Journal of Research on Christian Education

ISSN: 1065-6219 (Print) 1934-4945 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/urce20

Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and

Religious Commitment of Full-Time University
Employees

DONNA BROWN & MARCEL A. SARGEANT

To cite this article: DONNA BROWN & MARCEL A. SARGEANT (2007) Job Satisfaction,
Organizational Commitment, and Religious Commitment of Full-Time University Employees,
Journal of Research on Christian Education, 16:2, 211-241, DOI: 10.1080/10656210701647613

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10656210701647613

Published online: 29 Mar 2008.

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Journal of Research on Christian Education, 16: 211–241, 2007
Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC and Andrews University
ISSN: 1065-6219 print/1934-4945 online
DOI: 10.1080/10656210701647613

HIGHER EDUCATION

JOB SATISFACTION, ORGANIZATIONAL

COMMITMENT, AND RELIGIOUS COMMITMENT
OF FULL-TIME UNIVERSITY EMPLOYEES

DONNA BROWN
Northern Caribbean University, Mandeville, Manchester, Jamaica
MARCEL A. SARGEANT
Southwestern Adventist University, Keene, Texas, USA

This study investigated the relationship of job satisfaction and organizational and
religious commitment among full time workers at Akra University (a pseudonym)
based on a number of demographic factors. Analysis of variance using the
Games-Howell procedure revealed that workers who were older than age 46 years
had higher job satisfaction and organizational and religious commitment than
younger employees. It was also noted that workers holding doctoral degrees had
higher levels of job satisfaction and religious commitment than individuals with
a high school diploma only. It was evident that the longer employees stayed at this
institution, the higher the levels of organizational commitment and extrinsic job
satisfaction, and administrators and sector managers had higher levels of intrinsic
job satisfaction and religious commitment than those in other occupational areas.

Employee satisfaction and retention have always been important

issues for both people who work in an organization and people
who study the relationship between job satisfaction and organiza-
tion commitment (Syptak et al., 1991). Wood (1976) asserts, ‘‘The
health of an educational institution depends on the job satisfaction
of its employees’’ (p. 58). Although issues related to job satisfac-
tion and organizational commitment among employees within
different types of organizations have been researched extensively,
relatively few of these studies involved faculty in higher

Address correspondence to Dr. Donna Brown, Northern Caribbean University,

Department of Business and Hospitality Management, Mandeville, Manchester, Jamaica,
West Indies. E-mail: donsbrown@hotmail.com

211
212 D. Brown & M. A. Sargeant

education. Further, only a few studies have paid attention to

intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction at private, religious institu-
tions (Schroeder, 2003).
Why is there the strong interest in job satisfaction? Roznowski
and Hullin (1992) believed that after an individual is hired, knowl-
edge of his or her job satisfaction becomes the most important piece
of data that a manager or organizational psychologist can have.
Robbins (1998) concluded that impressive evidence exists concerning
the significance of job satisfaction. A satisfied workforce leads to
higher productivity because of fewer disruptions such as absenteeism,
departure of good employees, and incidences of destructive behavior.
Although extensive research has been done in this area, there
are still some major controversies as to what are the real factors
that contribute to workers’ satisfaction and dissatisfaction at the
workplace. While findings have traditionally suggested that people
are motivated by the intrinsic satisfaction such as achievement,
recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and advancement that
they find in doing job-related tasks (Hackman & Oldman, 1980;
Herzberg, 1957), other studies highlight the dominance of extrinsic
factors such as salary, company policies, and administrative as well
as supervisory practices as important means for motivating employ-
ees (Butler, 1982; Gruenburg, 1980; Herzberg, 1957; Seybolt, 1976).
Linkages have become increasingly important in modern
society. Mowday et al. (1982), pioneers in the field of employee–
employer relationships, considered important social linkages to
exist in the form of employee commitment to the organization.
They maintained that the range and quality of employee–
employer relationships lead not only to important consequences
for the organization but also for the individual and for society as
a whole. These consequences may include, in one regard, negative
behaviors such as low productivity, turnover, absenteeism, tardi-
ness, and theft, or the demonstration of positive behaviors such
as high productivity, loyalty, punctuality, dedication, and commit-
ment that promote the organization’s success (Newstorm & Davis,
1997). In essence, strong linkages normally manifest themselves in
care for the wellbeing of another entity that goes beyond a mere
calculation of the expected benefits to be gained (Tyree, 1996).
Recruiting teachers and motivating them to stay on their jobs
present a challenge to educational institutions in the Caribbean.
This problem is especially important to Akra University (AU,
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment 213

a pseudonym) in light of the fact that during the 2000 to 2002

academic periods the turnover rate was 17.38% for faculty and
2.71% for the staff (personal communication, Akra University,
human resources department records, 2004). Given the importance
of worker satisfaction to the health of an organization and the link
between job satisfaction and turnover rate, then an examination of
job satisfaction at AU or any other Christian university becomes an
important topic to research.
During the academic periods from August 2000 through July
2002 the turnover rate was 17.38% for faculty and 2.71% for the
staff as noted previously. Compared with previous turnover
rates, this rate showed a dramatic increase in the turnover for
faculty; however, the turnover rate for staff was not significantly
affected. According to the 2003 AU employment records, there
was a 2% employee turnover of the university employees in
1999. However, between the academic periods of August 2000
through July 2002, there was a 5% turnover rate for the university
(personal communication, Akra University, human resources
department records, 2004).
The purpose of this study was to investigate the level of job
satisfaction and organizational and religious commitment among
full-time workers of AU, as a function of such variables as: 1)
occupational area, 2) age, 3) gender, 4) length of employment,
and 5) educational level.
AU stands to benefit from this study because we believe that
the results could provide some valuable insight into improving job
satisfaction for employees and thus lower the turnover rate. The
findings from this study would be beneficial to other Christian uni-
versities because these institutions would be able to improve their
practices by implementing the recommendations made. This study
will also enable them to minimize the factors that have a negative
impact on the level of job satisfaction of their employees.

