She has played in the snow many times before.
Maria's dog, Sparky, has never played in the snow. This is Sparky's first snow. He has not felt the
cold yet.
Maria has just received a new sled for Christmas. She puts on her warm clothes and snow boots.
She pulls the sled up the hill. Sparky has run outside with Maria. Sparky has followed Maria up
the hill. He feels good!
Maria has finally reached the top. She sits on her sled. She rides down the hill. Sparky runs beside
the sled. They have finally reached the bottom. Sparky has followed Maria all the way down the
hill. Sparky has decided that he likes the snow too!
Who are they? What have they done?

What has happened?
Roger and Melinda have owned their sailboat for 10 years. During that time, they have sailed
together many times. They have sailed to lots of places.
They have sailed on the Pacific Ocean. They have also sailed on the Atlantic Ocean. They have
even sailed around the Gulf of Mexico twice. However, they have never sailed on the Arctic
Ocean or Indian Ocean.
In the last year, Roger and Melinda have sailed around the Hawaiian Islands and across the
Hudson Bay. Roger and Melinda love to travel in their sailboat!
Who is he? What will he have done?

What will have happened?
Mable Jones lives in Florida in the United States. Her grandchildren live in London, England. They
have lived in London for 3 years. Mable has not seen her grandchildren in over a year.
She has talked to her grandchildren on the phone and through e-mails many times. She has also
seen pictures of her grandchildren. They have grown so much since the last time they visited
America.
Mable knits scarves and blankets to send to her grandchildren in London. So far, she has knitted
two large blankets for her granddaughters. She has also knitted a scarf for each grandchild.
Present Perfect - Positive 1

Make the positive present perfect.
Practice it now.
(I / study / French)
2) (She / eat / octopus)
3) (They / go / to Scotland)
4) (We / read / that book)
5) (He / live / here for three years)
6) (You / know / David for ten years)
7) (We / be / here for two weeks)
8) (I / lose / my keys)
9) (He / drink / too much coffee)

10) (They / miss / the train)
11) (She / go / to Peru)
12) (We / eat / too much chocolate)
13) (I / have / breakfast this morning)
14) (John / miss / the train)
15) (Lucy / cook / breakfast)
16) (They / write / to the politician)
17) (You / find / your wallet)
18) (I / meet / his mother)
19) (We / try / roller-skating)

20) (She / pass / the exam)
Present Perfect - Negative 1

Make the negative present perfect
1) (We / not / go / to Paris)
2) (She / not / see / The Lord of the Rings)
3) (He / not / meet / my mother)
4) (They / not / visit / St. Paul's)
5) (I / not / know / him for three months)
6) (You / not / study / French for ten years)
7) (They / not / be / in London for six months)
8) (He / not / hurt / his leg)

9) (She / not / leave / her phone in a taxi)
10) (We / not / lose / our tickets)
11) (She / not / make / dinner)
12) (They / not / arrive / yet)
13) (Lucy / not / do / her homework)
14) (I / not / read / that book)
15) (He / not / live / in Berlin)
16) (John / not / buy / any food)
17) (She / not / clean / the kitchen)
18) (You / not / call / me)

19) (We / not / find / the book yet)
20) (They / not / sleep / well)
Present Perfect - Questions 1

Make present perfect 'yes / no' or 'wh' questions
1) (You / read / War and Peace)?
2) (She / be / late for a meeting)?
3) (He / meet / your family yet)?
4) (They / live / here as long as we have)?
5) (You / go / to Australia)?
6) (She / miss / the bus)?
7) (I / meet / you before)?
8) (They / take / the exam)?

9) (She / work / in this company for fifteen years)?
10) (How long / she / live in London)?
11) (Where / you / be)?
12) (How much coffee / you / drink today)?
13) (What / you / do today?
14) (How long / he / work here)?
15) (Why / you / bring that)?
16) (How many times / you / visit Scotland)?
17) (How many books / you / read this week)?
18) (How long / you study English)?
19) (How much food / you / buy)?

20) (They / go / to the USA)?
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE,

FOR, SINCE, HOW LONG, ALREADY, YET, EVER.
Thomas has worked here FOR 3 years.

They have lived in Spain FOR 35 years.
Jose has been in Lima FOR one week.
We have been in London SINCE the last month

I have observed to Linda SINCE the last week.
You have waited to Anita SINCE yesterday.
HOW LONG have you been in Italy?

HOW LONG has she lived in Tocache?
HOW LONG Has Mathew studied French?
He has ALREADY eaten here.

They have ALREADY studied that germ.
I have ALREADY seen the exam.
I haven’t eaten, YET.

She hasn’t worked in that factory, YET.
You haven’t lived in Panama, YET.
Have you EVER been in Tingo Maria?

Has Carmen EVER been in Bolivia?
Have they EVER been in Peru?
NOW, WRITE SENTENCES IN PRESENT PERFECT TENSE, USING: FOR, SINCE, HOW LONG,
ALREADY, YET AND EVER.
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- Date : July, tuesday 10, 2018.
- Cycle : Fourth Administration – day.
- Unit :1
- Activity : The connectors
- Bibliography : Business English – Cycles V. Cambridge University.

- Eraser
- Proyector and PC.
- Human resources.
- Writing.
- Write sentences and a small reading using connectors.
- To final the class students will be competent to make sentences using connectors.
5.- ATTITUDES.
- Students show interest in learn about the connectors

6.- PROBLEM.
- Simple past of the verbs and present perfect tense.

- Students have difficulties to application the connectors.
7.- EXPLORATION. (25 MINUTES).

- Students watch and listen 3 Musical Videos.
- Teacher starting the exploration writing sentences using connectors. Then teacher ask to students about the theme that
we are going to develop today. Students say: The connectors. Teacher writes on the board.
-
- Teacher makes an explanation about the connectors.

- Students fill makes sentences using connectors.

- Homework. Write one reading using connectors.
- In personal form Students write a reading using connectors.
……………………………………………………………….
ENGLISH TEACHER.
Sentence connectors.
Try to use as many of these as possible for variety:
OBSERVE THIS SMALL READING IN WHICH I USE CONNECTORS.
THE PERUVIAN EDUCATION.
The education in the institutes and Universities are dedicated to the investigation and
humanistic- scientist moreover technologist. The Peruvian education has some
limitations specially in the economic aspect in other words, they have less budget to get
more researches that’s why, many institutes and universities make that the students pay
more for the teach. Actually, our politicians aren’t doing anything for improving this
situation; therefore it is time what we make something to solve the education problem in
Peru.
Español English
Además / es más moreover / furthermore
A propósito by the way
A propósito de in regards with / in reference to
Asimismo / así mismo Likewise
Cabe notar / decir It should be noted / said
Con tal de que + subjuntivo provided that
Consiste en it consists of
Consta de It consists of (# of parts, acts, etc.)
De acuerdo con according to
Debido a (eso) due to / because of (that)
Depende de to depend on (upon)
Desde este punto de vista from that point of view
En cambio whereas / on the other hand
En cuanto a / con respecto a with respect (regard) to
En forma breve y concisa briefly (stated)
En pocas palabras to summarize / in other words
(Eso) viene al caso / (eso) no viene al
it has something/nothing to do with it
caso
Hacer caso / prestar atención to pay attention
Hacer caso omiso de to ignore / to pay no attention to
not to pay attention, to overlook
Pasar por alto
(intentionally)
No prestar atención not to pay attention
Huelga decir que / sobra decir que it isn't necessary to say that
Naturalmente of course
Por supuesto of course
Español English
Desde luego of course
No obstante notwithstanding / nevertheless
Otrosí furthermore / besides / moreover
Por añadidura / adicionalmente Additionally
Por consiguiente / por ende Therefore
Por lo tanto Hence
Por mi parte as far as I am concerned
Por mucho que + subjuntivo no matter how much
Por poco que + subjuntivo no matter how little
Por un lado on the one hand
Por otro lado / por el otro on the other
Por una parte on one hand
Por otra parte / por la otra on the other
Que yo sepa as far as I know
Se sobrentiende it is self-understood
Según / depende It depends
Según according to
Siempre y cuando + subjuntivo provided that
Sin embargo however / nevertheless
Tener presente / tener en cuenta to keep in mind
CONNECTORS AND LINKERS (Los

conectores y enlaces)
They are expressions that serve to join the different parts of the text and caught
the chronologic channel and logic of the ideas.
• Estructurar la redacción
• Añadir información
• Establecer un contraste
• Explicar causas
• Explicar resultados
• Expresar algo de otra manera
• Expresar hechos
• Expresar una opinión personal
• Modificar lo que se está diciendo
• Poner ejemplos
• Resumir lo que se ha dicho
• Secuenciar la narración.
ESTRUCTURAR LA REDACCIÓN
a) Introducción
b) Primer párrafo
At first sight, A primera vista
First, En primer lugar
First of all, Antes que nada
In the first place, En primer lugar
To start with, Para empezar
c) Segundo párrafo
In the second place, En segundo lugar,
Second, Segundo,
Secondly, En segundo lugar,
Third, Tercero,
Thirdly, En tercer lugar,
d) Conclusión
Finally, Por último,
In conclusion, Para concluir,
Lastly, Por último,
And eventually, Y finalmente,
AÑADIR INFORMACIÓN
apart from Aparte de
in addition Además
in addition to Además de
What’s more Además; lo que es más
Moreover Además
on top of that Además
Besides Además
On the one hand Por una parte
On the other hand Por otra parte
and eventually Y finalmente
ESTABLECER UN CONTRASTE
all the same a pesar de todo
However sin embargo
instead of en vez de
in spite of / despite a pesar de
Nevertheless no obstante
on the contrary por el contrario
whereas / while mientras
though / although Aunque
EXPLICAR CAUSAS
because of + noun a causa de + sustantivo
due to + noun debido a + sustantivo
due to the fact that + sentence debido a que + oración
for this / that reason por esta / esa razón
owing to + noun debido a + sustantivo
owing to the fact that + sentence debido a que + oración
EXPLICAR RESULTADOS
as a result como resultado
because of a causa de
consequently en consecuencia,
So por lo tanto
that's why por eso, por esa razón...
Therefore Por lo tanto
EXPRESAR ALGO DE OTRA MANERA

that is (to say) es decir
in other words en otras palabras
in short en resumen
EXPRESAR HECHOS
Actually en realidad
as a matter of fact, de hecho
in fact, de hecho
Really en realidad
EXPRESAR UNA OPINIÓN PERSONAL

as far as I am concerned por lo que a mí respecta
from my point of view desde mi punto de vista
I agree estoy de acuerdo
I disagree no estoy de acuerdo
in my opinión en mi opinión
in my view según lo veo
I think that creo que
it is true that es verdad que
Personally Personalmente
to be honest, para ser honesto
to tell the truth, a decir verdad
MODIFICAR LO QUE SE ESTÁ DICIENDO

above all sobre todo
all in all en general
at least al menos
Basically básicamente, fundamentalmente
Especially especialmente, sobre todo
Essentially Esencialmente
in general en general
in particular en particular
more or less más o menos
on the whole en general
to a certain extent hasta cierto punto
PONER EJEMPLOS
, and so on. , etcétera.
for example, por ejemplo,
for instance, por ejemplo,
such as tal(es)como
RESUMIR LO QUE SE HA DICHO

all in all en suma
in brief en resumen
in conclusión Para concluir
in short en resumen
on the whole en general
to sum up Para resumir
SECUENCIAR LA NARRACIÓN;
after that después de eso
all of a sudden de repente
Finally Finalmente
First of all En primer lugar
in the end al final
in the meantime mientras tanto
Meanwhile mientras tanto
Next Luego
Suddenly de repente
Then entonces, después
While Mientras
Complete following sentences using an appropriate connecting word.
1. Alice seems to be quite intelligent; ……………………, she often gets poor grades.
(Whereas / otherwise / nonetheless)
2. This restaurant has some of the best chefs in the town. …………………. their service
is excellent. (In addition to / moreover / beside)
3. I’ve never been to the US ……………………. Having friends and relatives there. (In
spite of / although / besides)
4. He is a reckless driver; …................................. he hasn’t had any accidents. (Even so

/ although / even as)
5. My sister works three jobs in a day; …………………., she doesn’t earn much
money. (However / moreover / even as)
6. We went out ………………….. The cold weather. (Despite / although / besides)
7. I tried to look happy ……………………… feeling miserable. (In spite of / although /

however)
Answers
1. Alice seems quite intelligent; nonetheless, she often gets poor grades. (Nonetheless is
used to connect two contrasting ideas.)
2. This restaurant has some of the best chefs in the town. Moreover, their service is
excellent.
3. I’ve never been to the US in spite of having friends and relatives there.
4. He is a reckless driver; even so, he hasn’t had any accidents.
5. My sister works three jobs in a day; however, she doesn’t earn much money.
6. We went out despite the cold weather.
7. I tried to look happy in spite of feeling miserable.
Notes
Many connectors having similar meanings are followed by different structures. For
example, despite and in spite of are followed by a noun phrase or an –ing form.
 I went to work in spite of feeling ill. (in spite of + -ing)

 I went out despite the heavy rains. (despite + noun)
In spite of and despite are prepositions. They cannot be directly followed by a clause.
Hence we use the phrase ‘the fact that’ before a clause.
 I went to work in spite of the fact that I was feeling ill.
Homework. Write a reading using connectors.
FORMAL LETTER.
Formal letters -- they can shape others' perceptions of you, inform the readers of a serious issue,
or get you a job. There are two main types of business letter styles: block style and
Administrative Management Style (AMS). Block style is the most commonly used formal letter
format; it has a salutation and closing, and is good for letters to businesses you are applying to
or someone you have met before. AMS style is more succinct and better for internal memos and
situations where you have to be very direct.
FORMAL LETTER.
November 17, 2012
Paul Bryson
15 Pilgrim Way
Theodore, VA 49385
Virginia Adair
Brookstone Manor Resort and Spa
1400 Brookstone Drive
Seaside, NC 30572
Dear Ms. Adair,
This letter will confirm our arrangements for our son’s rehearsal dinner at your facilities.
The Whitt-Bryson dinner will be held on the evening of Friday, July 6, 2013 in the Sunset
Room. As we discussed, our florist and caterer will both be able to access the room by
3:00 to begin preparations. We will need seating arrangements for 75 people, which will
be set up prior to that time.
I have enclosed the initial deposit and will forward the remainder within 4 weeks of the
event. We thank you for all of your help thus far in planning this important event. We
look forward to continuing to work with you to make this evening a night the couple and
their friends will never forget.
Sincerely,
Paul Bryson
SAMPLE FORMAL EMAIL TO BOSS.
To: jjones@jonesofficesolutions.com
From: tmcaden@jonesofficesolutions.com
Subject: Meeting About New Internet Service Provider 1/8/2013
Mr. Jones,
I have been researching our choices for internet providers over the past week, and I
wanted to update you on my progress. We have two options: H.C. Cable and Toll South.
Both offer business plans, and I will go over the pricing of each plan at the meeting on
Tuesday. Both of the options I listed have comparable speed and data usage offerings as
well. I called your personal provider, GoGo Satellite, but they did not have any business
offerings. They primarily do residential internet service.
I will talk with Joe and Susan in IT about these options and get their suggestions. I will
also send out meeting requests to everyone, including Mr. Morris in operations. If you
have any questions prior to the meeting, please let me know.
Respectfully,
Tina McAden
Administrative Assistant
Jones Office Solutions
http://www.jonesofficesolutions.com
(555) 124-5678
SAMPLE FORMAL TO APOLOGY.
Dear Ms. Wallace,
I write to formally apologize for my actions at last week’s staff meeting. When I heard
that the company was planning to layoff over 200 employees at the end of the quarter, it
struck me on a deeply emotional level. Of course this is a sensitive situation that impacts
many of the workers I manage; however, my outburst during the announcement was
unprofessional and simply uncalled for. As a Senior Manager I strive to be a leader within
my department. I know that my actions (and reactions) reflect broadly on the company
that I serve. I should have better contained my response.
I hope to be a positive force during this transition period. Letting members of our
community go, is always a difficult endeavor to navigate, I hope to make that transition
as peaceful and productive as possible. Please let me know how I can best serve during
this time.
Sincerely,
Edward Miller

- Unit :1
- Activity : Simple past and present perfect tense.

