Module 1

AGGREGATES AND TESTING OF AGGREGATES

Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete. They give body to the concrete,
reduce shrinkage and effect economy. Earlier, aggregates were considered as chemically inert
materials but now it has been recognized that some of the aggregates are chemically active and
also that certain aggregates exhibit chemical bond at the interface of aggregate and paste. The
aggregates occupy 70–80 per cent of the volume of concrete.
Concrete can be considered as two phase materials for convenience; paste phase and
aggregate phase.
1.1 Classification
Aggregates can be classified as
(i ) Normal weight aggregates,
(ii ) Light weight aggregates and
(iii) Heary weight aggregates
Normal weight aggregates can be further classified as natural aggregates and artificial
aggregates.
1.1Natural
Natural aggregates are most commonly used in the construction industry till now.
Aggregates are abundantly available from the natural sources. Natural aggregates are further
divided into two categories as below.
(a) Sand and Gravel:
The source of sand and gravel are river beds, stream deposits etc. The aggregates
are the results of the weathering of bedrock and subsequent transportation and deposition of the
material by water or ice. But nowadays the availability of natural sand is becoming scare in a
certain region of the world. Somewhere due to soil erosion, the sand contains a large amount of
silt and clay, making it almost unusable. Construction industry needs to solve this challenge by
finding suitable alternatives.
(b) Crushed Aggregates:
Crushed aggregates are the most basic mineral in construction produced from the
quarries. It is widely available and inexpensive. Crushed aggregates consist of rock fragments
which have been subjected to mechanical processing such as crushing, washing and sizing. They
are mainly derived from the parent bed rock material such as igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks
and metamorphic rocks.
Sand, Gravel, Crushed Rock such as Granite, Quartzite, Basalt, Sandstone.
1.2 Artificial aggregates
Due to industrialization, various by-products are nowadays used as aggregates,
which are called artificial aggregates. Artificial aggregates are eco-friendly materials. They are
made out of various by-products such as fly ash, power plant solid waste, rice husk ash, blast
furnace slag, granite powder, iron ore slag, over burnt brickbats etc. As such these materials are
considered as pollutants of the environment. In the present scenario, the challenges before the
world are to have innovative materials in the construction industry. On the other hand, there is a
huge demand for natural aggregates, on one hand; there is a problem of disposal of such by-
products. By using artificial aggregates, we solve the problem of this disposal and at the same
time save natural resources. It also creates a problem of depleting natural resources. By using
these industrial by-products, we can reduce environmental pollution, natural resources and
thereby giving way to sustainable development of aggregate industries.
Eg :- Broken Brick, Air-cooled Slag, Sintered fly ash, Bloated clay etc
1.2 Source
Almost all the natural aggregate materials originate from bed rocks. There are three types
of rocks; igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. These classifications are based on the manner
of formation of rocks. The concrete making properties of natural aggregates are influenced to
some extent on the basis of geological formation of the parent rock together with the subsequent
processes of weathering and alteration
It may be recalled that igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten magma or lava
at the surface of the crest (trap and basalt) or deep beneath the crest (granite). They are hard,
tough and dense. They may be acidic or basic depending upon the percentage of silica content.
They may occur in light colors or dark colours.The sedimentary rocks are formed below the sea
bed and subsequently lifted up. Sedimentary rocks vary from soft to hard, porous to dense and
light to heavy. The degree of consolidation, the type of cementation, the thickness of layers and
contamination, these all are important factors to determine the suitability of sedimentary rock for
concrete aggregates. Metamorphic rocks are originally either igneous or sedimentary rocks
which are subsequently metamorphosed due to extreme heat and pressure. Many metamorphic
rocks particularly quartzite and gneiss have been used for the production of good concrete
aggregates.

1.3 Size

80 mm size is the maximum size that could be conveniently used for concrete making.
Using the largest possible maximum size will result in

(i) Reduction of the cement content

(ii) Reduction in water requirement
(iii) Reduction of drying shrinkage.
Selection of maximum size of aggregate depends on
(i) Thickness of section;
(ii) Spacing of reinforcement;
(iii) Clear cover;
(iv) Mixing, handling and placing techniques

Aggregates are divided into two categories from the consideration of size
1. Coarse aggregate (The size of aggregate bigger than 4.75 mm is considered as coarse
aggregate) and
2. Fine aggregate (aggregate whose size is 4.75 mm and less is considered as fine aggregate.)

1.4 Shape

The shape of aggregates is an important characteristic since it affects the workability of