Review of Literature

The literature on job satisfaction reveals three theoretical frame-

works regarding job satisfaction: 1) framework one is based on
content theories of job satisfaction; 2) framework two is grounded
in process theories of job satisfaction; and 3) framework three is
rooted in situational models of job satisfaction (Thompson &
214 D. Brown & M. A. Sargeant

McNamara, 1997). The content theories of job satisfaction have

been investigated extensively and a number of studies (Burton,
1994; Gibson et al., 1991; Lacey, 1994) have utilized this theoreti-
cal framework; thus this framework formed the foundation by
which this study was investigated.

Content Theories of Job Satisfaction

Content theorists assume that fulfillment of needs and attainment

of values can lead to job satisfaction (Locke, 1976); four theories
constitute framework one: 1) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
(Maslow, 1954), 2) Herzberg’s two-factor theory (Herzberg et al.,
1959), 3) Alderfer’s ERG (existence, relatedness, and growth
needs) theory (1972), and 4) McClelland’s learned needs theory
(1965).
According to Maslow’s (1954) view of individual needs, job
satisfaction is said to exist when the job and its environment meet
an individual’s needs. The hierarchy of needs focuses on five cate-
gories of needs arranged in ascending order of importance:
1) physiological, 2) safety and security, 3) affection and social
activity, 4) esteem and status, and 5) self-actualization. Maslow’s
needs stress the idea that, within the hierarchy, a person attempts
to satisfy the more basic needs before directing behavior towards
satisfying upper-level needs.
Building on Maslow’s theoretical base, an improved theory
was developed by Clayton Alderfer (1972), who agreed with
Maslow that individual needs are arranged in hierarchy. In Alder-
fer’s view, however, the hierarchy of needs is more accurately con-
ceptualized as having only three distinct categories, not five as
Maslow had hypothesized (Rakich et al., 1992, p. 503). The three
categories are: 1) Existence needs, 2) Relatedness needs, and 3)
Growth needs; thus, the title of the ERG theory of motivation
(Alderfer, 1972).
This theory focuses attention on the work itself as a principal
source of job satisfaction. To Herzberg (1957), the concept of job
satisfaction has two dimensions, namely intrinsic and extrinsic fac-
tors. Intrinsic factors are also known as motivators or satisfiers, and
extrinsic factors as hygienes, dissatisfiers, or maintenance factors. The
motivators relate to job content (work itself) and include achieve-
ment, recognition, work itself, responsibility, and advancement.
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment 215

The hygienes relate to job context (work environment) and

relations, and working conditions. Motivators are related to job sat-
isfaction when present. Hygienes are associated with job satisfac-
tion when present, but not to dissatisfaction when absent.
Hygienes are associated with job dissatisfaction when absent, but
not with satisfaction when present.
McClelland’s theory (1965), called the learned or acquired needs
theory, posits that people learn their needs through life experiences;
they were not born with them. This theory builds on the much earlier
work of Henry Murray (1938), who theorized that people acquire an
individual profile of needs by interaction with the environment.
McClelland was also influenced by the work of John Atkinson.
The common thread of the four content theories is the focus
on what needs motivate human behavior. Each defines human
needs differently, but each holds that employers motivate and
satisfy employees by helping them identify and meet their needs
in the workplace. The content theories provide a conceptual foun-
dation for research intended to explain how individuals are moti-
vated (Burton, 1994; Gibson, et al. 1991; Lacey, 1994); thus it
made sense to examine these theories for this study.

Job Satisfaction and Demographic Characteristics

Originally job satisfaction was studied as a predictor of behaviors

such as performance, absenteeism, and turnover. More recently
the interest has shifted toward identifying factors that influence
or predict job satisfaction due to the fact that a satisfied workforce
leads to higher productivity because of fewer disruptions such as
absenteeism; whereas the departure of good employees increases
the incidences of destructive behavior (Robbins, 1998). Personal
and work-related characteristics such as age, education, gender,
occupational area, and tenure, salary and fringe benefits, insti-
tutional policy, and administration can influence job satisfaction
(Locke, 1976; Spector, 1997).
Mixed evidence exists in the literature concerning the
relationship between age and job satisfaction. Herzberg et al.
(1987) was among the first to report the U-shaped relationship
between age and job satisfaction. Based on an extensive review,
Herzberg et al. (1987) suggested that, although morale is high
216 D. Brown & M. A. Sargeant

among young workers, it tends to decline during the first few years
of employment. The low point is reached when workers are in
their middle and late 20s or early 30s. After this period, satisfaction
steadily climbs with age.
Dramstad (2004) found that the relationship between job
satisfaction and age was significant among Seventh-Day Adventist
(SDA) teachers in Norway. The findings from this study showed
that job satisfaction increased with age, and this finding was not
in agreement with the U-shaped relationship of job satisfaction
with age as noted by Herzberg et al. (1987).
A review of job satisfaction studies that included education as
a variable indicated the relationship between education and job
satisfaction can be negative or positive. Carrell and Elbert
(1974), for example, reported negative relationship between edu-
cation and job satisfaction. They concluded that young workers
with a higher level of formal education are dissatisfied with per-
forming the routine tasks required in most jobs compared with a
young worker with just a formal education.
Niehoff’s study (1995) revealed a significant correlation
between education and overall job satisfaction. Blank (1993) found
that employees holding a doctoral degree were most satisfied with
their jobs. No significant difference was found regarding the level
of job satisfaction between employees with a bachelor’s degree or a
master’s degree. In addition, Schroeder (2003) found that overall
job satisfaction was related to educational level in tertiary edu-
cational institutions.
Research investigating the relationship between gender and
job satisfaction uncovered three findings. First, women are more
satisfied than men (Hoppock, 1935). Second, men are more satis-
fied than women (Hullin & Smith, 1964; Locke et al., 1983). Third,
no difference exists between men and women with respect to job
satisfaction (D’Arcy et al., 1984; Golding et al., 1983; Iiacqua &
Schumacher, 1995; Schroeder, 2003). Greenhaus et al. (1990)
found no significant gender differences in their study, even though
the distribution of jobs was not the same in their sample for both
genders. Men were more likely to have managerial=professional
jobs and women were more likely to have clerical jobs.
Mixed evidence exists in the literature regarding the job satis-
faction of administrators. Although some researchers suggested
that administrators had higher levels of extrinsic job satisfaction
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment 217