- Eraser
- Proyector and PC.
- Human resources.
- Writing.
- Write sentences in affirmative, negative and interrogative form.
- To final the class students will be competent to make sentences in simple past and present perfect tense.
5.- ATTITUDES.
- Students show interest in learn about the simple past and present perfect tense.
6.- PROBLEM.
- Simple past of the verbs and present perfect tense.

- Students have difficulties to application the verbs in past and present perfect tense to form sentences in affirmative,
negative and interrogative.

- Students watch and listen 3 Musical Videos.
- Teacher starting the exploration writing sentences in simple past of the verbs and Present perfect tense, make questions
about the tense of the sentences. Then teacher ask to students about the theme that we are going to develop today.
Students say: Simple past of the verbs and present perfect tense. Teacher write on the board.
-
- Teacher makes an explanation about the simple past and present perfect tense of the verbs.
- Students fill makes sentences in affirmative, negative and interrogative form.

- Homework. Write one dialog using their imagination
- In personal form Students write sentences using a comparative box between simple past and present perfect tense.
……………………………………………………………….
ENGLISH TEACHER.
SIMPLE PAST AND PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
Simple past tense affirmative. Present perfect tense affirmative.

I studied in a famous institute. I have studied in a famous institute.
She saw to my cousin in Lima She has seen to my cousin in Lima.
They ate chicken in the morning They have eaten chicken in the morning.
Peter chose this book. Peter has chosen this book.
He drank a cup of coffee in the dinner He has drunk a cup of coffee in the dinner.
Now write more.

Simple past affirmative. Present perfect affirmative.
Simple past negative. Present perfect tense negative.

I didn’t go to the theater I haven’t gone to the theater.
She didn’t study English in London. She hasn’t studied English in London.
They didn’t sold their goods yesterday They haven’t sold their goods yesterday.
Now, write more.
Simple past tense Negative. Present perfect tense negative.
Simple past tense Interrogative Present perfect tense interrogative.

Did you send the pack? Have you sent the pack?
Did she travel to Italy? Has she traveled to Italy?
Where did you work 2 years ago? Where have you worked 2 years ago?
How long did he work in Peru? How long has he worked in Peru?
Now write more.
Simple past tense interrogative Present perfect tense, interrogative.


- Unit :1
- Activity : The first conditional

- Eraser
- Proyector and PC.
- Human resources.
- Writing.
- Write sentences with the first conditional
- To final the class students will be competent to make sentences in first conditional
5.- ATTITUDES.
- Students show interest in learn about the first conditional.

6.- PROBLEM.
- The firs conditional

- Students have difficulties to application the first conditional.

- Students watch and listen to 3 Musical Videos.
- Teacher starting the exploration writing sentences in the first conditional, make questions about the tense of the
sentences. Then teacher ask to students about the theme that we are going to develop today. Students say: The first
conditional. Teacher writes on the board.
-
- Teacher makes an explanation about the first conditional.

- Students makes sentences in the first conditional

- Homework. Write 10 sentences in first conditional.
- In personal form Students write sentences using the first conditional.
……………………………………………………………….
ENGLISH TEACHER.
THE FIRST CONDITIONAL.
Form
In a Type 1 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple present, and the
tense in the main clause is the simple future.
If clause (condition) Main clause (result)
If + simple present simple future
If this thing happens That thing will happen.
As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to
rearrange the pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses,
but the meaning is identical.
Examples
 If it rains, you will get wet.

 You will get wet if it rains.
 If Sally is late again I will be mad.
 I will be mad if Sally is late again.
 If you don't hurry, you will miss the bus.
 You will miss the bus if you don't hurry.
Function
The type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. These
sentences are based on facts, and they are used to make statements about the real world,
and about particular situations. We often use such sentences to give warnings. In type 1
conditional sentences, the time is the present or future and the situation is real.
Examples
 If I have time, I'll finish that letter.

 What will you do if you miss the plane?
 Nobody will notice if you make a mistake.
 If you drop that glass, it will break.
 If you don't drop the gun, I'll shoot!
 If you don't leave, I'll call the police.
In type 1 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of the
future tense to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about
the outcome.
Examples
 If you drop that glass, it might break.

 I may finish that letter if I have time.
 If he calls you, you should go.
 If you buy my school supplies for me, I will be able to go to the park.
Reading Comprehension - Pollution and its Negative Effects
Develop your reading skills. Read the following text on pollution and its effect on the
environment. Then answer the comprehension questions.
Pollution is the degradation of natural environment by external substances introduced

directly or indirectly. Human health, ecosystem quality and aquatic and terrestrial
biodiversity may be affected and altered permanently by pollution.
Pollution occurs when ecosystems cannot get rid of substances introduced into the
environment. The critical threshold of its ability to naturally eliminate substances is
compromised and the balance of the ecosystem is broken.
The sources of pollution are numerous. The identification of these different pollutants
and their effects on ecosystems is complex. They can come from natural disasters or the
result of human activity, such as oil spills, chemical spills, nuclear accidents ... These
can have terrible consequences on people and the planet where they live: destruction of
the biodiversity, increased mortality of the human and animal species, destruction of
natural habitat, damage caused to the quality of soil, water and air.
Preventing pollution and protecting the environment necessitate the application of the
principles of sustainable development. We have to consider to satisfy the needs of today
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. This means
that we should remedy existing pollution, but also anticipate and prevent future pollution
sources in order to protect the environment and public health. Any environmental damage
must be punishable by law, and polluters should pay compensation for the damage caused
to the environment.
Comprehension
1. The damage caused by pollution might be irreversible:

a. True
b. False
2. The ecosystem
a. can always cope with pollutants
b. may not always be able to cope with pollution.
3. Pollution
a. is always caused by humans.
b. may sometimes be caused by natural disasters.
4. An ideal solution to prevent pollution would be to
a. refrain the development of some countries.
b. continue developmental projects.
c. take into consideration the future generations need to live in a healthy
environment.
Short paragraph on Pollution.

Introduction.
The term ‘pollution’ has gained a wider significance in recent years. Pollution refers to
the release of chemical or substances into the environment that is injurious for human,
animal and plant life. The water, air, noise and other forms of pollution in one terminology
is known as the pollution of the eco-system.
Water Pollution
Water Pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies such as water, sea, lakes,
ocean, etc. It happens when pollutants are discharged into water without proper treatment.
The organic sources of water pollution are food-processing wastes, tree debris, etc. The
inorganic sources are acidic industrial discharge, silt, etc.
Proper treatment of pollutants before their introduction to the water bodies is of utmost
importance to mitigate the growing water pollution.
Air Pollution
Air pollution is introduction of chemicals to the atmosphere. It damages environmental

balance and causes several diseases. The major causes include massive deforestation,
atomic explosions, old vehicles, industrial fumes, etc.
Massive deforestation should be immediately stopped since it has altered the balance
between oxygen and carbon dioxide. Industrial and vehicle law relating to air pollution
should be properly implemented.
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is the excessive sound that may cause harm to the humanity. The sources
of indoor noise pollution are machines, television, music activities. The external sources
of noise pollution are industries, vehicles, trains, etc.
Noise control measures such as noise barriers, smooth roadways, etc. can be introduced
to reduce the pollution.
Thermal Pollution
The excessive use of water as coolant in heavy industries and power plants cause change
in the temperature of water in lakes, ponds and rivers beyond normal limits. This is called
Thermal Pollution.
Conclusion
The principal cause behind this pollution is ‘exploitation of nature’. The environmental
laws across the globe make an attempt to control pollution. But people are accustomed to
break the law.
Since we all know the causes of these hazards, we should behave responsibly towards the
environment as an attempt to control pollution.
Discovering better ways of working.

Most companies, and most leaders, have developed a bias toward tackling what
we might call “rocks”: large, top-down interventions such as reorganizations, IT
investments, or mergers. For most organizations, the hierarchy, performance
metrics, and interaction rhythms all center on managing rocks, which usually
translate to projects—each with a manager, a set of objectives, and milestones.
But business isn’t all about rocks. There is also “sand”: the innumerable small
issues that cumulatively can wreak havoc on daily work. Sand can take the form
of applications that always seem to have errors, progress updates that arrive too
late, or workloads that skyrocket and then crash. Sand is ubiquitous, especially
at the front line. But a project-based approach is too cumbersome to work at such
a granular scale: the only way to deal with sand is to catch it as it comes in and
constantly sweep it away. That means empowering, coaching, and trusting
people at all levels of the organization to see the problems (the sand) all around
them, trace their root causes (where the sand is coming from), and take steps to
solve them (to sweep the sand away).
To understand what good problem solving looks like, we pay another visit to Mary
and her team. Her experience shows that treating problems as opportunities to
improve, together with applying the principles, tools, and mind-sets that lean
management fosters, effectively weaves problem solving into the fabric of an
organization. Instead of dismissing everyday operating problems as routine, too
trivial to bother with, or unfixable, lean organizations seek problems out, search
relentlessly to find their root causes, and engage the people most affected by
them in helping to develop a cure.
Finding a problem’s deeper sources
Monday
Axel is meeting with Eric to confirm the process for a new type of claim. Eric’s screen
freezes as he enters the provider’s code, so he starts over, losing 15minutes of work.
The claim is dally accepted, but Axel notes that the standard turn around supposed
to be 20 minutes.
Wednesday
Graciela experiences the same frozen computer screen. Axel starts to suggest a
solution but instead asks Graciela to start a problem-solving team with Eric. She’s
skeptical: “Is saving 15 minutes really worth it?” “There may be a deeper problem
that affects other claims. If there isn’t, all we lose is some problem-solving time—and
that’s what it’s for.” Axel makes a note to discuss problem solving in Graciela’s next
one-on-one coaching session.
Thursday
Graciela, Eric, and Carlos—an IT specialist—start by agreeing that the hurdle is the
provider code, which makes a 20-minute claim take 35 minutes. Graciela wonders if
the field is coded correctly, and Carlos suggests testing a claim from a different
provider. It goes smoothly. But testing the same provider code Eric entered on
Monday fails. “Maybe it’s just that provider,” Eric suggests, but Graciela says that the
code she entered was different. She asks, “
Why would just these two providers be a problem?” Carlos suggests meeting again
after he does more research.
Friday
Carlos explains that providers’ data systems record the code in two slightly different
formats.
Why would that matter? Because the data export slightly differently to the
spreadsheets that he and his colleagues use to build claims forms. He discovered
that the new form fails only with one data format. When his colleagues applied the
same format to all of the data and updated the form, it worked consistently.
A test with Eric and Graciela works; they validate it by reverting to the old form one
last time, which again fails. Carlos phones his colleagues to have the revised form
uploaded to all systems.
Friday
Axel is meeting with Mary when the problem-solving team nishes the test. “I think
we’re done,” Carlos says. After Carlos describes the solution, Axel asks, “Have you
really reached the nal ‘why’?” “Meaning?” “Well, why do these forms still rely on data
exported from spread sheets?” Fair point,” Carlos says. “We discussed that with you
last year—there wasn’t budget to build a direct data link to the providers.” Mary
chimes in: “Let’s revisit it. This could really disrupt our operations. I can reprioritize
our budget.”
She asks Axel, Carlos, Graciela, and Eric to form a new problem-solving team and
makes a note to update her midterm plan the change.
The problem solving that Mary’s team undertakes represents a significant

untapped source of value in most organizations.
It starts with a careful procedure for assessing how the work is currently being
performed. Process confirmations—first discussed in the introduction to
section two—play a role by uncovering aspects of a standard process that
may not be working as well as they could be.
When conducting a process confirmation, the leader is looking both at whether
the team member needs help and whether the standard itself needs revision.
Here, the issue with the process is clear: a technical glitch with the form. When
it happens twice in one week, Axel realizes that it needs a second look. He
therefore asks his colleagues who directly experienced the problem to form a
team—that way, the people working on the problem can accurately describe
what it is and the impact it is having on their work. Rather than suggest a
solution himself, he relies on his team to do so because they are closer to the
work.
When Graciela pushes back, suggesting that the problem is too small to
bother with, Axel reaffirms that small problems are important. He understands
that it is all too easy to allow small problems to fester until they turn into big
ones that are far more expensive and difficult to cure. Moreover, he knows
that his organization has allocated a certain amount of time specifically for
problem solving. This step, crucial to enabling problem solving at scale, is
possible because of the productivity gains that a transformed organization
achieves; in essence, the organization reinvests some of the current
productivity improvement to enable further improvement in the future.
The dialogue among Carlos, Eric, and Graciela illustrates what a simple
problem-solving process should look like and how a team can avoid the typical
pitfalls that make problem solving so inconsistent in most organizations. The
most important to resist is the impulse to jump to conclusions—such as
Graciela did when she assumes the problem is a coding error or Eric did when
he suggests it’s only one provider that is at issue. But the team presses
forward in a more rigorous problem-solving process.
They start by defining the problem, comparing what should be happening
against what actually is happening—the 15 minutes of lost productivity when
the form fails. They identify and test potential root causes, repeatedly asking
why a particular result is happening.
Once Carlos’s colleagues have developed a solution, Graciela and Eric test
and validate it.
Carlos then calls his colleagues to ask them to implement the fix.
The team thinks that they are done, but in fact they are not. There are more
levels of questions to ask—classically, root-cause problem solving suggests
“five whys.” Carlos’s solution only reaches two whys, so Axel pushes the team
further.
Discovering better ways of working.

The final conversation with Mary illustrates the power and limits of escalation.
Her involvement is necessary because there is a budgetary issue that only
she can solve. But she does not herself offer a solution; instead, as Axel did
before her, she asks the people who know the problem best to assemble a
team.
In this case, the immediate problem has been solved, but a real resolution will
be possible only with additional effort over a period of several weeks, months,
or perhaps even longer.
Accordingly, Mary adds it to her midterm planning. Sometimes referred to as

a “tactical implementation plan,” this provides a structure for working on
longer-term changes that may be necessary to resolve a problem fully,
detailing the steps required to achieve the change, when the steps will occur,
and who will be responsible.
This section’s articles and interviews touch on many of these points. The first,
“Building a problem-solving culture that lasts,” identifies the five traits that
leaders must develop in themselves so that their organizations can solve
problems consistently and effectively.
Those that do create a capability that is fundamental to continuous

improvement, not just for the organization but also for its employees, whose
emotional investment in their work deepens.
Next, Carlos Zuleta Londoño, chief operating officer at the Colombian
pension-fund administrator Porvenir, explains how the company is enhancing
its industry-leading customer experience while also improving productivity. He
argues that innovation is not the search for a big idea but rather the ability to
keep implementing small ideas that have a powerful cumulative impact.
Additionally, he notes that “the best ideas tend to come from the people on
the front line who serve customers and operate core processes day in and
day out.”
The realization that leaders need to step out of the way and enable their teams
to solve problems for themselves is one of the messages in “Performance
from problem solving: An interview with three leaders at MassMutual.” As one
of the company’s executives points out, “the changes we needed to make
were much more at the leadership level than at the front line.” It is also
important to bear in mind the ultimate purpose a company is working toward:
“solving problems is not the goal; the goal is to help the organization improve.”

- Unit :1
- Activity : Imperatives.