than other occupational groups (Niehoff, 1995; Schroeder, 2003); a

study by Blank (1993) found that administrators and staff showed
lower levels of dissatisfaction with the extrinsic aspects of their jobs
compared with other professional groups. Olasiji’s study (1983) of
faculty and administrators in a Nigerian university revealed that
the leading factors for job satisfaction were not the same for faculty
and administration. No significant difference was found regarding
the hygiene factors between the two groups.
Studies regarding the relationship between tenure, defined as
length of service, and job satisfaction have shown inconsistent
results. It was noted that an increase in job tenure was associated
with a decrease in job satisfaction (DeSantis & Durst, 1996),
whereas studies by Begeian et al. (1992) found that there was a
positive relationship between tenure and job satisfaction. Khillah
(1986) found that SDA teachers with no previous experience dis-
played the highest level of job satisfaction. The teachers experienced
their lowest job satisfaction between 1 and 3 years of their pro-
fessional career with it constantly rising from the fourth year on.

Organizational Commitment and Demographic Variables

Mowday et al. (1982) and Tett and Meyer (1993) defined commit-
ment as the relative strength of an individual’s identification with
and involvement in a particular organization. Ciriello (1987) found
that commitment is a binding force for one’s loyalty, identification,
and involvement with an educational institution. Brantley (1993)
has suggested that organizational commitment is a valuable
component in educational institutions.
Personal demographics play a role in organizational commit-
ment (Oberholster & Taylor, 1999). Age and length of service
appear to have a positive relationship with organizational commit-
ment (Rivers, 1994; Salancik, 1977). Support has been found for a
positive relationship between organizational commitment and age
for different occupational groups, including: lower-level employees
in business settings (Angel & Perry, 1981); newspaper transpor-
tation employees (Fukami & Larson, 1984); medical teams in
psychiatric care (Hrebiniak, 1974); non-faculty staff in a major
university (Morris & Sherman, 1981); scientists working in labora-
tories (Sheldon, 1971) and federal employees (Stevens et al., 1978).
Ettorre (1997) noted that a turnover of employees with tenure of 15
218 D. Brown & M. A. Sargeant

and more years was very rare, whereas Schroeder (2003) found out
that Andrews University (Berrien Springs, MI) employees between
the ages of 20 to 30 years were significantly less committed to the
organization than their counterparts in the higher age groups.
Although findings are at times inconsistent in the literature, it
appears that there are significant relationships between organiza-
tional commitment and educational level achieved, as well as with
employment status (Mottaz, 1986; Salancik, 1977). Steers (1977)
concluded that it might be more difficult for an organization to pro-
vide sufficient rewards to retain higher-educated employees. More
highly educated people were expected to be less committed to an
organization and more committed to a profession or trade. These
findings were supported by a study of Morris and Sherman
(1981). Less educated employees showed higher levels of organiza-
tional commitment than their more educated counterparts.
A review of the literature reveals that gender evidences a
fairly consistent relationship to organizational commitment
(Mowday et al., 1982), with women as a group being more commit-
ted than men. Angel and Perry (1981) found that women with busi-
ness professions were more committed to their organizations than
their male colleagues. These findings were supported by a previous
study of private-sector managers by Grusky (1966). Women also
showed higher levels of organizational commitment in studies by
Hrebiniak and Alluto (1972), Mathieus and Zajac (1990), and
Lincoln and Kalleberg (1990). However, Schroeder (2003) did not
find significant gender differences in organizational commitment.

Religious Commitment

A review of the literature shows that relatively few studies have

investigated the relationship between job satisfaction and organiza-
tional and religious commitment. Tarr (1992) found in his study of
940 full-time teachers in Boston Catholic elementary and secondary
schools that the importance of religion and lengths of organiza-
tional tenure were significant predictors of organizational commit-
ment for lay Catholics. He concluded that both length of tenure
in Catholic schools and the importance of religion are hallmarks
of an organizationally committed Catholic laity.
Results of Mancuso’s study (2003) indicated that teachers in
Catholic elementary schools chose to become teachers and remain
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment 219

in their careers because of viewing their careers as ministry, a

vocational call, or as a collegial and spiritual enterprise. Salary
and benefits were not reported to play a significant role in affecting
the choice of, and perseverance in, the teaching profession.
Rice (1990) reported on a survey that sought to discover why
teachers chose to work in SDA schools. She found that more than
two-thirds either saw teaching in an SDA school as God’s choice
for their lives or that they viewed it as a ministry. The study
indicated that individuals have chosen to teach in SDA schools
primarily for spiritual=religious reasons and that linkages might
be expected between such teachers and their commitment to work
in this educational system.

Conceptual Framework for the Study

Herzberg’s motivation–hygiene theory was chosen for this study

because it appeared more acceptable and more widely used than
other studies reviewed (Alexander, 1985; Iredale, 1985; Schroeder,
2003; Srisawat, 1990; Thorn, 1985). Anuna (1997) posits that the
motivation–hygiene theory is preferred over the alternative the-
ories because it had grown to become like a management tool
and had stimulated many empirical and theoretical studies relevant
to job satisfaction in organizations.
To motivate employees, it seemed necessary to supply one or
more of Herzberg’s satisfiers. Those satisfiers, also known as
motivators, included a sense of achievement, recognition, creative
or challenging work, responsibility, advancement opportunities,
and the possibility to develop and grow as a person and pro-
fessional. This theory indicates that management not only must
provide hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction but also
must provide factors intrinsic to work itself in order for employees
to be satisfied with their jobs.
There are numerous debates over issues regarding the relation-
ship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, sev-
eral researchers have made the case that job satisfaction is a
predictor of organizational commitment (Dramstad, 2004; Ferris,
1983; Meixner & Bline, 1989; Porter et al., 1974; Price, 1977; Rose,
1991; Williams & Hazer, 1986). Other studies have shown organi-
zational commitment as a predictor of job satisfaction (Aranya &
Ferris, 1983; Aranya et al., 1982; Bateman & Strasser, 1984;
220 D. Brown & M. A. Sargeant

Lachman & Aranya, 1986; McGregor et al., 1989). Although these

studies have proposed a different causal ordering between job sat-
isfaction and organizational commitment, they all have found a sig-
nificant, positive relationship between the variables.
Demographic variables, such as occupational area, age, gen-
der, length of employment, and educational level, are worth inves-
tigating because they showed inconsistent relationship with job
satisfaction and organizational commitment (Angel & Perry,
1981; Blank, 1993; Iiacqua & Schumacher, 1995; Morris &
Sherman, 1981; Schroeder, 2003; Sheldon, 1971).
Religious belief has been described as one of the most potent
influences in one’s life (Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982). It colors one’s
attitudes to every event experienced, including how one relates to
others. Consequently, a teacher’s basic Christian experience has
been considered to be one of the most important criteria of an
effective Christian educator (Moore, 1976).
Several studies have indicated a significant relationship
between religion and organizational commitment for lay Catholics
(Ciriello, 1987; Mancuso, 2003; Tarr, 1992). According to a study
by Ciriello (1987), it was revealed that teachers who chose to teach
in Catholic schools primarily for organizationally related reasons
were more strongly attached than those who taught primarily for
professional reasons, despite there being no difference in the level
of satisfaction between the groups. Further, Cirello identified the
importance of religion in personal life as the most important pre-
dictor of organizational commitment. Results of Mancuso’s
(2003) study indicated that teachers in Catholic elementary schools
chose to become teachers and remain in their careers because of
viewing their careers as ministry, vocational call, as well as
collegial and spiritual enterprise.
Rice (1990) reported on a survey that sought to discover why
teachers chose to work in SDA schools. She found that more than
two-thirds saw teaching in an SDA school as God’s choice for
their lives or they viewed it as a ministry. Schroeder (2003) also
came to the same conclusion where some employees at Andrews
University saw their work as partial fulfillment of their Christian
mission.
The literature review as presented has shown inconsistent
findings regarding the relationship of the following demographic
variables: occupational area, gender, age, educational level, and
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment 221

length of employment, with job satisfaction and organizational

commitment (Angel & Perry, 1983; Blank, 1993; Dramstad,
2004; Iiacqua & Schumacher, 1995; Morris & Sherman, 1981;
Schroeder, 2003; Sheldon, 1971). When a comprehensive search
of the literature was carried out, there were no published findings
on any studies related to this study done at Christian tertiary insti-
tution in the Caribbean. In view of these findings it made sense to
carry out this study, so that one could have a better picture of the
relationships among the variables under study at this particular
institution, and so that other tertiary institutions could adopt find-
ings where appropriate.

Method

The population of this study consisted of 542 employees at AU,

which is located in the Caribbean. Purposive sampling was used
to select only the full-time employees employed at this institution
that included full-time faculty members, staff, administrators, and
sectors managers.
The instrument used for this study consisted of three sections
that sought to provide information regarding demographic charac-
teristics and the organizational and religious commitment of
respondents. The items of the various sections are presented later
in text with reliability and validity information.
Section one solicited demographic information. A review of
the literature shows that the following demographic variables were
commonly used in previous job satisfaction=dissatisfaction studies
and organizational and religious commitment studies within the
field of education and were deemed to be relevant for this study:
1) occupational area, 2) gender, 3) education level, 4) age, and 5)
length of employment (Blank, 1993; Oberholster & Tayolor,
1999; Schroeder, 2003).
Section two measured the level of organizational commit-
ment, utilizing the organizational commitment questionnaire
(OCQ) developed by Mowday et al. (1974). A number of studies
(Alutto et al., 1973; Cronbach, 1951; Smith et al., 1969; Mowday
et al., 1979) noted internal consistency reliabilities ranging from
0.82 to 0.93, and given the wide use of the OCQ in research
and the findings of researchers mentioned previously, the OCQ
appears to be reliable and valid instrument for the purpose of this
222 D. Brown & M. A. Sargeant

study. In this study, a reliability coefficient of 0.85 was obtained

using Cronbach’s alpha for this section of the instrument.
Section three measured the level of religious commitment, uti-
lizing the intrinsic religious motivation scale (IRMS) developed by
Hoge (1972) from an adaptation of Allport and Ross’s (1967) intrin-
sic=extrinsic motivational scale in which the scale’s reliability aver-
age was 0.901. Schroeder (2003) deleted item 11 and obtained a
Kuder-Richardson correlation coefficient of 0.902 and a predictive
validity of 0.582. In this study, a reliability coefficient of 0.70 was
obtained using Cronbach alpha for this section of the instrument.
A list of all the full-time workers at AU was collected from the
human resources department. A questionnaire package was pre-
pared for each worker. Each questionnaire package contained a
cover letter that described the nature of the research, a copy of
the questionnaire, and a self-addressed envelope. Workers were
assured of anonymity and confidentiality.
Surveys are used in educational settings because pertinent and
accurate information can be obtained from a small sample drawn
from a large population (Fowler, 1993; McMillan & Schumacher,
2001). Surveys, in addition to providing descriptive information,
can be used to explore relationships among variables (Fowler,
1993; Gay, 1987; Howell, 1997).