- Eraser
- Proyector and PC.
- Human resources.
- Writing.
- Write imperatives positives and negatives.
- To final the class students will be competent to make imperatives sentences.
5.- ATTITUDES.
- Students show interest in learn about the Imperatives

6.- PROBLEM.
- Imperatives.
- Students have difficulties to application the imperatives.

- Teacher starting the exploration writing sentences in imperatives, make questions about the tense of the sentences.
Then teacher ask to students about the theme that we are going to develop today. Students say: The Imperatives.
Teacher writes on the board.
-
- Teacher makes an explanation about the Imperatives.

- Students makes sentences in affirmative and negative imperatives.

- Homework. Write 10 positives and 10 negatives imperatives.
- In personal form Students write sentences using the imperatives.
……………………………………………………………….
ENGLISH TEACHER.
IMPERATIVES.
Definition: Imperatives are verbs used to give orders, commands, warning or instructions, and
(if you use "please") to make a request.
For example:
 Give me that accounting bank, please.
To make the imperative, use the infinitive of the verb without "to"
For example:
 Come here!
 Sit down!
 …………………………………………………………..
 …………………………………………………………..
 …………………………………………………………..
To make a negative imperative, put "do not" or "don't" before the verb:
For example:
 Don't go!
 Do not walk on the grass.
 …………………………………………………………………………………
 …………………………………………………………………………………
 …………………………………………………………………………………
You can also use "let's" before the verb if you are including yourself in the
imperative. The negative of "let's" is "let's not".
For example:
 Let's stop now.

 Let's have some lunch.
 Let's not argue
 Let's not tell her about it.
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
Orders.
Adults do not usually give each other orders, unless they are in a position of
authority. However, adults can give orders to children and to animals. The
intonation of an order is important: each word is stressed, and the tone falls at the
end of the sentence:
For example:
 Sit down now!

* "Sit", "down" and "now" are all stressed, and the tone falls on "now".
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Warnings.
You can use the imperative to warn someone of danger. All the words in the warning
are stressed, but the last word has a higher tone than the first word:
For example:
 Sit down now!

* "Sit", "down" and "now" are all stressed, and the tone falls on "now".
 Watch out! Tenga cuidado.
 Look out! De algo.
 Don't cross! No cruces.
 …………………………………………………………………………………
 …………………………………………………………………………………
 …………………………………………………………………………………
Advice.
When you give advice using the imperative, the words are stressed normally.
For example:
 Don't tell him you're resigning now! Wait until Monday when he's in a better mood.
 Don't drink alcohol
 Don't eat heavy meals
 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Requests.
You can also use the imperative to make a request, but you should use a polite word
before the verb:
For example:
 Please take a seat.

 Please wait here.
 Please hold the line.
 Please don't smoke here.
 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Notes:
Note that an imperative sentence does not require a subject.
SESSION LEARNING NUMBER …… -

- Unit :1
- Activity : The second conditional.

- Eraser
- Proyector and PC.
- Human resources.
- Writing.
- Write sentences with second conditional.
- To final the class students will be competent to make sentences with second conditional
5.- ATTITUDES.
- Students show interest in learn about the second conditional.

6.- PROBLEM.
- The second conditional

- Students have difficulties to application the second conditional.

- Teacher starting the exploration writing sentences with the second conditional, make questions about the tense of the
sentences. Then teacher ask to students about the theme that we are going to develop today. Students say: The second
conditional. Teacher writes on the board.
-
- Teacher makes an explanation about the second conditional.

- Students makes sentences with second conditional

- Homework. Write 10 sentences in second conditional.
- In personal form Students write sentences using the second conditional.
……………………………………………………………….
ENGLISH TEACHER.
The Second Conditional

The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:
 if + past simple, ...would + infinitive.

(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal
writing).
It has two uses.
First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true.
Maybe I'm imagining some dream for example.
 If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
 If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
 She would travel all over the world if she were rich.
 She would pass the exam if she ever studied.(She never studies, so this won't happen)
Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because
it's not true. Is that clear? Have a look at the examples:
 If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for
me to call him).
 If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.
How is this different from the first conditional?
This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional because this is a
lot more unlikely.
For example (second conditional): If I had enough money I would buy a house with
twenty bedrooms and a swimming pool (I'm probably not going to have this much money,
it's just a dream, not very real)
But (first conditional): If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes (It's much more
likely that I'll have enough money to buy some shoes)
Exercises.
If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world.
 If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world. (Though I am unlikely to
win the lottery)
 If I knew his name, I would tell you.
 If I didn't have a headache, I would go to the party.
 If I became President, I would reduce the salaries of all politicians. (Though it is
unlikely I will become President).
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
Conditional verb (would + verb) + If + Past Simple

 I would be happy if I had more free time.
 I would tell you the answer if I knew what it was.
 There would be fewer accidents if everyone drove more carefully.
 We would have a lot of money if we sold our house.
 Would she come if I paid for her flight?
 Would you accept the job if they offered it to you?
 What would you do if you won the lottery?
 What would you do if you saw a tiger in front you?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
If I were...
Note that with the verb To Be we use IF + I / HE / SHE / IT + WERE
The reason we use WERE instead of WAS is because the sentence is in the Subjunctive
mood.
 If I were not in debt, I would quit my job.

 If he were taller, he'd be accepted into the team.
 She would be correcting my grammar if she were still alive.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Though in informal English, you will hear some people say If I was... If he was... etc.
This usage doesn't sound good though unfortunately is common.
Practice.
1. What would you do if you suddenly (win) half a million pounds?

2. If he (get up) up earlier, he'd get to work on time.
3. If we (have) more time, I could tell you more about it.
4. If you (sell) more products, you'd earn more money.
5. I could help you if you (trust) me more.
6. His car would be a lot safer if he (buy) some new tires.
7. The children could be better swimmers if the (go) swimming more frequently.
8. I wouldn't mind having children if we (live) in the country.
9. If I (be) you, I wouldn't worry about going to university.
10. If I (have) any money, I'd give you some.
11. Your parents (be) a lot happier if you phoned them more often.
Learn English: 10 useful verbs related to

money.
A person lending money to someone else.
What's the difference between 'earn', 'inherit' and 'invest'? Learn how to use these 10
useful verbs when you want to talk about money going in and out of your wallet.
These following five words are examples of verbs we use to talk about money going in:
1. Earn
To 'earn' or 'make' money means to get money by working
"I want to earn money so I am looking for a job."
2. Make
To 'make' money means the same thing - to get money by working.
"I struggle to make money when I don't have customers."
3. Inherit
To 'inherit' money can mean to receive money from someone who has died.
"She inherited money from her grandmother."
4. Find
To 'find' money means to discover something, and in this case, without expecting it.
Note that 'found' is the past form of 'find'.
"She found money on the floor near the ATM."
5. Borrow
To 'borrow' money means to get money from a person or bank with the intention of giving
it back.
"They borrowed money from the bank to buy a house."

The following words below are examples of verbs we use to talk about money going out:
6. Spend.
To 'spend' means to give money when buying things.
"They spend money when they need to."
Spending money.
7. Waste
To 'waste' money means to spend unnecessarily on something you don't need. Note that
we say we waste money 'on something'.
"He wasted money on that very expensive coat."
8. Invest
To 'invest' money means to buy shares in a business with the hope that you will make a
profit. We say we invest 'in something'.
"They invested in the company after looking at its business plan."
9. Lose
To 'lose' money is to no longer have it because you don't know where it is or you've failed
to keep it for some reason. The past form of 'lose' is lost and 'lose' is the opposite of 'find'
in this case.
"I lost money after making some bad investments."
10. Lend
To 'lend' money means to give money to someone with the intention of getting it back.
We say we lend money to somebody. 'Lend' is the opposite of 'borrow'.
"The bank lent money to the couple after checking their income."
Verbs and Phrasal Verbs to do with Money
Many verbs have different meanings; however this section deals with verbs and phrasal
verbs connected with money. An example is provided only where the verb is commonly
used in everyday conversation.
At least one irregular verb in bold is shown in all its forms.
Verbs
The Verb An example

Regular
(infinitive The Meaning ( Simple Past
/Irregular
form) Tense)
To get or receive something from someone

I borrowed your
To borrow (often money) with the intention of giving it Regular
bike last week?
back after a period of time.
I bought a lot of
To obtain something by paying money for it. Irregular
To buy wine for the party.
He earnt a decent
To receive money as payment for work that
To earn wage before he Irregular
you do.
retired.
To give something to someone for a short She lent me her

To lend Irregular
period of time, expecting it to be given back. book.
To give money to someone for something I wasn't paid

To pay Irregular
you want to buy or for services provided. enough.
To keep something, especially money, for I saved for my
To save Regular
use in the future. pension.
I spent all my
To give money as a payment for something: savings on this web Irregular
To spend site.
Phrasal Verbs
The
An example S=Separable
Phrasal The Meaning
( Simple Past Tense) I=Inseparable
Verb
The company thought they had

To pay someone so that they
To buy off bought him off but he took them S
do not cause you any trouble.
to court and won.
To buy a part of a company or

They bought their competitor's
To buy out building from someone else so S
share in the target company.
that you own all of it.
To buy large amounts of

He bought up all the land in the
To buy up something, or all that is S
surrounding area.
available.
To get money or another

To cash in A lot of people are trying to cash
advantage from an event or I
on in on the situation.
situation, often in an unfair way.
To count all the money taken

She cashed up when the shop
To cash up by a shop or business at the S
closed.
end of each day.
To pay back money that you We paid off our mortgage after
To pay off S
owe. 25 years.
To spend money on something, I paid out £500 to get the

To pay out S
or to pay money to someone. computer fixed.
To give someone the money

If he doesn't pay up, I'll throw
To pay up that you owe them, especially S
him out. It's as simple as that.
when you do not want to.
To avoid using something [e.g.
He used to go to bed very early
To save on electricity, food] so that you do S
to save on his electricity bills.
not have to pay for it.
POSTCARDS 4
Vocabulary
Verbs used with money (1)
1. Circle the letter of the correct sentence in each pair.
1.
a. Maybe my sister will withdraw me some money.
b. Maybe my sister will lend me some money.
2.
a. Can I borrow $10.00 from you?
b. Can I save $10.00 from you?
3.
a. I spent my money in the bank.
b. I deposited my money in the bank.
4.
a. I spend $6.00 an hour at my job.
b. I earn $6.00 an hour at my job.
5.
a. I am saving money now, so I can buy a new car next year.
b. I am spending money now, so I can buy a new car next year.
6.
a. I will use the automatic teller machine to spend $20.00.
b. I will use the automatic teller machine to withdraw $20.00.
7.
a. How much money did you spend at the grocery store?
b. How much money did you deposit at the grocery store?
8.
a. If I save enough money, I can take a vacation this summer.
b. If I lend enough money, I can take a vacation this summer.
POSTCARDS 5.
Vocabulary
Verbs used with money (2)
2. Complete the sentences. Circle the correct verb.
1. Can I (borrow / withdraw) $5 from you?
2. How much do you (spend / earn) at your job?
3. I am bringing my lunch from home, so I can (lend / save)
some money.
4. I (spend / withdraw) a lot of money on clothes.
5. Did the bank (earn / lend) him any money?
6. You have to put money in the bank before you can (borrow /
withdraw) it.
7. I just got paid and I am going to (spend / deposit) the check
in the bank.
LIST OF GENRES.
FILMS.
This is a list of genres of literature and entertainment, excluding genres in the visual arts.
Genre is the term for any category of literature or other forms of art or entertainment,
music, whether written or spoken, audio or visual, based on some set of stylistic criteria.
Genres are formed by conventions that change over time as new genres are invented and
the use of old ones are discontinued. Often, works fit into multiple genres by way of
borrowing and recombining these conventions.
Part of a series on
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness.
You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.
Contents
 1 Literary genres
o 1.1 Absurdist/surreal/whimsical
o 1.2 Action
o 1.3 Adventure
o 1.4 Comedy
o 1.5 Crime
o 1.6 Drama
o 1.7 Fantasy
o 1.8 Historical
o 1.9 Historical fiction
o 1.10 Horror
o 1.11 Magical realism
o 1.12 Mystery
o 1.13 Paranoid Fiction
o 1.14 Philosophical
o 1.15 Political
o 1.16 Romance
o 1.17 Saga
o 1.18 Satire
o 1.19 Science fiction
o 1.20 Slice of Life
o 1.21 Social
o 1.22 Speculative
o 1.23 Thriller
o 1.24 Urban
o 1.25 Western
 2 Film and television formats and genres
o 2.1 Animation
o 2.2 Live-action scripted
o 2.3 Live-action unscripted
o 2.4 Other television-related topics
 3 Video game genres
 4 Music genres
 5 References
 6 External links
Literary genres
Main articles: Literary genre and List of writing genres
Absurdist/surreal/whimsical
Absurdist and surreal fiction challenges causal reasoning and the purposefulness of life.
There is often, though not always, a connection to comedy.
The whimsical and related styles exaggerate real life in a whimsical, eccentric, quirky or
fanciful way, sometimes including 'magical' extensions of reality.
The absurdist genre focuses on the experiences of characters in situations where they
cannot find any inherent purpose in life, most often represented by ultimately meaningless
actions and events that call into question the certainty of existential concepts such as truth
or value.
The closely related/overlapping surreal genre is predicated on deliberate violations of

causal reasoning, producing events and behaviours that are obviously illogical.
Constructions of surreal humour tend to involve bizarre juxtapositions, non-sequiturs,
irrational or absurd situations and expressions of nonsense.
Whimsical and related styles are exemplified by films such as Underground, Amélie,
Micmacs and Dieta Mediterranea (Mediterranean Food).[1]
Action
An action story is similar to adventure, and the protagonist usually takes a risky turn,
which leads to desperate situations (including explosions, fight scenes, daring escapes,
etc.). Action and Adventure are usually categorized together (sometimes even as "action-
adventure") because they have much in common, and many stories fall under both genres
simultaneously (for instance, the James Bond series can be classified as both).
 Heroic bloodshed: Hong Kong action revolving around stylized sequences and dramatic
themes such as brotherhood, duty, honor, redemption and violence.
 Military fiction: A story about a war or battle that can either be historical or fictional. It
usually follows the events a certain warrior goes through during the battle's events.
 Spy fiction: A story about a secret agent (spy) or military personnel member who is sent
on a secret espionage mission. Usually, they are equipped with special gadgets that
prove useful during the mission, and they have special training in things such as
unarmed combat or computer hacking. They may or may not work for a specific
government.
 Wuxia: A martial arts genre with chivalrous protagonists on fantastic adventures.
 Girls with guns and swords: This is a subgenre of action films and animation, often Asian
films and anime, that portray a strong female protagonist who makes use of firearms to
defend against or attack a group of antagonists. The genre typically involves gun-play,
stunts and martial arts action.
Adventure
An adventure story is about a protagonist who journeys to epic or distant places to