Results

A total of 263 workers at AU participated in this study, represent-

ing a response rate of 69.7% of those asked to participate. Table 1
summarizes the demographic characteristics of these workers.
More than 50% (57.0%) of the occupational group were staff,
and slightly less than 50% (46.8%) of the respondents were
women. Almost one-third (32.3%) of the respondents were
between the ages of 26 to 35 years, and slightly more than a third
(36.9%) of these workers had a bachelor’s, professional certificate,
or associate’s degree. More than 50% (53.2%) of the respondents
have been working at AU 4 years or less. Table 2 shows means and
standard deviations for overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic job
satisfaction and organization and religious commitment among
workers at AU by age groupsAnalysis of variance, using Games–
Howell procedure was used to determine any significant differ-
ences in AU workers’ perceptions of overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment 223

TABLE 1 Frequency and Percentage of Selected Characteristics of Workers at

Akra University (N ¼ 263)

Characteristics N %

Occupational Area
Administrators; Sector Managers 36 13.7
Faculty 77 29.3
Staff 150 57.0
Gender
Male 95 36.1
Female 123 46.8
Age (years)

25 27 10.3
26–35 85 32.3
36–45 76 28.9
46 74 28.1
Educational Level
Primary 16 6.1
Secondary 27 10.3
Certificate 21 8.0
B=P=A 97 36.9
Masters 76 28.9
Doctoral 23 8.7
Length of Employment, (Years)

4 140 53.2
5–10 69 26.2
11–14 12 4.6
15–25 years 26 9.9
26 16 6.1

B=P=A, Bachelor’s, professional certificate, or associate’s degree.

job satisfaction and organizational and religious commitment by

age groups. There are significant differences (p < 0.05) in overall
extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction and organizational and
religious commitment among age groups. A number of studies
(Blank, 1993; Oberholster & Tayolor, 1999; Schroeder, 2003) used
analysis of variance with the Games–Howell procedure to examine
the nature of the differences among groups within a number of
demographic characteristics; thus this statistical method was
employed in this study.
Employees who were age 46 years and older (M ¼ 3.53,
SD ¼ 0.65) had a higher level of overall job satisfaction than work-
ers between ages 26 and 35 years (M ¼ 3.17, SD ¼ 0.64). Similar
224
TABLE 2 Means and Standard Deviations for Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment by Age Categories

Age Categories (Years)

Total
25 26–35 36–45 46

Sample size 27 85 76 73
Variables M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) F P

Overall job satisfaction 3.38 (0.61) 3.46 (0.57) 3.17 (0.64) 3.36 (0.59) 3.53 (0.65) 4.75
0.05
Extrinsic job satisfaction 3.31 (0.66) 3.38 (0.67) 3.12 (0.68) 3.29 (0.65) 3.45 (0.66) 3.56
0.05
Intrinsic job satisfaction 3.46 (0.63) 3.56 (0.54) 3.23 (0.67) 3.47 (0.62) 3.58 (0.70) 4.74
0.05
Organizational commitment 3.78 (0.66) 3.89 (0.57) 3.64 (0.65) 3.70 (0.73) 3.91 (0.68) 2.67
0.05
Religious commitment 4.49 (0.51) 4.24 (0.65) 4.46 (0.46) 4.53 (0.50) 4.71 (0.43) 8.04
0.01


Means are based on 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). N ¼ 261.
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment 225

results were noted for extrinsic job satisfaction and organizational

commitment. Employees who were age 46 years or older
(M ¼ 3.45, SD ¼ 0.66) had a higher level of extrinsic job satisfac-
tion than their younger colleagues age 26 to 35 years (M ¼ 3.12,
SD ¼ 0.68); and workers age 46 years and older (M ¼ 3.91,
SD ¼ 0.68) had a higher level of organizational commitment than
the workers between age 26 to 35 years (M ¼ 3.64, SD ¼ 0.65).For
intrinsic job satisfaction, it seems that employees who were
younger than 26 years (M ¼ 3.56, SD ¼ 0.54) or age 46 years
and older (M ¼ 3.58, SD ¼ 0.70) had a higher level of intrinsic
job satisfaction than those who were between ages 26 to 35 years
(M ¼ 3.23, SD ¼ 0.67). Meanwhile employees who were age 46
years or older (M ¼ 4.71, SD ¼ 0.43) had a higher level of religious
commitment than those who were between the ages 26 to 35 years
(M ¼ 4.40, SD ¼ 0.46) and than those younger than age 25 years
(M ¼ 4.24, SD ¼ 0.65).
Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations for overall,
intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction and organization and
religious commitment among workers at AU by length of employ-
ment. Analysis of variance, using Games–Howell procedure was
used to compare differences in AU workers’ perceptions of overall,
intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction and organizational and
religious commitment by length of employment. There are
significant differences in overall and extrinsic job satisfaction and
organizational commitment among the five categories of length
of employment (p < 0.05).
Workers with 11 to 14 years tenure at AU (M ¼ 3.69,
SD ¼ 0.58) had higher extrinsic job satisfaction than those with
between 5 to 10 years of tenure (M ¼ 3.15, SD ¼ 0.68). It was noted
that employees working between 15 to 25 years at the institution
(M ¼ 4.10, SD ¼ 0.54) indicated a higher level of organizational
commitment than employees who had worked between 5 to
10 years (M ¼ 3.67, SD ¼ 0.71) and 4 years or less (M ¼ 3.69,
SD ¼ 0.68) at this institution.
Table 4 shows means and standard deviations for overall,
intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction and organization and
religious commitment among workers at AU by educational levels.
Analysis of variance using Games–Howell procedure was used to
compare differences in AU workers’ perceptions of overall, intrin-
sic, and extrinsic job satisfaction and organizational and religious
226
TABLE 3 Means and Standard Deviations for Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment by Length of
Employment