accomplish something. It can have many other genre elements included within it, because
it is a very open genre. The protagonist has a mission and faces obstacles to get to their
destination. Also, adventure stories usually include unknown settings and characters with
prized properties or features.
 Shōnen manga: A manga usually tends to be marketed to males roughly aged 10 and
above. It is typically characterized by high-action, often humorous plots featuring male
protagonists. The camaraderie between boys or men on sports teams, fighting squads,
and the like is often emphasized. Attractive female characters with exaggerated features
are also common.
 Superhero fiction: A story that examines the adventures of costumed crime fighters
known as superheroes, who often possess superhuman powers and battle similarly
powered criminals known as supervillains.
Comedy
Comedy is a story that tells about a series of funny, or comical events, intended to make
the audience laugh. It is a very open genre, and thus crosses over with many other genres
on a frequent basis.
 Comedy of manners: A film satirizes the manners and affectations of a social class, often
represented by stock characters. The plot of the comedy is often concerned with an illicit
love affair or some other scandal, but is generally less important than its witty dialogue.
This form of comedy has a long ancestry, dating back at least as far as Shakespeare's
Much Ado about Nothing.
 Humorous: Fiction full of fun, fancy, and excitement. Meant to entertain.
 Tall tale: A humorous story with blatant exaggeration, swaggering heroes who do the
impossible with nonchalance.
 Parody: A story that mocks or satirizes other genres, people, fictional characters or
works. Such works employ sarcasm, stereotyping, mockery of scenes, symbols or lines
from other works, and the obviousness of meaning in a character's actions. Such stories
may be "affectionate parodies" meant to entertain those familiar with the references of
the parody, or they may well be intended to undercut the respectability of the original
inspiration for the parody by pointing out its flaws (the latter being closer to satire).
 Romantic comedy aka RomCom: A subgenre that combines the romance genre with
comedy, focusing on two or more individuals as they discover and attempt to deal with
their romantic love, attractions to each other. The stereotypical plot line follows the
"boy-gets-girl", "boy-loses-girl", "boy gets girl back again" sequence. Naturally, there are
innumerable variants to this plot (as well as new twists, such as reversing the gender
roles in the story), and much of the generally lighthearted comedy lies in the social
interactions and sexual tension between the characters, who very often either refuse to
admit they are attracted to one another or must deal with others' meddling in their
affairs.
 Comic fantasy: A subgenre of fantasy that is primarily humorous in intent and tone.
Usually set in imaginary worlds, comic fantasy often includes puns on and parodies of
other works of fantasy. It is sometimes known as low fantasy in contrast to high fantasy,
which is primarily serious in intent and tone. The term "low fantasy" is also used to
represent other types of fantasy, so while comic fantasies may also correctly be
classified as low fantasy, many examples of low fantasy are not comic in nature.
 Comedy horror: See Shaun of the Dead and Jennifer's Body.
 Black comedy (or dark comedy): A parody or satirical story that is based on normally
tragic or taboo subjects, including death, murder, suicide, illicit drugs and war. So-called
"dead baby comedy" sometimes falls under this genre.
 Zombie comedy: Often called zom com or zomedy, this is a genre that blends zombie
horror motifs with slapstick comedy as well as dark comedy.
 Comic science fiction: A comedy that uses science fiction elements or settings, often as
a lighthearted (or occasionally vicious) parody of the latter genre.
Crime
(See also: Mystery below)
A crime story is about a crime that is being committed or was committed. It can also be
an account of a criminal's life. It often falls into the action or adventure genres.
 Courtroom drama: A television show subgenre of dramatic programming. This subgenre

presents the fictional drama about the law. Law enforcement, crime, detective-based
mystery solving, lawyer work, civil litigation, etc., are all possible focuses on legal
dramas. Common subgenres of legal dramas include detective dramas, police dramas,
courtroom dramas, legal thrillers, etc. Legal dramas come in all shapes and sizes and
may also span into other forms of media, including novels, plays, television shows, and
films.
 Detective story: A story about a detective or person, either professional or amateur,
who has to solve a crime that was committed. They must figure out who committed the
crime and why. Sometimes, the detective must figure out 'how' the criminal committed
the crime if it seems impossible.
o Whodunnit: This is a complex, plot-driven variety of the detective story in which
the audience is given the opportunity to engage in the same process of
deduction as the protagonist throughout the investigation of a crime. The
reader or viewer is provided with the clues from which the identity of the
perpetrator may be deduced before the story provides the revelation itself at
its climax. The investigation is usually conducted by an eccentric amateur or
semi-professional detective.
 Gangster: Literature that focuses on gangs, criminal organizations that provide a level
of organization, and resources that support much larger and more complex criminal
transactions than an individual criminal could achieve. Gangsters are the subject of
many movies, particularly from the period between 1930 and 1960. A revival of gangster
type movies took place since the 1990s with the explosion of hip-hop culture. Unlike the
earlier gangster films, the newer films share similar elements to the older films but are
more in a hip-hop urban setting.
 Gentleman thief: Centers around particularly well-behaving and apparently well-bred
thieves. They rarely bother with anonymity or force, preferring to rely on their charisma,
physical attractiveness, and clever misdirection to steal the most unobtainable objects –
sometimes for their own support, but mostly for the thrill of the act itself.
 Gong' a fiction: A subgenre of historical crime fiction that involves government
magistrates who solve criminal cases.
 Hardboiled: This is a literary genre sharing the setting with crime fiction (especially
detective stories). Though deriving from the romantic tradition, which emphasized the
emotions of apprehension, horror and terror, and awe, hardboiled fiction deviates from
the tradition in the detective's cynical attitude towards those emotions. The attitude is
conveyed through the detective's self-talk describing to the reader (or – in the film – to
the viewer) what he is doing and feeling.
 Legal thriller: A subgenre of thriller and crime fiction in which the major characters are
lawyers and their employees. The system of justice itself is always a major part of these
works, at times almost functioning as one of the characters. In this way, the legal system
provides the framework for the legal thriller much as the system of modern police work
does for the police procedural. Usually, crusading lawyers become involved in proving
their cases (usually their client's innocence of the crime he is accused of, or the
culpability of a corrupt corporation that has covered its malfeasance) to such an extent
that they imperil their own interpersonal relationships and frequently, their own lives.
 Murder mystery: A mystery story that focuses on homicides. Usually, the detective must
figure out who killed one or several victims. They may or may not find themselves or
loved ones in danger because of this investigation. The genre often includes elements
of the suspense story genre, or of the action and adventure genres.
Drama
Main article: Drama (film and television)
Within film, television and radio (but not theatre), drama is a genre of narrative fiction
(or semi-fiction) intended to be more serious than humorous in tone,[2] focusing on in-
depth development of realistic characters who must deal with realistic emotional
struggles. A drama is commonly considered the opposite of a comedy, but may also be
considered separate from other works of some broad genre, such as a fantasy.
 Comedy-drama
 Crime drama
 Docudrama
 Historical period drama
 Horror drama
 Legal drama
 Melodrama
 Military drama
 Romantic drama
 Teen drama
Fantasy
The Whirlwind Seizes the Wreath
A fantasy story is about magic or supernatural forces, rather than technology (as science
fiction) if it happens to take place in a modern or future era. Depending on the extent of
these other elements, the story may or may not be considered to be a "hybrid genre" series;
for instance, even though the Harry Potter series canon includes the requirement of a
particular gene to be a wizard, it is referred to only as a fantasy series.
 Bangsian: A fantasy genre that concerns the use of famous literary or historical
individuals and their interactions in the afterlife. It is named for John Kendrick Bangs,
who often wrote in this genre.
 Contemporary fantasy (also known as modern fantasy or indigenous fantasy): A
subgenre of fantasy, set in the present day. These are used to describe stories set in the
putative real world (often referred to as consensus reality) in contemporary times, in
which magic and magical creatures exist, either living in the interstices of our world or
leaking over from alternate worlds.
o Urban fantasy: A subgenre of fantasy defined by place; the fantastic narrative
has an urban setting. Many urban fantasies are set in contemporary times and
contain supernatural elements. However, the stories can take place in historical,
modern, or futuristic periods, as well as fictional settings. The prerequisite is
that they must be primarily set in a city.
 Dark fantasy: A subgenre of fantasy that can refer to literary, artistic, and filmic works
that combine fantasy with elements of horror. The term can be used broadly to refer to
fantastical works that have a dark, gloomy atmosphere or a sense of horror and dread
and a dark, often brooding, tone.
 Fables: A type of narration demonstrating a useful truth. Animals speak as humans,
legendary, supernatural tale.
 Fairy Tales: A literary genre about various magical creatures, environments, et cetera.
Many fairy tales are generally targeted for children.
 Hard fantasy: Fantasy where the magical elements are constructed in a logical and
rational manner.
 Epic/High fantasy: Mythical stories with highly developed characters and story lines. E.g.
Malazan Book of the Fallen and The Lord of the Rings
 Heroic fantasy: subgenre of fantasy that chronicles the tales of heroes in imaginary
lands. Frequently, the protagonist is reluctant to be a champion, is of low or humble
origin, and has royal ancestors or parents but does not know it. Though events are
usually beyond their control, they are thrust into positions of great responsibility where
their mettle is tested in a number of spiritual and physical challenges.
 Legends: Stories, oftentimes of a national hero or other folk figure, which have a basis
in fact, but also contain imaginative material.
 Magical girl: Popular in Japan, of girls who use magic in either their training, idol stardom
or even to fight evil.
 Mythic fiction: Literature that is rooted in, inspired by, or that in some way draws from
the tropes, themes and symbolism of myth, folklore, and fairy tales.[1] The term is
widely credited to Charles de Lint and Terri Windling. Mythic fiction overlaps with urban
fantasy and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but mythic fiction also
includes contemporary works in non-urban settings. Mythic fiction refers to works of
contemporary literature that often cross the divide between literary and fantasy fiction.
 Science fantasy: A story with mystical elements that are scientifically explainable, or that
combine science fiction elements with fantasy elements. Note that science fiction was
once referred to by this name, but that it no longer denotes that genre, and has
somewhat fallen out of favor as a genre descriptor.
o Sword and planet: A subgenre of science fantasy that features rousing
adventure stories set on other planets, and usually featuring Earthmen as
protagonists. There is a fair amount of overlap between "Sword & Planet" and
"planetary romance" though some works are considered to belong to one and
not the other. In general, Planetary Romance is considered to be more of a
Space Opera subgenre, influenced by the likes of A Princess of Mars yet more
modern and technologically savvy, while Sword & Planet more directly imitates
the conventions established by Burroughs in the Mars series.
o Dying Earth: A sub-subgenre of science fantasy that takes place either at the end
of life on Earth or the End of Time, when the laws of the universe themselves
fail. More generally, the Dying Earth subgenre encompasses science fiction
works set in the far distant future in a milieu of stasis or decline. Themes of
world-weariness, innocence (wounded or otherwise), idealism, entropy,
(permanent) exhaustion/depletion of many or all resources (such as soil
nutrients), and the hope of renewal tend to pre-dominate.
o Gaslamp fantasy: Fantasy's counterpart to steampunk, in which the settings are
often Victorian or Edwardian socially or technologically, but with non-scientific
elements or characters included.
Though originated by Girl Genius, modern Sherlock Holmes, Dracula and Jane Austen
pastiches also fit within this subgenre.
 Shenmo: A genre of fantasy that revolves around the gods and monsters of Chinese
mythology.
 Sword and sorcery: A blend of heroic fantasy, adventure, and frequent elements of the
horrific in which a mighty barbaric warrior hero is pitted against both human and
supernatural adversaries. Robert E. Howard, creator of Conan the Cimmerian, Kull of
Atlantis, the Pictish king Bran Mak Morn, etc. is generally acknowledged as the founder
of the genre, chiefly through his writings for Weird Tales and other 1920s and 1930s
pulp magazines.
Historical
A story about a real person or event. Often, they are written in a text book format, which
may or may not focus on solely that.
 Biography: The details of the life story of a real person, told by someone else.
o Autobiography: Essentially the same as a biography, with the exception that the
story is written by the person who is the subject of the story.
o Memoir: Similar to autobiography, with the exception that it is told more "from
memory", i.e. it is how the person personally remembers and feels about their
life or a stage in their life, more than the exact, recorded details of that period.
Though memoirs are often more subjective than autobiography works, memoirs
are generally still considered to be nonfiction works. There are also some fiction
works that purport to be the "memoirs" of fictional characters as well, done in
a similar style, however, these are in a separate genre from their nonfiction
counterparts.
 Historical fiction: A story that takes place in the real world, with real world people, but
with several fictionalized or dramatized elements. This may or may not crossover with
other genres; for example, fantasy fiction or science fiction may play a part, as is the
case for instance with the novel George Washington's Socks, which includes time travel
elements.
o Alternate history: A more extreme variant of historical fiction which posits a
"what if" scenario in which some historical event occurs differently (or not at
all), thus altering the course of history; for instance, "What if Nazi Germany had
won World War II?" is an alternate history concept that has had treatment in
fiction. Alternate History is sometimes (though not universally) referred to as a
subgenre of science fiction or speculative fiction, and like historical fiction, may
include more fantastical elements (for instance, the Temeraire series uses the
fantasy element of dragons to create an Alternate History plot set during the
Napoleonic Era).
o Counterfactual history: Referred to as virtual history, it is a recent form of
historiography that attempts to answer counterfactual "what if" questions. It
seeks to explore history and historical incidents by means of extrapolating a
timeline in which certain key historical events did not happen or had a different
outcome. This exercise ascertains the relative importance of the event, incident
or person the counter-factual hypothesis negates.
o Period piece: This type features historical places, people, or events that may or
not be crucial to the story. Because history is merely used as a backdrop, it may
be fictionalized to various degrees, but the story itself may be regarded as
"outside" history. Genres within this category are often regarded as significant
categories in themselves.
 Jidaigeki: A story usually set in the Edo period of Japanese history, from
1603 to 1868.
o Costume drama: A type of drama that especially relies on lavish costumes and
designs. This type crosses over with many other genres.
Historical fiction
The genre historical fiction includes stories that are about the past. To distinguish
historical fiction from any fiction that is written about an era in the past, the criteria that
the book must have been written about a time that occurred in a historical context in
relation to the author of the book.[3][4] The criteria that the story be set before the middle
of the previous century is sometimes added.[4] Historical fiction stories include historical
details and includes characters that fit into the time period of the setting, whether or not
they are real historical people.[3]
Horror
An Illustration of Poe's 'The Raven' by Gustave Doré
A horror story is told to deliberately scare or frighten the audience, through suspense,
violence or shock. H. P. Lovecraft distinguishes two primary varieties in the
"Introduction" to Supernatural Horror in Literature: 1) Physical Fear or the "mundanely
gruesome" and 2) the true Supernatural Horror story or the "Weird Tale". The
supernatural variety is occasionally called "dark fantasy", since the laws of nature must
be violated in some way, thus qualifying the story as "fantastic".
 Ghost story: A story about the intrusion of the spirits of the dead into the realm of the
living. There are subgenres: The Traditional Haunting, Poltergeists, The Haunted Place
or Object (i.e. the hotel in Stephen King's The Shining), or the etching in M. R. James'
"The Mezzotint", etc. Some would include stories of Revenants such as W. W. Jacobs'
"The Monkey's Paw."
 Monster: A story about a monster, creature or mutant that terrorizes people. Usually, it
fits into the horror genre, for instance, Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein. Shelley's
Frankenstein is often also considered the first science fiction story (biological science
reanimating the dead), but it does present a monstrous "creature. Other clear Monster
stories are of the creatures of folklore and fable: the Vampire, the Ghoul, the Werewolf,
the Zombie, etc. Beings such as that depicted in Karloff's The Mummy would also qualify.
o Giant monsters: A story about a giant monster, big enough to destroy buildings.
Some such stories are about two giant monsters fighting each other, a genre
known as kaiju in Japan, which is famous for such works after the success of
such films and franchises such as Godzilla.
 Werewolf fiction: Stories about werewolves, humans with the ability to shapeshift into
wolves.
 Jiangshi fiction: Stories about jiangshi, the hopping corpses under the control of Taoist
priests derived from Chinese literature and folklore.
 Vampire literature: A story about vampires, reanimated bodies that feed on the blood
of the living, based on European folklore. Bram Stoker's Dracula created many of the
genre's conventions.
 Occult stories: Stories that touch upon the adversaries of Good, especially the "Enemies"
of the forces of righteousness as expressed in any given religious philosophy. Hence,
stories of devils, demons, demonic possession, dark witchcraft, evil sorcerers or
warlocks, and figures like the Antichrist would qualify. The nature of such stories
presupposes the existence of the side of Good and the existence of a deity to be
opposed to the forces of Evil.
 Slasher: A horror genre featuring a serial killer or other psychopath as an antagonist,
methodically killing a number of protagonists in succession. Dramatic suspense is
heightened by the victims' obliviousness of the killer. The victims are typically in isolated
settings and often engaged in sexual activity previous to the attacks. The "slasher" kills
their victims by sneaking up on them and then bloodily stabbing and slicing them to
death with a sharp object, such as a chef's knife. Gender roles in slasher films are of
particular interest in feminist film theory, which has extensively examined the trope of
the Final girl.
 Survival horror: A horror story about a protagonist in a risky and life-threatening
situation that they must endure, often as a result of things such as zombies or other
monsters, and the rest of the plot is how the main characters overcome this.
Magical realism
Magical realism, also called Magic realism, is literary works where magical events form
part of ordinary life. The reader is forced to accept that abnormal events such as levitation,
telekinesis and talking with the dead take place in the real world. The writer does not
invent a new world or describe in great detail new creatures, as is usual in Fantasy; on the
contrary, the author abstains from explaining the fantastic events to avoid making them
feel extraordinary. It is often regarded as a genre exclusive to Latin American literature,
but some of its chief exponents include English authors. One Hundred Years of Solitude,
by Gabriel García Márquez, who received the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature, is
considered the genre's seminal work of style.
Mystery
A mystery story follows an investigator as he/she attempts to solve a puzzle (often a