Length of Employment (Years)

Total
4 5–10 11–14 15–25 26

Sample sizes 140 68 12 25 16
Variables M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) F P

Overall job satisfaction 3.63 (0.64) 3.32 (0.61) 3.26 (0.68) 3.65 (0.54) 3.52 (0.52) 3.64 (0.76) 2.34
0.05
Extrinsic job satisfaction 3.29 (0.67) 3.27 (0.67) 3.15 (0.68) 3.69 (0.58) 3.46 (0.49) 3.55 (0.79) 2.91
0.05
Intrinsic job satisfaction 3.45 (0.67) 3.41 (0.62) 3.38 (0.74) 3.58 (0.66) 3.61 (0.62) 3.78 (0.80) 2.91
0.05
Organizational commitment 3.76 (0.68) 3.69 (0.68) 3.67 (0.71) 3.88 (0.53) 4.10 (0.54) 4.13 (0.61) 3.68
0.01
Religious commitment 4.52 (0.49) 4.46 (0.52) 4.56 (0.45) 4.48 (0.45) 4.65 (0.43) 4.66 (0.51) 1.45
0.05


Means are based on 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). N ¼ 261.
 TABLE 4 Means and (Standard Deviations) for Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment by Educational
Levels

Educational Levels

Total Primary Secondary Certificate B=P=A Masters Doctorate

Sample sizes 16 27 21 97 76 23
Variables M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) F P

Overall job satisfaction 3.35 (0.63) 3.29 (0.70) 2.91 (0.69) 3.35 (0.66) 3.38 (0.59) 3.43 (0.61) 3.54 (0.58) 3.38
0.05
Extrinsic job satisfaction 3.28 (0.67) 3.19 (0.63) 2.81 (0.75) 3.26 (0.70) 3.34 (0.63) 3.36 (0.64) 3.45 (0.62) 3.53
0.05
Intrinsic job satisfaction 3.44 (0.67) 3.27 (0.74) 3.07 (0.73) 3.48 (0.70) 3.44 (0.63) 3.53 (0.64) 3.68 (0.62) 2.81
0.05
Organizational commitment 3.75 (0.68) 3.82 (0.65) 3.64 (0.71) 3.85 (0.70) 3.73 (0.67) 3.78 (0.67) 3.68 (0.77) 0.34
0.05
Religious commitment 4.51 (0.50) 4.50 (0.53) 4.12 (0.57) 4.51 (0.49) 4.55 (0.43) 4.59 (0.49) 4.51 (0.62) 3.65
0.01


Means are based on 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). N ¼ 260.

227
228 D. Brown & M. A. Sargeant

commitment by educational levels. There are significant differ-

ences in overall and extrinsic job satisfaction and religious commit-
ment among educational levels (p < 0.05).
Workers with a doctoral degree (M ¼ 3.54, SD ¼ 0.58),
master’s degree (M ¼ 3.43, SD ¼ 0.61), bachelor=professional
certificate=associate degree (M ¼ 3.38, SD ¼ 0.59), a certificate
(M ¼ 3.35, SD ¼ 0.66) and primary education level (M ¼ 3.29,
SD ¼ 0.70) had higher levels of overall job satisfaction than those
with just a high-school diploma (M ¼ 2.91, SD ¼ 0.69). Similar
results were noted with religious commitment where workers with
a doctoral degree (M ¼ 4.51, SD ¼ 0.62), master’s degree
(M ¼ 4.59, SD ¼ 0.49), bachelor=professional certificate=associate
degree (M ¼ 4.55, SD ¼ 0.43), a certificate (M ¼ 4.51, SD ¼ 0.49),
and primary level (M ¼ 4.50, SD ¼ 0.53) had higher levels of
religious commitment than those with just a high school diploma
(M ¼ 4.12, SD ¼ 0.57). Meanwhile, workers with a doctoral degree
(M ¼ 3.68, SD ¼ 0.62) had a higher level of intrinsic job satisfaction
than those with just a high school diploma (M ¼ 3.07, SD ¼ 0.73).
Table 5 shows means and standard deviations for overall,
intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction and organization and
religious commitment among workers at AU by occupational
areas. Analysis of variance using Games–Howell procedure was
used to compare differences in AU workers’ perceptions of overall,
intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction and organizational and
religious commitment by occupational categories. There are
significant differences in intrinsic job satisfaction and religious
commitment among occupational category (p < 0.05).
Employees who were administrators and sector managers
(M ¼ 3.55, SD ¼ 0.65) had a higher level of intrinsic job satisfac-
tion than employees who were staff (M ¼ 3.28, SD ¼ 0.62);
this finding was also true for religious commitment where
administrators and sector managers had a higher level of religious
commitment (M ¼ 4.78, SD ¼ 0.31) than staff workers (M ¼ 4.42,
SD ¼ 0.50).
Table 6 shows means and standard deviations for overall,
intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction and organization and
religious commitment by gender of workers at AU. T statistics
was used to compare differences by gender of AU workers’ percep-
tions of overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction and
organizational and religious commitment. There is significant
 TABLE 5 Means and Standard Deviations for Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment by Occupational Areas

Occupational Areas

Administrators=
Total Staff Faculty Sector Managers
Sample sizes 149 72 36
Variables M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) F P

Overall job satisfaction 3.36 (0.64) 3.28 (0.62) 3.41 (0.64) 3.55 (0.65) 3.01 0.05
Extrinsic job satisfaction 3.29 (0.67) 3.21 (0.65) 3.38 (0.66) 3.41 (0.74) 2.34 0.05
Intrinsic job satisfaction 3.45 (0.67) 3.36 (0.67) 3.46 (0.68) 3.75 (0.59) 4.80
0.01
Organizational commitment 3.75 (0.68) 3.77 (0.62) 3.63 (0.80) 3.93 (0.61) 2.39 0.05
Religious commitment 4.51 (0.50) 4.78 (0.31) 4.55 (0.54) 4.42 (0.50) 8.19
0.01


Means are based on 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). N ¼ 257.

229
230 D. Brown & M. A. Sargeant

TABLE 6 Means and (Standard Deviation) for Job Satisfaction and

Organizational and Religious Commitment by Gender

Gender

Male Female

Variables M SD M SD t p

Overall job satisfaction 3.44 0.68 3.28 0.60 1.77 0.08

Intrinsic job satisfaction 3.56 0.68 3.36 0.64 2.21 0.03 (p
0.05)
Extrinsic job satisfaction 3.35 0.73 3.32 0.73 1.31 0.20
Organizational commitment 3.84 0.63 3.37 0.69 1.25 0.21
Religious commitment 4.42 0.56 4.55 0.46 1.84 0.07

Sample size: overall, intrinsic, extrinsic job satisfaction ¼ 95 men and 122 women;
organizational commitment ¼ 95 men and 123 women; and religious commitment ¼ 92
men and 121 women.

Means are based on 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

difference in intrinsic job satisfaction between male and female

workers (p < 0.05). Independent-sample t-test was used to examine
the nature of the difference between male and female workers
(Norusis, 2004). Male workers (M ¼ 3.56, SD ¼ 0.68) had a higher
level of intrinsic job satisfaction than female (M ¼ 3.36, SD ¼ 0.64).

Discussion

There were significant differences (p
0.05) in overall, intrinsic,

and extrinsic job satisfaction among workers at AU by age. The
findings revealed that workers who were age 46 years and older
had higher levels of overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction
than their colleagues who were between age 26 to 35 years. How-
ever, no significant difference (p
0.05) existed between workers
in any of the other groups. These results are in agreement with
Cockburn, 1998 and Herzberg, 1957 who found that younger
and older teachers had higher levels of job satisfaction than their
colleagues in the intermediate age group, although for younger
workers job satisfaction tends to decline during the first few years
of employment. They further stated that the low point is reached
when workers are in their middle and late 20s or early 30s. After
this period, satisfaction steadily climbs with age. In view of these
findings Christian institutions need to ensure that they provide
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment 231

opportunities for workers (especially middle and late 20s and early
30s) to develop their intrinsic job satisfaction by encouraging them
to be part of the decision-making process of the institution. This
approach would make these workers feel valued and respected
and could translate into satisfied workers who would be committed
to the organization because they were included in the decision-
making process.
This study indicated that there is a significant difference in
organizational commitment among the workers at AU by age group
(Table 2). Consistent support was found for a positive relationship
between organizational commitment and age (Angel & Perry,
1981; Dramstad, 2004; Morris & Sherman, 1981; Schroeder,
2003; Sheldon, 1971), where employees between the ages of 26
to 35 years were significantly less committed to the organization
than were their colleagues who were age 46 years old and older.
This study indicated that there is a significant difference
(p
0.01) in religious commitment among AU workers by age. A
comparison of the mean scores for religious commitment by age
revealed that workers who were age 46 years and older were more
satisfied with their level of religious commitment than were work-
ers who were age 35 years and younger. This finding seems to be
consistent with the notion that more mature persons tend to be
‘settled in’ in their religious beliefs whereas younger persons are
more likely to be ‘settling in’ in their beliefs. Younger workers
are more likely to question the status quo than are older workers.
This study indicated that there is a significant difference
(p
0.05) in extrinsic job satisfaction among AU workers by length
of employment (Table 3). Studies showing the relationship
between tenure and job satisfaction have shown inconsistent
results (Begeian et al., 1992; DeSantis & Durst, 1996). However,
the findings from this study are somewhat consistent with those
of Avi-Itzhak (1988), Khillah (1986), and Niehoff (1995). They
found that a positive relationship exited between length of service
and job satisfaction.
Unexpectedly, this study found that workers with 11 to
14 years’ tenure at AU indicated the highest level of extrinsic job
satisfaction followed by workers with more than 26 years’ tenure.
One could possibly argue that the reason for such a finding could
be because for this particular study, workers with 1 to 14 years’ ten-
ure at AU were in the minority. It seems reasonable that workers
232 D. Brown & M. A. Sargeant