crime). The details and clues are presented as the story continues and the protagonist
discovers them and by the end of the story the mystery/puzzle is solved. For example, in
the case of a crime mystery the perpetrator and motive behind the crime are revealed and
the perpetrator is brought to justice. Mystery novels are often written in series, which
facilitates a more in-depth development of the primary investigator.[5][6] Specific types of
mystery story include locked room mysteries and cozy mysteries.
Paranoid Fiction
Paranoid fiction is works of literature that explore the subjective nature of reality and how
it can be manipulated by forces in power. These forces can be external, such as a
totalitarian government, or they can be internal, such as a character's mental illness or
refusal to accept the harshness of the world they are in.
Philosophical
Philosophical fiction is fiction in which a significant proportion of the work is devoted to

a discussion of the sort of questions normally addressed in discursive philosophy. These
might include the function and role of society, the purpose of life, ethics or morals, the
role of art in human lives, and the role of experience or reason in the development of
knowledge. Philosophical fiction works would include the so-called novel of ideas,
including a significant proportion of science fiction, utopian and dystopian fiction, and
Bildungsroman. The modus operandi seems to be to use a normal story to simply explain
difficult and dark parts of human life.
 Bildungsroman: A coming-of-age novel presenting the psychological, moral and social

shaping of the personality of a character, usually the protagonist. The genre arose during
the German Enlightenment.
Political
Political fiction is a subgenre of fiction that deals with political affairs. Political fiction
has often used narrative to provide commentary on political events, systems and theories.
Works of political fiction often "directly criticize an existing society or... present an
alternative, sometimes fantastic, reality." Prominent pieces of political fiction have
included the totalitarian dystopias of the early 20th century such as Jack London's The
Iron Heel and Sinclair Lewis's It Can't Happen Here. Equally influential, if not more so,
have been earlier pieces of political fiction such as Gulliver's Travels (1726), Candide
(1759) and Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852). Political fiction frequently employs the literary
modes of satire, often in the genres of Utopian and dystopian fiction or social science
fiction.
 Utopian fiction: The creation of an ideal world, or utopia, as the setting for a novel
 Dystopian fiction: The creation of a nightmare world, or dystopia, as the setting for a
novel
 Survivalism: The creation of world where traditional society has collapsed usually due
to some post apocalyptic or doomsday scenario, as a setting for a novel
Romance
The term "romance" has multiple meanings; historical romances like those of Walter
Scott would use the term to mean "a fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of
which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents".[7] But most often a romance is
understood to be "love stories", emotion-driven stories that are primarily focused on the
relationship between the main characters of the story. Beyond the focus on the
relationship, the biggest defining characteristic of the romance genre is that a happy
ending is always guaranteed...[8][9] perhaps marriage and living "happily ever after", or
simply that the reader sees hope for the future of the romantic relationship. [9] Due to the
wide definition of romance, romance stories cover a wide variety of subjects and often
fall into other genre categories as well as romance,[8][9] such as Comedy-Romance (also
known as romcom films), romantic suspense and (less common now): subcategories such
as hospital romances, as found in the novels by Lucilla Andrews. See Mills & Boon
imprint categories and Harlequin romances categories for a partial list of other sub-genres.
Saga
The sagas (from Icelandic saga, plural sögur) are stories about ancient Scandinavian and
Germanic history, about early Viking voyages, about migration to Iceland, and of feuds
between Icelandic families. They were written in the Old Norse language, mainly in
Iceland. The texts are epic tales in prose, often with stanzas or whole poems in alliterative
verse embedded in the text, of heroic deeds of days long gone, tales of worthy men, who
were often Vikings, sometimes Pagan, sometimes Christian. The tales are usually
realistic, except legendary sagas, sagas of saints, sagas of bishops and translated or
recomposed romances. They are sometimes romanticised and fantastic, but always
dealing with human beings one can understand.
 Family saga: The family saga chronicles the lives and doings of a family or a number of
related or interconnected families over a period of time. In novels (or sometimes
sequences of novels) with a serious intent, this is often a thematic device used to portray
particular historical events, changes of social circumstances, or the ebb and flow of
fortunes from a multiple of perspectives.
Satire
Often strictly defined as a literary genre or form, though in practice it is also found in the
graphic and performing arts. In satire, human or individual vices, follies, abuses, or
shortcomings are held up to censure by means of ridicule, derision, burlesque, irony, or
other methods, ideally with the intent to bring about improvement. Satire is usually meant
to be funny, but its purpose is not primarily humour as an attack on something the author
disapproves of, using wit. A common, almost defining feature of satire is its strong vein
of irony or sarcasm, but parody, burlesque, exaggeration, juxtaposition, comparison,
analogy, and double entendre all frequently appear in satirical speech and writing. The
essential point, is that "in satire, irony is militant." This "militant irony" (or sarcasm) often
professes to approve (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist actually
wishes to attack.
Science fiction
Science fiction is similar to fantasy, except stories in this genre use scientific
understanding to explain the universe that it takes place in. It generally includes or is
centered on the presumed effects or ramifications of computers or machines; travel
through space, time or alternate universes; alien life-forms; genetic engineering; or other
such things. The science or technology used may or may not be very thoroughly
elaborated on; stories whose scientific elements are reasonably detailed, well-researched
and considered to be relatively plausible given current knowledge and technology are
often referred to as hard science fiction.
 Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction: concerned with the end of civilization either
through nuclear war, plague, or some other general disaster. Post-apocalyptic fiction is
set in a world or civilization after such a disaster. The time frame may be immediately
after the catastrophe, focusing on the travails or psychology of survivors, or
considerably later, often including the theme that the existence of pre-catastrophe
civilization has been forgotten (or mythologized). Post-apocalyptic stories often take
place in an agrarian, non-technological future world, or a world where only scattered
elements of technology remain. There is a considerable degree of blurring between this
form of science fiction and fiction that deals with false utopias or dystopic societies.
 Hard science fiction: where the science is detailed, well-researched, and considered
plausible such as Jurassic Park or Prey (novel).
o Tech noir: A hybrid of other works of fiction combining the film noir and science
fiction or cyberpunk genres such as seen in Blade Runner (1982) and The
Terminator (1984). It is a form of Neo-noir concentrating more on science fiction
themes. The term was coined in The Terminator[citation needed] as the name of a
nightclub, Tech Noir. The director James Cameron wanted a name for the
particular style he was invoking.
 Soft science fiction: not detailed about the science involved, and typically deals more
with cultural, social, and political interactions.
o Comic science fiction: exploits the genre's conventions for comic effect.
o Military science fiction: told from the point of view of the military, or a main
character who is a soldier in the military. It usually has technology far superior
to today's, but not necessarily implausible. Military science fiction essentially is
the addition of science fiction elements into a military fiction story. (Note that
some military science fiction stories fit at least somewhat into the "hard science
fiction" subgenre as well.)
o Feminist science fiction: tends to deal with women's roles in society. It poses
questions about social issues such as how society constructs gender roles, the
role reproduction plays in defining gender and the unequal political, economic
and personal power of men and women. Some of the most notable feminist
science fiction works have illustrated these themes using utopias to explore a
society in which gender differences or gender power imbalances do not exist,
or dystopias to explore worlds in which gender inequalities are intensified, thus
asserting a need for feminist work to continue.
o Libertarian science fiction: focuses on the politics and social order implied by
libertarian philosophies with an emphasis on individualism and a limited state –
and in some cases, no state whatsoever. As a genre, it can be seen as growing
out of the 1930s and 1940s when the science-fiction pulp magazines were
reaching their peak at the same time as fascism and communism. While this
environment gave rise to dystopian novels such as George Orwell's Nineteen
Eighty-Four, in the pulps, this influence more often give rise to speculations
about societies (or sub-groups) arising in direct opposition to totalitarianism.
o Social science fiction: concerned less with the scientific background and more
with sociological speculation about human society. In other words, it "absorbs
and discusses anthropology", and speculates about human behavior and
interactions. Exploration of fictional societies is one of the most interesting
aspects of science fiction, allowing it to perform predictive and precautionary
functions, to criticize the contemporary world and to present solutions, to
portray alternative societies and to examine the implications of ethical
principles.
 Space opera: A story characterized by the extent of space travel and distinguished by
the amount of time that protagonists spend in an active, space-faring lifestyle. Firefly,
Star Trek, Star Blazers and Star Wars have often been categorized as such.
o Science fiction Western: has elements of science fiction in a Western setting. It
is different from a Space Western, which is a frontier story indicative of
American Westerns, except transposed to a backdrop of space exploration and
settlement.
o Planetary romance: the bulk of the action consists of adventures on one or more
exotic alien planets, characterized by distinctive physical and cultural
backgrounds. Some planetary romances take place against the background of a
future culture where travel between worlds by spaceship is commonplace;
others, particularly the earliest examples of the genre, do not, and invoke flying
carpets, astral projection, or other methods of getting between planets. In
either case, the planetside adventures are the focus of the story, not the mode
of travel.
o Space Western: transposes themes of American Western books and film to a
backdrop of futuristic space frontiers; it is the complement of the science fiction
Western, which transposes science fiction themes onto an American Western
setting.
 Punk: Several different Science Fiction subgenres, normally categorized by distinct
technologies and sciences. The themes tend to be cynical or dystopian, and a person, or
group of people, fighting the corruption of the government.
o Cyberpunk: A futuristic storyline dealing with people who have been physically
or mentally enhanced with cybernetic components, often featuring cyborgs or
the singularity as a major theme, and generally somewhat cynical or dystopian
(hence the "punk" portion of the name). This is often confused or placed with
Techno-thriller, which is actually a separate and less specialized genre.
 Postcyberpunk: some critics suggest has evolved from cyberpunk. Like
its predecessor, postcyberpunk focuses on technological developments
in near-future societies, typically examining the social effects of a
ubiquitous datasphere of computerized information, genetic
engineering, modification of the human body, and the continued
impact of perpetual technological change. Unlike "pure" cyberpunk, the
works in this category feature characters who act to improve social
conditions or at least protect the status quo from further decay.
o Retropunk: As a wider variety of writers began to work with cyberpunk
concepts, new subgenres of science fiction emerged, playing off the cyberpunk
label, and focusing on technology and its social effects in different ways. Many
derivatives of cyberpunk are retro-futuristic, based either on the futuristic
visions of past eras, or more recent extrapolations or exaggerations of the actual
technology of those eras.
 Atompunk: relates to the pre-digital, cultural period of 1945–65,
including mid-century Modernism, the "Atomic Age", the "Space Age",
Communism and paranoia in the US along with Soviet styling,
underground cinema, Googie architecture, space and the Sputnik,
moon landing, superhero-comics, art & radioactivity, the rise of the US
military/industrial complex & the fall-out of Chernobyl. Communist
analog atompunk is an ultimate lost world. The Fallout series of
computer games is an excellent example of atompunk.
 Dieselpunk: Initially proposed as a genre by the creators of the role-
playing game Children of the Sun, dieselpunk refers to fiction inspired
by mid-century pulp stories, based on the aesthetics of the interbellum
period through World War II (c. 1920–45). Similar to steampunk though
specifically characterized by the rise of petroleum power and
technocratic perception, incorporating neo-noir elements and sharing
themes more clearly with cyberpunk than steampunk. Though the
notability of dieselpunk as a genre is not entirely uncontested,
installments ranging from the retro-futuristic film Sky Captain and the
World of Tomorrow to the 2001 Activision video game Return to Castle
Wolfenstein have been suggested as quintessential dieselpunk works of
fiction.
 Steampunk: A story that takes place around the time steam power was
first coming into use. The industrial revolution is a common time setting
for steam punk stories, and the steam technology is often actually more
advanced than the real technology of the time (for instance, Steam
Detectives features steam-powered robots). The most immediate form
of steampunk subculture is the community of fans surrounding the
genre. Others move beyond this, attempting to adopt a "steampunk"
aesthetic through fashion, home decor and even music.
 Clockpunk: This term has occasionally referred to a subgenre of
speculative fiction that is similar to steampunk, but deviates in its
technology. As with steampunk, it portrays advanced technology based
on pre-modern designs, but rather than the steam power of the
Industrial Age, the technology used is based on springs, clockwork and
similar. Clockpunk is based very intensively on the works of Leonardo
da Vinci and as such, it is typically set during the Renaissance. It is
regarded as being a type of steampunk.
o Biopunk: A story that is about genetics and biological research (often falling
under the horror category). It often focuses on some harmful effects characters
have created when they change an animal's code to (unintentionally) create a
violent monster. Biopunk emerged during the 1990s and depicts the
underground of the biotechnological revolution that was expected to start
having a profound impact on humanity in the first half of the 21st century.
Biopunk fiction typically describes the struggles of individuals or groups, often
the product of human experimentation, against a backdrop of totalitarian
governments or megacorporations that misuse biotechnologies for social
control or profiteering. Unlike cyberpunk, it builds not on information
technology but on synthetic biology.
 Nanopunk: similar bio-punk, but depicts a world where the use of
biotechnologies are limited or prohibited, so only nanotechnologies in
wide use (while in biopunk bio- and nanotechnologies often coexist).
Currently the genre is more concerned with the artistic and
physiological impact of nanotechnology, than of aspects of the
technology itself, which is still in its infancy. Unlike the cyberpunk, a
low-life yet technologically advanced character, the personification of a
nanopunk can be set 'hard' or 'soft', depending on your views of the
impact nanotechnology will have on our future.
Slice of Life
A slice of life is a story that might have no plot, but represents a portion of (everyday)
life. It uses naturalistic representation of real life, sometimes used as an adjective, as in
"a play with 'slice of life' dialogue".
Social
Not to be confused with Social film.
In Indian cinema terminology, social films (or simply socials) are films with a
contemporary setting, as opposed to those with mythological and period settings.
Speculative
Speculative fiction speculates about worlds that are unlike the real world in various
important ways. In these contexts, it generally overlaps one or more of the following:
science fiction, fantasy fiction, horror fiction, supernatural fiction, superhero fiction,
utopian and dystopian fiction, apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction, and alternate
history.
 Slipstream: Fantastic or non-realistic fiction that crosses conventional genre boundaries

between science fiction/fantasy and mainstream literary fiction. The term slipstream
was coined by cyberpunk author Bruce Sterling in an article originally published in SF
Eye #5, July 1989. He wrote: "...this is a kind of writing which simply makes you feel very
strange; the way that living in the 20th century makes you feel, if you are a person of a
certain sensibility." Slipstream fiction has consequently been referred to as "the fiction
of strangeness," which is as clear a definition as any others in wide use.
 Supernatural fiction: exploits or requires as plot devices or themes some contradictions
of the commonplace natural world and materialist assumptions about it. It includes the
traditional ghost story. The Turn of the Screw by Henry James is an example of a work of
literary fiction that is also largely concerned with supernatural fiction elements, making
play of the possibility that they are psychological at root, but requiring the option that
they are not for effect. The newer speculative fiction genres of horror fiction and fantasy
fiction, growing out of some of the basic propositions and generic conventions, to a
certain extent replaced it.
 Superhero fiction: deals with superheroes, supervillains, super-powered humans, aliens,
or mutants, and their adventures. Distinct from (but often derived from) comic books,
animated films, and graphic novels, these are prose stories and full-length novels.
Superhero fiction is a type of speculative fiction. The largest and longest running of the
corporate series are those associated with the DC Universe and the Marvel Universe.
 Utopian and dystopian fiction: The utopia and its offshoot, the dystopia, are genres of
literature that explore social and political structures. Utopian fiction is the creation of
an ideal world, or utopia, as the setting for a novel. Dystopian fiction is the opposite:
creation of a nightmare world, or dystopia. Many novels combine both, often as a
metaphor for the different directions humanity can take in its choices, ending up with
one of two possible futures. Both utopias and dystopias are commonly found in science
fiction and other speculative fiction genres, and arguably are by definition a type of
speculative fiction. More than 400 utopian works were published prior to the year 1900
in the English language alone, with more than a thousand others during the 20th
century.
 Weird fiction: Speculative literature written in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Weird fiction is distinguished from horror and fantasy in that it predates the niche
marketing of genre fiction. Because genre or stylistic conventions had not been
established, weird tales often blend the supernatural, mythical, and even scientific.
British "weird" authors, for example, published their work in mainstream literary
magazines even after American pulp magazines became popular. "Weird fiction" is
chiefly a historical description for works through the 1930s, but the term has also been
used since the 1980s, sometimes to refer to slipstream fiction that blends horror,
fantasy, and science fiction.
Suppositional fiction is a subcategory in which stories and characters are constrained

within an internally consistent world, but this category is not necessarily associated with
any particular genre.[11][12][13] A work of suppositional fiction might be science fiction,
alternate history, mystery, horror, or even suppositional fantasy, depending on the intent
and focus of the author.
Thriller
A common theme in thrillers involves innocent victims dealing with deranged adversaries, as
seen in Hitchcock's film Rebecca (1940), where Mrs. Danvers tries to persuade Mrs. De Winter
to leap to her death
A Thriller is a story that is usually a mix of fear and excitement. It has traits from the
suspense genre and often from the action, adventure or mystery genres, but the level of
terror makes it borderline horror fiction at times as well. It generally has a dark or serious
theme, which also makes it similar to drama.
 Disaster-thriller: A story about mass peril, where the protagonist's job is to both survive,
and to save many other people from a grim fate, often a natural disaster such as a storm
or volcanic eruption, but may also be a terrorist attack or epidemic of some sort.
 Psychological thriller: emphasizes the psychological condition of the hero that presents
obstacles to his objective, rather than the action. Some psychological thrillers are also
about complicated stories that try to deliberately confuse the audience, often by
showing them only the same confusing or seemingly nonsensical information that the
hero gains.
 Crime thriller: A story that revolves around the life of detectives, mobs, or other groups
associated with criminal events in the story.
 Techno-thriller: A story whose theme is usually technology, or the danger behind the
technology people use, including the threat of cyber terrorism such as State of Fear.
Urban
Urban fiction, also known as street lit, is a literary genre set, as the name implies, in a
city landscape; however, the genre is as much defined by the race and culture of its
characters as the urban setting. The tone for urban fiction is usually dark, focusing on the
underside. Profanity (all of George Carlin's seven dirty words and urban variations
thereof), sex and violence are usually explicit, with the writer not shying away from or
watering-down the material. In this respect, urban fiction shares some common threads
with dystopian or survivalist fiction. In the second wave of urban fiction, some variations
of this model have been seen.
Western
Stories in the Western genre are set in the American West, between the time of the Civil
war and the early twentieth century.[14] The setting of a wilderness or uncivilized area is
especially important to the genre, and the setting is often described richly and in-depth.
They focus on the adventure of the main character(s) and the contrast between civilization
or society and the untamed wilderness, often featuring the characters working to bring
civilization to the wilderness.[14][15] This genre periodically overlaps with historical
fiction, and while a more traditional definition of westerns is that of stories about lone
men facing the frontier, more modern definitions and writings are often expanded to
include any person or persons in this time period that feature a strong tone of the contrast
between civilization and wilderness and emphasize the independence of the main
character(s).
Film and television formats and genres

See also: Film genre
Genres are listed under the sub-sectioned formats:
Animation
See also: Animation
 Traditional animation: also known as "cell animation", this is one of the oldest animation
subgenres. Basically, it is a way of animating a cartoon by drawing and painting pictures
by hand. Each drawing or painting is a different frame of animation, and when they are
flipped or put in sequence at the right speed, they give the illusion of movement.
Examples are Beauty and the Beast and Spirited Away.
 Animated series: created or adapted with a common series title, usually related to one
another and can appear as much as up to once a week or daily during a prescribed time
slot. Animated cartoon series also approved ly outside broadcast television, as was the
case for the Tom and Jerry short films that appeared in movie theaters from 1961 to
1962. Series can have either a finite number of episodes like a miniseries, a definite end,
or be open-ended, without a predetermined number of episodes.
 Stop motion: similar to traditional animation; instead of using hand drawn pictures, stop
motion films are made with small figurines or other objects that have their picture taken
many times over a sequence of small movements to create animation frames. Examples
are The Nightmare Before Christmas, Coraline, and Corpse Bride.
 Computer-generated imagery (CGI): A genre of animation that includes animating a
cartoon on a computer modeling program. Models of characters or props are created
on the computer, and then programmed to do something specific. Then, when the
animation is completely programmed, the computer can play a completely computer
generated movie. CGI is often used for the visual effects in Live Action films as well.
Examples are Up or Toy Story.
 Puppetry: It is technically live action, but puppetry is a different way of "animating" a
movie, and puppets are often used in lieu of live actors. Usually, there are small figurines
or figures (similar to stop motion), but these are controlled and filmed in real time. Like
CGI, puppetry can be found in live-action films as a method of achieving a special effect.
Examples are The Muppets and The Dark Crystal.
 Procedural Philosophical Psychological Drama (PPP): Is a genre of film that's primary
focus is crime drama, told from the angle of different psychological conditions, that
debates philosophies and psychology of the era depicted in film. Examples are "True
Detective" and "Mindhunters".
Live-action scripted
 Drama:
o Adult content: the portrayal of sexual or sensual subject matter for the purpose
of sexual arousal. A distinction is also made between softcore and hardcore
pornography. Softcore pornography can generally be described as focusing on
nude modeling or suggestive, but not explicit, simulations of sexual activity,
whereas hardcore pornography explicitly showcases penetrative intercourse or
other sex acts.
o Art television (also called "quality television"): shares some of the same traits of
art films. Television shows such as David Lynch's Twin Peaks series and BBC's
The Singing Detective also have "...a loosening of causality, a greater emphasis
on psychological or anecdotal realism, violations of classical clarity of space and
time, explicit authorial comment, and ambiguity."
o Action: where one or more heroes are thrust into a series of challenges that
typically include physical feats, extended combat scenes, violence and frenetic
chases. Action films tend to feature a resourceful character struggling against
incredible odds, including life-threatening situations, a villain, or a pursuit,
which generally conclude in victory for the hero.
o Adventure: features the hero in action scenes that display and explore exotic
locations. The subgenres of adventure films include swashbuckler film, disaster
films, and historical dramas—which is similar to the epic film genre. Main plot
elements include quests for lost continents, a jungle or desert settings,
characters going on a treasure hunts and heroic journeys into the unknown.
Adventure films are mostly set in a period background and may include adapted
stories of historical or fictional adventure heroes within the historical context.
Kings, battles, rebellion or piracy are commonly seen in adventure films.
Adventure films may also be combined with other movie genres such as, science
fiction, fantasy and sometimes war films.
o Courtroom drama: presents fictional drama about law. Law enforcement, crime,
detective-based mystery solving, lawyer work, civil litigation, etc., are all
possible focuses of legal dramas. Common subgenres of legal dramas include
detective dramas, police dramas, courtroom dramas, legal thrillers, etc.
o Detective fiction: a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an
investigator or a detective – either professional or amateur – investigates a
crime, often murder.
o Docudrama: A program depicting some sort of historical or current news event,
with specific changes or fabrications for legal, continuity or entertainment
reasons. Depending on the quality of the feature and intended audience, these
changes can minimally or completely change the story in relation to the actual
events. These programs often depict crime or criminals but can also be used to
depict heroics or tell a less-explored side of a well-known story. Example: United
93 by Paul Greengrass depicts the events aboard United Airlines Flight 93 on
September 11, 2001 via reconstruction from the available evidence. Since the
specific words the passengers exchanged while planning their assault on the
cockpit will never be known, the filmmakers created the dialogue based on
research and evidence. The Onion Field is another example. This genre is often
criticized for creating sensationalized programs intended to capitalize on public
interest in lurid news stories; in the case of the Scott Peterson murder trial, a
docudrama starring Dean Cain was filmed and aired during jury deliberations.
o Fantasy: featuring elements of the fantastic, often including magic, supernatural
forces, or exotic fantasy worlds. Fantasy television programs are often based on
tales from mythology and folklore, or are adapted from fantasy stories in other
media. The boundaries of fantasy television overlap with science fiction and
horror.
o Horror is a film genre seeking to elicit a negative emotional reaction from
viewers by playing on the audience's primal fears. Horror films often feature
scenes that startle the viewer; the macabre and the supernatural are frequent
themes. Thus they may overlap with the fantasy, supernatural, and thriller
genres.
o Legal drama: Legal drama sometimes overlap with crime drama, most notably
in the case of the show Law & Order.
o Medical drama: based around a team of medics helping patients who have been
involved in accidents serious or otherwise. Most commonly, an accident occurs
that requires the medics to help the injured. Most are usually based around a
hospital, with some based around a mobile medical team etc. Examples of this
genre are Casualty, Holby City and ER.
o Police procedural: pioneered by the popular show Dragnet. The stories revolve
around a crime that has been committed and must be solved by the end of the
episode following a very generic and usually unchanging structure of events.
The crime is committed, witnesses are questioned, an arrest occurs, and then a
judicial conclusion wraps it up. As the name implies, the show communicates
everything "by the book," as it would happen in real life. In such modern Police
Procedurals such as Law & Order, you see and hear even the officers reading
freshly arrested criminals their Miranda rights. Not quite as dramatic or action-
oriented as the Dick Tracy-style of detective shows.
o Political drama is a TV program that has a political component, whether
reflecting the author's political opinion, or describing a politician or series of
political events. Dramatists who have written political dramas include Aaron
Sorkin, Robert Penn Warren, Sergei Eisenstein, Bertolt Brecht, Jean-Paul Sartre,
Caryl Churchill, and Federico García Lorca. Television series that can be classified
as political drama include Yes Minister, its sequel Yes, Prime Minister, The West
Wing, Borgen, Boss, Jack and Bobby, The Bold Ones: The Senator, Commander
in Chief, and House of Cards.
o Science-fiction
o Teen drama
o Thriller
o Western series: set in the American West and embody the spirit, the struggle
and the demise of the new frontier. Western series use stock characters such as
cowboys, gunslingers, and bounty hunters, often depicted as semi-nomadic
wanderers who wear Stetson hats, bandannas, spurs, and buckskins, use
revolvers or rifles as everyday tools of survival, and ride between dusty towns
and cattle ranches on their trusty steeds.
 Comedy:
o Action comedy: A subgenre of comedy that emphasizes physically humorous
antics, unorthodox body-language and oftentimes exasperating situations.
Examples are: Charlie Chaplin, Jackie Chan, and Lucille Ball.
o Comedy-drama
o Mockumentary: A story that employs the style of the documentary to present
fictional, and generally humorous, events or characters. Very common in film
and television programs, both as a full film or series, or as a brief sequence or
episode within a larger work. Examples include This Is Spinal Tap and Best In
Show.
o Romantic comedy (aka Rom-com)
o Satire
o Slapstick: A type of comedy involving exaggerated physical violence and
activities beyond the boundaries of common sense. These hyperbolic depictions
are often found in children's media, and light comedies.
o Sitcom: Short for situational comedy, a generally lighthearted genre that
features characters having to deal with odd or uncomfortable situations or
misunderstandings.
o Sketch comedy
Live-action unscripted
 Documentary: a feature-length or near-feature-length film depicting a real-world event