with more than 26 years’ tenure at AU would indicate a higher

level of overall job satisfaction. One could argue that, over the
years, workers in this category would have developed a sense of
achievement and productivity. Also it can be considered that after
many years of service within the organization, one may have well
adapted to the organizational policies and administration and have
developed good working relationships with peers, students, super-
visors, and administrators.
Contrary to previous studies (Avi-Itzhak, 1988; Khillah, 1986),
no significant differences (p
0.05) were found for intrinsic job sat-
isfaction among workers at AU by length of employment. This
finding was probably due to the fact that a number of workers have
been working at AU for a short period of time (4 years or less), thus
commitment and others factors that contribute to intrinsic motiv-
ation have not been established as yet.
This study indicated that there is a significant difference
(p
0.01) in organizational commitment among AU workers by
length of employment. This finding compares very favorably with
findings of previous studies (Angel & Perry, 1981; Fukami &
Larson, 1984; Morris & Sherman, 1981; Rivers, 1994; Salancik,
1977; Stevens et al., 1978). They found that a positive relationship
existed between length of employment and organizational commit-
ment. A comparison of the mean scores for organizational commit-
ment by length of employed revealed that workers with a tenure of
15 to 25 years had a higher level of organizational commitment
than workers with 4 years’ or less and 5 to 10 years’ tenure. These
workers who are committed to the organization would, of course,
tend to remain loyal to the employing organization.
This study indicated that there are significant differences in
overall, intrinsic, extrinsic job satisfaction and religious commit-
ment among workers at AU by educational level (Table 4).
Such findings are in partial agreement with Niehoff (1995), Blank
(1993), and Schroeder (2003) in which the findings were that
employees holding a doctoral degree were most satisfied with
their jobs; findings from this present study revealed that workers
with a doctoral degree, master’s degree, and a bachelor’s, pro-
fessional certificate, or associate degree displayed higher levels of
overall and extrinsic job satisfaction than their counterparts with
just a high school diploma. The findings also revealed that workers
with a doctoral degree indicated higher levels of intrinsic job
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment 233

satisfaction than did their counterparts with just a high school

diploma.
The findings of this study indicated that there is a significant
difference (p
0.01) in intrinsic job satisfaction among workers at
AU by occupational area (Table 5) and such finding was in general
agreement with studies by Armstrong (1971), Arthur (1987),
Sompong (1990), and Wanous (1974). A comparison of the mean
scores for intrinsic job satisfaction factors revealed that AU admin-
istrators seemed to be more satisfied than the other occupational
subgroups regarding students, work itself, achievement, responsi-
bility, and advancement. These findings are in agreement with
Latham (1998) who concluded that intrinsic rewards play a greater
role in teacher motivation and job satisfaction than extrinsic
rewards. He further stated that job satisfaction could improve
teaching and help retain teachers. Given the importance of intrinsic
job satisfaction among faculty, this finding raises grave concerns.
This study indicated that there is a significant difference
(p
0.01) in religious commitment among AU workers by occu-
pational area. A comparison of the mean scores for religious com-
mitment by occupational area indicated that administrators=sector
managers indicated the highest level of religious commitment to
the university. The staff members indicated the lowest level of
religious commitment. This finding might be possible because
religious organizations tend to be more careful in ensuring that
administrators possess such characteristics; therefore, it will make
sense to ensure that all workers possess these characteristics and
not just administrators.
There was a significant difference in intrinsic job satisfaction
among AU workers by gender (Table 6). Studies regarding the role
of intrinsic versus extrinsic factors in job satisfaction and gender
have shown inconsistent results. While Blank (1993) as well as
Schroeder (2003) found no significant gender difference when
distinguished between intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction,
McNeel (1984) and Hill (1983) concluded that women were more
intrinsically satisfied than men. Contrary to this viewpoint, male
workers at AU were more intrinsically satisfied than female workers.
This study found no significant difference (p
0.05) in overall
and extrinsic job satisfaction among workers at AU by gender.
These findings are partially supported by studies by Blank
(1993), Hullin and Smith (1964), Iiacqua and Schumacher (1995),
234 D. Brown & M. A. Sargeant

Smith and Plant (1982), and Schroeder (2003) who found no sig-
nificant differences for overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfac-
tion between men and women.
Although different studies (Angel & Perry, 1981; Grusky,
1966) have shown that women were more committed to the
organization than their male counterparts, other studies (Mathieus
& Zajac, 1990) have revealed higher levels of organizational com-
mitment for male employees. Consistent with findings from Aryee
and Heng (1990) and Schroeder (2003), however, this study did not
find significant gender differences in organizational commitment.
It would be incumbent on the administrators of Christian ter-
tiary institutions to attract employees with advanced degrees while
supporting employees to obtain these degrees. It would be advis-
able for administrators to implement certain strategies as a means
of increasing the level of job satisfaction, organizational commit-
ment, and religious commitment for the younger workers,
especially those between ages 26 to 35 years. For example,
Christian universities need to ensure that their remuneration pack-
age is attractive to the workers who are required for their oper-
ation. This may include developing a system to reward
excellence of performance while offering tangible benefits to out-
standing employees. They could develop a worker’s development
plan, which would function as a guide in selecting and developing
career enrichment opportunities. This plan could include financial
support for graduate or postgraduate studies, active membership in
professional organizations and regular attendance to local and
international conferences. It would be advantageous for these insti-
tutions to have a system that would require workers who benefited
from the financial support program of the institution to work with
the organization for a mutually agreed on period of time after
completion of their program.
It was also noted that workers holding doctoral degrees had
higher levels of job satisfaction than individuals with a high school
diploma. Workers must be encouraged and assisted in furthering
their studies, especially those workers with only a high school dip-
loma. Christian tertiary institutions should ensure that there is a
development plan for each worker that would indicate the steps
that should be taken for the worker’s educational growth. This plan
should be reviewed on a regular basis and should be an integral
part of the appraisal system.
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational and Religious Commitment 235

It is imperative that Christian tertiary institutions take these

findings and recommendations into consideration and develop
strategic plans to ensure that their workers remain or become sat-
isfied and committed to the organization. Christian tertiary institu-
tions need to take note of the following: 1) the longer employees
stayed at their institution, the higher the levels of organizational
commitment and extrinsic job satisfaction; 2) workers with doc-
toral degrees had higher levels of job satisfaction and religious
commitment than individuals with high school diploma; and
3) administrators and sector managers had higher levels of intrinsic
job satisfaction and religious commitment than those in other occu-
pational areas.

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Dr. Donna Brown is an Associate Professor at Northern

Caribbean University, Department of Business, Mandeville,
Manchester, Jamaica.

Dr. Marcel A. Sargeant is an Associate Professor at South-

western Adventist University, Department of Education and
Psychology, Keene, Texas, USA.