or person, told in a journalistic style (if told in a literary narrative style the result is often
a docudrama). Examples: Hoop Dreams, The Thin Blue Line (documentary).
 Dramality: a combination of television drama and reality television genres[16][17] (e.g., the
soap opera The Only Way Is Essex[18]).
 Educational: helps kids learn their basics to go through school.
 Factual television: non-fiction television programming that documents actual events
and people. These type of programs are also described as documentary, television
documentary, observational documentary, fly on the wall, docudrama, and reality
television. The genre has existed in various forms since the early years of television, but
the term factual television has most commonly described programs produced since the
1990s.
 Game show: depicting a real contest, typically a trivia competition or physical challenge,
with rewards in prizes or money. The players may include celebrities, who can be found
on such game shows as Match Game, Hollywood Squares, Hollywood Game Night and
Celebrity Name Game. More often the participants are ordinary "everyday" people, such
as Let's Make a Deal, Wheel of Fortune, Jeopardy!, and The Price Is Right.
 Instructional: the use of television programs in the field of distance education.
Educational television programs on instructional television may be less than one half
hour long (generally 15 minutes in length) to help their integration into the classroom
setting. These shows are often accompanied by teachers' guides that include material
to help use this program in lessons. Instructional television programs are often shown
during the daytime on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) stations in the United States.
However, fewer public television stations devote their airtime to ITV today than they do
in the past; these days, ITV programs are either seen on a digital subchannel of Non-
commercial educational public television station, or passed on to a local educational-
access television channel run by a Public, educational, and government access (PEG)
cable TV organization.
 Music television: where viewers listen to music on the television similar to a radio
station apart from commonly having a visual or complete music video.
 News program: depicting real, up-to-date events
o Current affairs: Broadcast journalism where the emphasis is on detailed
analysis and discussion of a news story.
o Entertainment news: Form of entertainment journalism. Entertainment news
programs focus on news involving the entertainment industry, including the
world of film, television, and music.
o Tabloid television: (also known as Teletabloid) a form of tabloid journalism.
Tabloid television newscasts usually incorporate flashy graphics and
sensationalized stories.[citation needed] Often, there is a heavy emphasis on crime,
stories with good video, and celebrity news. It is a form of "infotainment."
 Public affairs (broadcasting): This refers to radio or television programs that focus on
politics and public policy. Among commercial broadcasters, such programs are often
only to satisfy Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulatory expectations and
are not scheduled in prime time. Public affairs television programs are usually broadcast
at times when few listeners or viewers are tuned in (or even awake) in the US, in time
slots known as graveyard slots; such programs can be frequently encountered at times
such as 5–6 a.m. on a Sunday morning.
 Religious: produced by religious organizations, usually with a religious message. It can
include church services, talk/variety shows, and dramatic movies. Within the last two
decades, most religious programming is found on religious television networks.
 Reality: A purportedly unscripted show (though evidence suggests that some scripting
or manipulation occurs) featuring non-actors interacting with each other or dealing with
invented or contrived challenges, such as competing against others for a prize. Produced
in a similar fashion as the documentary film genre, but with more emphasis on the
showing of interpersonal conflict, emotional reactions, or unusual occurrences. The
genre has numerous widely varying subgenres (see main article).
 Stand-up comedy: A style in which a comedian performs in front of a live audience,
speaking directly to them. The performer is commonly known as a comic, stand-up
comic, stand-up comedian or simply a stand-up. In stand-up comedy the comedian
usually recites a fast-paced succession of humorous stories, short jokes called "bits", and
one-liners, which constitute what is typically called a monologue, routine or act. Some
stand-up comedians use props, music or magic tricks to enhance their acts. Stand-up
comedy is often performed in comedy clubs, bars, neo-burlesques, colleges, and
theaters. Outside of live performance, stand-up is often distributed commercially via
television, DVD, and the internet.
 Sports: The coverage of sports as a television program, on radio and other broadcasting
media. It usually involves one or more sports commentators describing the events as
they happen, which is called "colour commentary."
 Talk show: A television show in which one person (or a group of people) discuss various
topics put forth by a talk show host. Usually, guests on a talk show consist of a group of
people who are learned or who have great experience in relation to whatever issue is
being discussed on the show for that particular episode.
o Tabloid talk show: A tabloid talk show is a subgenre of the talk show genre. On
this type of talk show, the host invites either a guest or a group of guests to
discuss provocative topics. Such topics can range from marital infidelity to more
outlandish topics. Additionally, the guests are encouraged to make public
confessions, and even resolve their issues via on-camera "group therapy.
 Television documentary: A genre of television programming that broadcasts
documentaries.
 Variety show: Also known as variety arts or variety entertainment, this is an
entertainment made up of a variety of acts (hence the name), especially musical
performances and sketch comedy, and normally introduced by a compère (master of
ceremonies) or host. Other types of acts include magic, animal and circus acts,
acrobatics, juggling and ventriloquism. Variety shows were a staple of anglophone
television from its early days into the 1970s, and lasted into the 1980s. In several parts
of the world, variety TV remains popular and widespread.
 Anthology series: presents a different story and a different set of characters in each
episode. These usually have a different cast each week, but several series in the past,
such as Four Star Playhouse, employed a permanent troupe of character actors who
would appear in a different drama each week. Some anthology series, such as Studio
One, began on radio and then expanded to television.
 Children's series: Aimed at children and families.
 Cooking show: A television program that presents food presentation in a kitchen
television studio. Over the course of the program, the show's host, who is usually a
celebrity chef, prepares one or more dishes over the course of the episode. The chef
takes the viewing audience through the food's inspiration, preparation, and stages of
cooking.
 Court show: A court show is a television programming subgenre of either legal dramas
or reality legal programming. Court shows present content mainly in the form of legal
hearings between plaintiffs and defendants, which are presided over by a pseudo-judge.
Court shows first arose in the United States, and are still predominantly found in the
country today.
 Infomercials: Also known as Direct Response TV (DRTV), these are television
commercials that generally include a phone number or website. Long-form infomercials
are typically between 15 and 30 minutes long, and short-form infomercials are typically
30 seconds to 120 seconds long. Infomercials are also known as paid programming (or
teleshopping in Europe). This phenomenon started in the United States where
infomercials were typically shown overnight (usually 2:00 a.m. to 6:00 a.m.), outside of
prime time commercial broadcasting peak hours. Some television stations chose to air
infomercials as an alternative to the former practice of signing off. As of 2009, most US
infomercial spending is during early morning, daytime, and evening hours.
 Miniseries and Television movies
 Serial: A television show that is one continuous story. Each episode picks up from where
the last one left off. The story may shift with a new season.
o Soap opera: Usually on every day of the week instead of once a week. Some can
go on for over 50 years. Examples: Guiding Light, As the World Turns, All My
Children, Days of Our Lives, General Hospital, The Young and the Restless,
EastEnders and Coronation Street
o Telenovela: A serial melodrama popular in Latin America and the Philippines.
They are similar to a soap opera in miniseries format. They often feature Love
and Drama, as well as other situations depending on the genre of telenovela.
Examples include: Desire (TV series), Fashion House and Wicked Wicked Games.
o Dizi (tr): A serial period or contemporary drama produced in Turkey and
broadcast weekly in Turkey, the Balkans, the Middle East, Central Asia and other
regions. Depending on the audience they may be dubbed or sub-titled.
Examples include: Muhteşem Yüzyıl, Binbir Gece and Gümüş. See Turkish
television drama.
Other television-related topics
 Specialty channels are commercial broadcasting or non-commercial television channel

that focus on a single genre, subject, or targeted television market at a specific
demographic. The number of specialty channels has increased during the 1990s and
2000s while the previously common concept of countries having just a few (national) TV
stations addressing all interest groups and demographics became increasingly
outmoded, as it already had been for some time in several countries. About 65% of
today's satellite channels are specialty channels.
Video game genres

Main articles: Video game genre and List of video game genres
Genres in video games are somewhat different from other forms of art as most video game
genres are based on the way in which the player interacts with the game. All genres from
all other types of media can be applied to video games but are secondary to the genre
types described below.
Genres unique to video games:
 Arcade games:
o Classic/Vintage: Games that require the player to navigate a maze or other
obstacle.
 Shooter: Where the main purpose is to fight using guns.
o First-person shooter (FPS): A variant of the shooting game. In the game, the
camera is actually in place of the character's eyes, so that you are playing the
game from the character's view, looking down the barrel of a gun.
 Massively multiplayer online First-person shooter (MMOFPS): An online
gaming genre set in a persistent world with a large number of
simultaneous players in a first-person shooter fashion. These games
provide large-scale, sometimes team-based combat.
o Third-person shooter: A shooting game where the camera angle is actually
hovering over the playable character as you play.
 Strategy: Where the purpose is to strategize. You have an opponent with the same
abilities as you, more or less, and to beat him, you must use your abilities in a much
more tactical way.
o Real-time strategy (RTS): Where everybody plays at the same time, and races to
think of a better strategy than the other players. Most of these video games are
about military.
 Massively multiplayer online real-time strategy (MMORTS): A Real Time
Strategy game that is played online. Many players can sign on a play at
the same time, creating empires and battling each other.
o Turn-based strategy: Where everybody takes turns. Once everybody has placed
their units and military characters in the right spot they can't move again until
the next turn begins. This structure is prominently used in RPGs.
o Tower defense: Where the goal is to defend a player's territories or possessions
by obstructing the enemy attackers, usually achieved by placing defensive
structures on or along their path of attack.
 Musical: Where music is usually played. To win, the players must match the rhythm of
the music by pushing the right button combination until their opponents are unable to
keep up with them. Not to be confused with the stage musical or musical film, which are
stories that feature characters singing about the events in the plot.
 Simulation: Where you must manage and develop fictitious business. For example, in a
game you might be asked to manage and build a zoo, and the game simulates this for
you in as accurate a way as possible.
o Simulation shooter: Features the basic mechanics of a shooter, where using a
gun is the primary method of gameplay, but emphasizes realism, often
incorporating features like ballistics and realistic character damage.
o Simulation strategy: A strategy game that emphasizes realism, such as the Total
War series of games, usually focusing on a specific time and location in human
history, such as the Roman Empire.
 Puzzle: Where you must solve puzzles to progress through the levels.
 Party: Mostly suitable for multiple players and social gatherings. In most of these, the
player or players compete or cooperate in smaller games, or minigames, within the main
game.
 Platform: Where the player must jump onto various platforms to evade obstacles and
reach their goal, these games are fairly linear most of the time with levels adhering to a
simple A to B structure.
 Fighting: Where two or more playable characters fight. Each character usually has their
own unique moves, and the goal of the game, usually, is to be the last man standing.
 Racing game: Either in the first-person or third-person perspective, in which the player
partakes in a racing competition with any type of land, air, or sea vehicles. They may be
based on anything from real-world racing leagues to entirely fantastical settings. In
general, they can be distributed along a spectrum anywhere between hardcore
simulations, and simpler arcade racing games. Racing games may also fall under the
category of sports games.
 Role-playing game (RPG): A game that is not (necessarily) about combat. It is a game
where the player plays a character, and goes around pretending to be a real person in a
fictitious world. This is also similar to non-video game forms of gaming that involve
roleplaying, including play by post gaming and tabletop roleplaying games.
o Massive multiplayer online role playing game (MMORPG): Similar to a regular
Role Playing Game, but it is a multiplayer game played via the internet. During
this game, thousands of players from around the world can play the same game
at the same time and chat with each other. Players sign onto the game and
complete quests while exploring the virtual world. Many MMORPGs are free to
play by just signing up on the specific game site and downloading the game file
but some require a monthly fee.
 Sports games: Games that simulate playing real-life sports.
 Survival/horror: The player is placed in a horrifying situation of which they must escape.
The major emphasis of most survival horror games is placed upon tension and a truly
terrifying or grisly scenario. Puzzle-solving is a major characteristic of the genre.
Examples of survival horror games include the Resident Evil, Silent Hill and Clock Tower
series.
 Stealth: The player must proceed through an environment or complete an objective
without being seen.
Music genres
Main articles: Music genre and List of music styles
 Film score: is music produced specifically to accommodate a film.

 Gospel music: is a music genre in Christian music.
 Medieval music: Music composed from around the middle of the 5th century to the
middle of the 15th century, largely characterized by monophonic and polyphonic music.
 Renaissance music: largely composed from the middle of the 15th century to around
1600.
 Baroque music: composed from around 1600 to the middle of the 18th century. Much
Baroque music is written in the form of dance suites.
 Classical: Music that was composed from around the middle of the 18th century until
the early 19th century. The key musical forms were the symphony, the concerto, and
the sonata. Also includes some more recently written music (Neo-classical) that
contains many of the same musical elements.
 Romantic: composed from the early 19th century to about 1900, which emphasized
dramatic themes and subject matter. Also includes more recently written music (Neo-
romantic) that contains similar musical elements.
 20th-century music: A wide classification of music composed in the 20th century. This
music deals largely with sound experimentation and moving away from the traditional
tendencies of tonality.
 Opera, Operette and Zarzuela
 Folk: adaptations of old stories that were passed from generation to generation.
Considered somewhat more niche now. Also see Neofolk, Folk Noir, Pagan Folk.
 Bluegrass: is a form of American roots music, with roots in the English, Irish, and Scottish
traditional music, a notable blues and jazz influence and a high lonesome sound, being
later influenced by the music of African-Americans. Unlike country music, bluegrass is
mostly accompanied by acoustic stringed instruments.
 Country music: American popular music that began in the rural regions of the Southern
United States in the 1920s. It takes its roots from southeastern American folk music and
Western music. Blues modes have been used extensively throughout its recorded
history. Country music often consists of ballads and dance tunes with generally simple
forms and harmonies accompanied by mostly string instruments such as banjos, electric
and acoustic guitars, fiddles, and harmonicas.
The term country music gained popularity in the 1940s in preference to the earlier term
hillbilly music; it came to encompass Western music, which evolved parallel to hillbilly
music from similar roots, in the mid-20th century. The term country music is used today
to describe many styles and subgenres. In 2009 country music was the most listened to
rush hour radio genre during the evening commute, and second most popular in the
morning commute in the United States.
 Rock: originated from folk and blues. It used newer electrical instruments instead of
relying solely on the classical woodwinds and stringed instruments. It first became
popular in the mid-20th century because of famous bands like The Beatles and The
Rolling Stones.
o Heavy metal: Similar to rock, and generally considered a subgenre of it. It usually
uses the same electrical instruments, but the music is more intense and less
"pop" in style (see below) such as Black Sabbath, Judas Priest, Iron Maiden and
Metallica.
o Punk rock: developed between 1974 and 1976 in the United States, the United
Kingdom, and Australia. Rooted in garage rock and other forms of what is now
known as protopunk music, punk rock bands eschewed the perceived excesses
of mainstream 1970s rock. Includes work by The Adverts, the Sex Pistols and
The Clash.
 Pop: once referred to any popular music during the time period, though the term has
slowly gained use as a more specific (yet still somewhat vague) genre descriptor for
music with a catchy, relatively consistent melody, among other aspects. It is commonly
placed as having started in the mid-20th century, alongside rock music. Much dance
music falls under this genre, and much modern rock music is considered to include
elements of it as well, since bands such as the Beatles were a significant stylistic
influence on what is now considered pop.
 Rhythm and blues (R&B): an evolving range of genres of popular African-American music
that first began to develop in the early 20th century.
o Blues: A somewhat somber, quieter style of music whose name refers to the
unhappiness of the performer. These became popular in the early 20th century
alongside jazz, and influenced the early development of rock music. A major
genre within R&B, and one of its earliest genres as well.
o Hip hop: more rhythmically based, mostly African-American urban-derived
genres, with a wide array of subgenres between them.
o Funk: A intense groovy style of music popular in the mid 20th century that
contributed to the development of disco.
o Jazz: originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American
communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and
European music traditions. Jazz has, from its early 20th century inception,
spawned a variety of subgenres, from New Orleans Dixieland dating from the
early 1910s, big band-style swing from the 1930s and 1940s, bebop from the
mid-1940s, a variety of Latin jazz fusions such as Afro-Cuban and Brazilian jazz
from the 1950s and 1960s, jazz-rock fusion from the 1970s and late 1980s
developments such as acid jazz, which blended jazz influences into funk and hip-
hop.
 Electronic music: employs electronic musical instruments and electronic music
technology in its production. It consists of a number of separate genres, many of which
are still evolving. One major category within this form of music is electronic dance music
(EDM), with its own multitude of genres and subgenres, which is primarily associated
with the dance and club scene.
o Breakbeat: usually characterized by the use of a non-straightened [clarify] 4/4
drum pattern (as opposed to the steady beat of house or trance). Includes work
by Afrika Bambaataa, Davy DMX, Music Instructor and Bomfunk MC's.
o Drum and Bass or Jungle: emerged in the late 1980s and is characterized by fast
breaks and basslines. Includes work by Roni Size, Chase & Status and London
Elektricity.
o Ambient: focuses on the timbral characteristics of sounds, particularly
organised or performed to evoke an "atmospheric", "visual" or "unobtrusive"
quality.
o Downtempo: a laid-back style similar to ambient music, but usually with a beat
or groove unlike the beatless forms of Ambient music.
o Electro: directly influenced by the use of TR-808 and funk records. Includes work
by Kraftwerk, Zapp and Hashim.
o House: originated in Chicago, Illinois, US in the late 1970s and early 1980s;
includes work by Fedde Le Grand and Frankie Knuckles.
o Synthwave: influenced by 1980s film soundtracks and video games, using
basslines and leads from an analog synthesizer. It expresses nostalgia for 1980s
culture and its advancement towards the future, attempting to capture the era's
atmosphere and celebrate it. Includes work by Kavinsky, Electric Youth and
Power Glove.
o Trance: generally characterized by a tempo of between approximately 128 and
150 BPM, melodic synthesizer phrases, and a musical form that is progressive
as it builds up and down throughout a track. Includes work by Darude, ATB and
Chicane.
o Techno: emerged in Detroit, Michigan, US during the mid-to-late 1980s.
Includes work by Tomcraft, Leftfield and Moby.
o UK Garage: generally connected to the evolution of house in the United
Kingdom from early/mid-1990s. Includes work by T2, The Artful Dodger and
Shanks & Bigfoot.
 Reggae: first developed in Jamaica in the late 1960s. While sometimes used in a broader
sense to refer to most types of Jamaican music, the term reggae more properly denotes
a particular music style that originated following on the development of ska and
rocksteady. Reggae is based on a rhythmic style characterized by accents on the off-
beat, known as the skank. Reggae is normally slower than ska. Reggae usually accents
the second and fourth beat in each bar. Reggae song lyrics deal with many subjects,
including religion, love, sexuality, peace, relationships, drugs, poverty, injustice and
other social and political issues.
 Calypso: developed in the mid-20th century out of Kaiso music. The genre became a
worldwide hit in the 1950s when the 1956 album titled Calypso was the first full-length
record to sell more than a million copies.
 Merengue: first developed in the Dominican Republic in the mid-19th century and has
become very popular since then. The style of the genre uses the accordion usually as
the lead instrument, the guitar and/or saxophone as the melody, tambora and güira
percussion instruments and at intivals the marimba usually joining the combination.
Reporting verbs.
1. Verb belonging to a class of verbs conveying the action of speaking and used with
both direct and reported speech. Reporting verbs may also be used with a direct
object and with an infinitive construction.
Some reporting verbs may appear in more than one of the following groups because they
can be used in several ways.
Verbs followed by "if" or "whether"

ask
say
know
see
remember
Verbs followed by a "that"

add doubt
admit estimate reply
agree explain report
announce fear reveal
answer feel say
argue insist state
boast mention suggest
claim observe suppose
comment persuade tell
complain propose think
confirm remark understand
consider remember warn
deny repeat
Verbs followed by either "that" or an infinitive with "to"

decide
promise
expect
swear
guarantee
threaten
hope
Verbs followed by a "that" clause containing should, which may be omitted, leaving a subject
+ zero-infinitive
advise insist recommend
beg prefer request
demand propose suggest
Verbs followed by a clause starting with a question word

decide imagine see
describe know suggest
discover learn teach
discuss realize tell
explain remember think
forget reveal understand
guess say wonder
Verbs followed by object + infinitive with "to"

advise
forbid teach
ask
instruct tell
beg
invite warn
command
English grammar – Reporting verbs

 On this page:
 Form and meaning
 Teaching ideas
Form & meaning
Reporting verbs are used to report what someone said more accurately than using say &
tell.
1. verb + infinitive
agree, decide, offer, promise, refuse, threaten
o They agreed to meet on Friday.
o He refused to take his coat off.
o …………………………………………………………………………..
o …………………………………………………………………………..
o …………………………………………………………………………..
o …………………………………………………………………………..
2. verb + object + infinitive
advise, encourage, invite, remind, warn
o Tom advised me to go home early.
o She reminded me to telephone my mother.
o ……………………………………………………………………………
o ……………………………………………………………………………
o ……………………………………………………………………………
3. verb + gerund
deny, recommend, suggest , insist,
o They recommended taking the bus.
o She suggested meeting a little earlier.
o ……………………………………………………………………………………….
o ……………………………………………………………………………………….
o ……………………………………………………………………………………….
4. verb + object + preposition
accuse, blame, congratulate
o He accused me of taking the money.
o They congratulated me on passing all my exams.
o ………………………………………………………………………………………
o ………………………………………………………………………………………
5. verb + preposition + gerund
apologize, insist , travel, study.
o They apologized for not coming.
o He insisted on having dinner.
o ………………………………………………………………………………………
o ………………………………………………………………………………………
6. verb + subject + verb
admit, agree, decide, deny, explain, insist, promise, recommend, suggest
o Sarah decided (that) the house needed cleaning.
o They recommended (that) we take the bus.
o ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
o ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
o ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
o ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
o ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
o ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
o ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Reporting Verbs 1. Practice.
Make a new sentence with the same meaning using the reporting verb in
brackets.
1) "You shouldn't go into the water" said the coast guard. (advise against)
[The coast guard advised against going into the water ]
2) "I'll go to France on holiday" said John. (decide, using infinitive)
[John decided to go to France on holiday].
3) "I think you should go to the dentist" Julie said to Tom. (advise, using infinitive)
[Julie advised Tom to go to the dentist].
4) "Watch out for the weak bridge" he said. (warn, using 'about')
[He warned us about the weak bridge].
5) "You should apply for the job" said Jack to Stella. (encourage)
[Jack encouraged Stella to apply for the job].

6) "Okay, Keiko can go to the party" said Keiko's mum. (agree, using clause)
[Keiko’s mum agreed that Keiko could go to the party ]
7) "The class will start later on Tuesdays" said the teacher to us. (explain + clause)
[Teacher explained to us that the class would start later on Tuesdays. ]
8) "It's a great idea to go to the beach" said Maria. (recommend + verb-ing)
[Maria recommended going to the beach].
9) "Don't cross the road there" she said to the children. (warn, using infinitive)
[She warned the children not to cross the road there ]
10) "I'll make the coffee!" said David. (insist + on)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
11) "I'll study really hard for the exam" said Luke. (promise + to + infinitive)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
12) "This is where the station is" said Klara. (explain, using question word + clause)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
13) "Right, let's buy the car in the morning!" we said. (agree + infinitive)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
14) "Don't forget that Lucy needs to go to the dentist" she said to me. (remind, using clause)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
15) "How about having Indian food?" I said. (suggest, using verb-ing)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
16) "I'll be early" I said to my mother. (promise + clause)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
17) "I'm sorry I forgot your birthday" said Amanda to me. (apologize)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
18) "I'll leave at six pm!" John said. (decide + clause)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
19) "This is how we use the present perfect" said Amy. (explain + question word + infinitive)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
20) "Don't forget to buy milk!" said Antonio to Lucia. (remind, using infinitive)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Reported Speech Mixed Exercise 1

Make reported speech. Start all your answers with 'she', and use the past
simple of 'ask', 'say' or 'tell'. It's the same day, so you don't need to change
the time expressions.
1) "Don't do it!"
[She told me not to do it.]
2) "I'm leaving tomorrow."
[She said that she is leaving tomorrow.]

3) "Please get me a cup of tea."
[She asked me to get her a cup of tea.]
4) "She got married last year."
[She said that she had got married last year. ]
5) "Be quick!"
6) "Could you explain number four, please?"
7) "Where do you live?"
8) "We went to the cinema and then to a Chinese restaurant."
9) "I'll come and help you at twelve."
10) "What are you doing tomorrow?"

11) "Don't go!"
12) "Do you work in London?"
13) "Could you tell me where the post office is?"
14) "Come here!"
15) "I've never been to Wales."
16) "Have you ever seen The Lord of the Rings?"
17) "I don't like mushrooms."
18) "Don't be silly!"

19) "Would you mind waiting a moment please?"
20) "How often do you play sport?"
CHOOSTHE CORRECT ANSWER.
1. They were surprised when we…………………………
That we'd quit our jobs to start our own company.
2. The teenagers admitted ………………………..

 That fire, but said it was an accident
.
2. You always promise ……………………..
 on time, but you never do.
 I advised Jane she…………………………

 that speak to her parents before making a decision
.
 The other students quickly got tired of Mary boasting……………………….
 that her exams.
 Mark was one of the first people to congratulate………………………………

 that engaged.
 My doctor has recommended that I…………………………

 that more exercise.
 Will you remind me………………………..

8. That gas bill before the end of the month?
Form of Passive
PASSIVE VOICE: DEFINITION
In the active voice, the subject of the sentence DOES the action:
 John painted the house last week.
Subject / verb / object
In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence RECEIVES the action.
 The house was painted last week.
Subject / verb
Notice that the object of the active sentence (house) became the subject of the passive
sentence.
PASSIVE VOICE: USE

The passive voice is used when:
1. We do not know who did the action

Example: The documents were stolen.
(we don’t know who stole the documents)
2. The receiver of the action is more important
Example: The pyramids were built nearly 5,000 years ago by the ancient Egyptians.
(we want to emphasize “pyramids” more than “ancient Egyptians”)
PASSIVE VOICE: FORM
To change an active voice sentence to a passive voice sentence:
1. Make the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
2. Use the verb “to be” in the same tense as the main verb of the active sentence.
3. Use the past participle of the main verb of the active sentence.
Here are some active and passive voice examples to help!
 Active: People drink champagne on New Year’s Eve.

Passive: Champagne is drunk on New Year’s Eve.
 Active: Chefs use these machines to mix the ingredients.
Passive: These machines are used to mix the ingredients.
 Active: They renovated the restaurant in 2004.
Passive: The restaurant was renovated in 2004.
 Active: The teachers informed the students that the class had been cancelled.
Passive: The students were informed that the class had been cancelled.
PASSIVE VOICE: PRESENT
In the present, the passive voice uses the verbs is and are + past participle of
the main verb.
The passive voice present is often used to describe:
 Processes
First the apples are picked, then they are cleaned, and finally they’re
packed and shipped to the market.
 General thoughts, opinions, and beliefs
New York is considered the most diverse city in the U.S.
It is believed that Amelia Earhart’s plane crashed in Pacific Ocean.
Hungarian is seen as one of the world’s most difficult languages to learn.
Skin cancers are thought to be caused by excessive exposure to the sun.
PASSIVE VOICE: PAST
In the past, the passive voice uses the verbs was and were + past participle of
the main verb.
The passive voice past is often used to describe:
 Events in history
George Washington was elected president in 1788.
 Crimes / Accidents
Two people were killed in a drive-by shooting on Friday night.
Ten children were injured when part of the school roof collapsed.
…as well as in many other situations when the person who did the action is
unknown or unimportant.
Examples of Passive
Tense Subject Verb Object
writes a letter.
Simple Present Active: Rita
Passive: A letter is written by Rita.
Simple Past Active: Rita wrote a letter.
Passive: A letter was written by Rita.
Present Perfect Active: Rita has written a letter.
Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.
Future I Active: Rita will write a letter.
Passive: A letter will be written by Rita.
Hilfsverben Active: Rita can write a letter.
Passive: A letter can be written by Rita.

Examples of Passive
Tense Subject Verb Object
is writing a letter.
Present Progressive Active: Rita
Passive: A letter is being written by Rita.
Past Progressive Active: Rita was writing a letter.
Passive: A letter was being written by Rita.
Past Perfect Active: Rita had written a letter.
Passive: A letter had been written by Rita.
Future II Active: Rita will have written a letter.
Passive: A letter will have been written by Rita.
Conditional I Active: Rita would write a letter.
Passive: A letter would be written by Rita.
Conditional II Active: Rita would have written a letter.
Passive: A letter would have been written by Rita.
Passive Sentences with Two Objects
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one
of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object.
Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the
focus on.
Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2
wrote a letter to me.

Active: Rita
Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita.
Passive: It was written a letter by Rita.
PASSIVE VOICE: DEFINITION

In the active voice, the subject of the sentence DOES the action:
 John painted the house last week.
Subject / verb / object
In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence RECEIVES the action.
 The house was painted last week.
Subject / verb
Notice that the object of the active sentence (house) became the subject of the passive
sentence.
PASSIVE VOICE: USE

The passive voice is used when:
1. We do not know who did the action

Example: The documents were stolen.
(we don’t know who stole the documents)
Exercise on Passive Voice - Simple Present

Rewrite the sentences in passive voice.
The door is o.
1. He opens the door. -
2. We set the table. -
3. She pays a lot of money. -
4. I draw a picture. -
5. They wear blue shoes. -
6. They don't help you. -
7. He doesn't open the book. -
8. You do not write the letter. -
9. Does your mum pick you up? -
10. Does the police officer catch the thief? -
Check Answ ers

Exercise on Passive Voice - Simple Past
Rewrite the sentences in passive voice.
A song w a
1. She sang a song. -
2. Somebody hit me. -
3. We stopped the bus. -
4. A thief stole my car. -
5. They didn't let him go. -
6. She didn't win the prize. -
7. They didn't make their beds. -
8. I did not tell them. -
9. Did you tell them? -
10. Did he send the letter? -
Check Answ ers
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. The receiver of the action is more important
Example: The pyramids were built nearly 5,000 years ago by the ancient Egyptians.
(we want to emphasize “pyramids” more than “ancient Egyptians”)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
PASSIVE VOICE: FORM

To change an active voice sentence to a passive voice sentence:
1. Make the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
2. Use the verb “to be” in the same tense as the main verb of the active sentence.
3. Use the past participle of the main verb of the active sentence.
Here are some active and passive voice examples to help!
 Active: People drink champagne on New Year’s Eve.

Passive: Champagne is drunk on New Year’s Eve.

 Active: Chefs use these machines to mix the ingredients.
Passive: These machines are used to mix the ingredients.

 Active: They renovated the restaurant in 2004.
Passive: The restaurant was renovated in 2004.

 Active: The teachers informed the students that the class had been cancelled.
Passive: The students were informed that the class had been cancelled.

PASSIVE VOICE: PRESENT
In the present, the passive voice uses the verbs is and are + past participle of the
main verb.
The passive voice present is often used to describe:
 Processes
First the apples are picked, then they are cleaned, and finally they’re
packed and shipped to the market.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
 General thoughts, opinions, and beliefs

New York is considered the most diverse city in the U.S.

It is believed that Amelia Earhart’s plane crashed in Pacific Ocean.

Hungarian is seen as one of the world’s most difficult languages to learn.

Skin cancers are thought to be caused by excessive exposure to the sun.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

PASSIVE VOICE: PAST
In the past, the passive voice uses the verb was and were + past participle of
the main verb.
The passive voice past is often used to describe:
 Events in history
George Washington was elected president in 1788.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
 Crimes / Accidents

Two people were killed in a drive-by shooting on Friday night.

Ten children were injured when part of the school roof collapsed.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

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SESSION LEARNING NUMBER 1 -

1.- INFORMATIVE DATES.

- Institution : Banking Studio’s Peruvian Center.

2.- MEANS AND MATERIALS.

- Down - English book.

3.- CONCEPTUAL CAPACITIES.

4.- PROCEEDING CAPACITIES.

- Students show interest in learn about the present perfect tense.

- Present perfect tense

7.- EXPLORATION. (25 MINUTES)

- Teacher makes an explanation about the present perfect tense

- Students fill makes sentences in affirmative, negative and interrogative form.

10.- EVALUATION. (15 MINUTES)

- In personal form Students write sentences in present perfect tense.

FINANCE AND ACCOUNT VOCABULARY.

Insert your card Inserte su tarjeta

I have inserted my card in the ATM.

I haven’t inserted my card in the ATM

Who are they? What have they done?

Click here to download the full worksheet: Present Perfect Story 1.

Who is she? What has she done? What has happened?

Present Perfect Story 3

Who are they? What have they done?

Present Perfect Story 4

Who is he? What will he have done?

Present Perfect - Positive 1

2) (She / eat / octopus)

4) (We / read / that book)

5) (He / live / here for three years)

6) (You / know / David for ten years)

7) (We / be / here for two weeks)

9) (He / drink / too much coffee)

11) (She / go / to Peru)

12) (We / eat / too much chocolate)

13) (I / have / breakfast this morning)

14) (John / miss / the train)

15) (Lucy / cook / breakfast)

16) (They / write / to the politician)

17) (You / find / your wallet)

18) (I / meet / his mother)

19) (We / try / roller-skating)

Present Perfect - Negative 1

1) (We / not / go / to Paris)

2) (She / not / see / The Lord of the Rings)

3) (He / not / meet / my mother)

4) (They / not / visit / St. Paul's)

5) (I / not / know / him for three months)

6) (You / not / study / French for ten years)

7) (They / not / be / in London for six months)

8) (He / not / hurt / his leg)

10) (We / not / lose / our tickets)

11) (She / not / make / dinner)

12) (They / not / arrive / yet)

13) (Lucy / not / do / her homework)

14) (I / not / read / that book)

15) (He / not / live / in Berlin)

16) (John / not / buy / any food)

17) (She / not / clean / the kitchen)

18) (You / not / call / me)

20) (They / not / sleep / well)

Present Perfect - Questions 1

1) (You / read / War and Peace)?