concrete. The shape of the aggregate is very much influenced by the type of crusher.
From the standpoint of economy in cement requirement for a given water/cement ratio,
rounded aggregates are preferable to angular aggregates. The additional cement is required for
angular aggregate. Angular aggregates possess higher strengths and greater durability as a result
of the interlocking texture of the hardened concrete and higher bond characteristic between
aggregate and cement paste.
Flat particles in concrete aggregates will have particularly objectionable influence on the
workability, cement requirement, strength and durability. In general, excessively flaky aggregate
makes very poor concrete.
Classification
1) Rounded
Rounded aggregates are fully water worn or completely shaped by attrition.
Examples - River or seashore gravels; shaped by attrition desert, seashore and
wind-blown sands.
2) Irregular or Partly rounded
These aggregates are naturally irregular or partly shaped by attrition, having
rounded edges.
Example- Pit sands and gravels; land or dug flints; cuboid rock.
3) Angular
These aggregates possess well-defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly
planar faces.
Example-Crushed rocks of all types; talus; screes
4) Flaky
Flaky Material is usually angular, of which the thickness is small relative to the
width and/or length.
Example- Laminated rocks
Angularity Number,
One of the methods of expressing the angularity qualitatively is by a figure called
Angularity Number. This is based on the percentage voids in the aggregate after compaction in a
specified manner.
A quantity of single sized aggregate is filled into metal cylinder of three litre capacity.
The aggregates are compacted in a standard manner and the percentage of void is found out. The
void can be found out by knowing the specific gravity of aggregate and bulk density or by
pouring water to the cylinder to bring the level of water upto the brim. If the void is 33 per cent
the angularity of such aggregate is considered zero. If the void is 44 per cent the angularity
number of such aggregate is considered 11. In other words, if the angularity number is zero, the
solid volume of the aggregate is 67 per cent and if angularity number is 11, the solid volume of
the aggregate is 56 per cent.
The normal aggregates which are suitable for making the concrete may have angularity
number anything from zero to 11. Angularity number zero represents the most practicable
rounded aggregates and the angularity number 11 indicates the most angular aggregates.
Angularity Index
Murdock suggested a different method for expressing the shape of aggregate by a
parameter called Angularity Index ‘ fA.
Angularity Index, fA = (3fH/20)+1
Where fH is the Angularity number
Angular aggregates are superior to rounded aggregates from the following two points of
view:
(a) Angular aggregates exhibit a better interlocking effect in concrete, which property
makes it superior in concrete used for roads and pavements.
(b) The total surface area of rough textured angular aggregate is more than smooth
rounded aggregate for the given volume. By having greater surface area, the
angular aggregate may show higher bond strength than rounded aggregates.
1.5 Texture
Surface texture is the property, the measure of which depends upon the relative degree to
which particle surfaces are polished or dull, smooth or rough. Surface texture depends on
hardness, grain size, pore structure, structure of the rock, and the degree to which forces acting
on the particle surface have smoothed or roughened it.
As surface smoothness increases, contact area decreases, hence a highly polished particle
will have less bonding area with the matrix than a rough particle of the same volume. A smooth
particle permits denser packing for equal workability and hence, will require lower paste content
than rough particles. The rough textured aggregate develops higher bond strength in tension than
smooth textured aggregate.
Measurement of Surface Texture
A large number of possible methods are available and this may be divided broadly into
direct and indirect methods.
Direct methods include
(i) Making a cast of the surface and magnifying a section of this,
(ii) Tracing the irregularities by drawing a fine point over the surface and drawing a
trace magnified by mechanical, optical, or electrical means,
(ii) Getting a section through the aggregates and examining a magnified image.
Indirect methods include:
(i) Measurement of the degree of dispersion of light falling on the surface,
 (ii) determining the weight of a fine powder required to fill up the interstices of the
surface to a truly smooth surface,
(iii) The rock surface is held against rubber surface at a standard pressure and the
resistance to the flow of air between the two surfaces is measured.
Group Surface Texture Examples
1 Glassy Black flint
2 Smooth Chert; slate; marble; some rhyolite
3 Granular Sandstone; oolites
4 Crystalline Fine Dolerite; granophyre; granulite; microgranite; some
limestones; many dolomites. Coarse : Gabbro; gneiss;
granite; granodiorite; syenite

5 Honeycombed and Scoria; Pumice, trass.

porous

1.6 Strength
The strength of the rock does not exactly represent the strength of the aggregate in
concrete. Concrete properties are based primarily on the quality of the cement paste. This
strength is dependant also on the bond between the cement paste and the aggregate.
The test for strength of aggregate is required to be made in the following situations:
 For production of high strength and ultra high strength concrete
 When contemplating to use aggregates manufactured from weathered rocks.
 Aggregate manufactured by industrial process
Aggregatte Crushing Value
Strength of rock is found out by making a test specimen of cylindrical shape of size 25
mm diameter and 25 mm height. This cylinder is subjected to compressive stress. Aggregate
crushing value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate sample to crushing
under gradually applied compressive load. Generally, this test is made on single sized aggregate
passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm sieve. The aggregate is placed in a cylindrical mould
and a load of 40 ton is applied through a plunger. The material crushed to finer than 2.36 mm is
separated and expressed as a percentage of the original weight taken in the mould. This
percentage is referred as aggregate crushing value. The crushing value of aggregate is restricted
to 30 per cent for concrete used for roads and pavements and 45 per cent may be permitted for
other structures.
Aggregate Impact Value
With respect to concrete aggregates, toughness is usually considered the resistance of the
material to failure by impact. A sample of standard aggregate kept in a mould is subjected to
fifteen blows of a metal hammer of weight 14 Kgs. falling from a height of 38 cms. The quantity
of finer material (passing through 2.36 mm) resulting from pounding will indicate the toughness
of the sample of aggregate. The ratio of the weight of the fines (finer than 2.36 mm size) formed,
to the weight of the total sample taken is expressed as a percentage. This is known as aggregate
impact value IS 283-1970 specifies that aggregate impact value shall not exceed 45 per cent by
weight for aggregate used for concrete other than wearing surface and 30 per cent by weight, for
concrete for wearing surfaces, such as run ways, roads and pavements.
Aggregate Abrasion Value
Resistance to wear is an important test for aggregate to be used for road constructions, ware
house floors and pavement construction. Three tests are in common use to test aggregate for its
abrasion resistance.
 Deval attrition test
 Dorry abrasion test
 Los Angels test.

Deval attrition test

In the Deval attrition test, particles of known weight are subjected to wear in an iron
cylinder rotated 10000 times at certain speed. The proportion of material crushed finer than 1.7
mm size is expressed as a percentage of the original material taken. This percentage is taken as
the attrition value of the aggregate.
Dorry abrasion test
The test involves in subjecting a cylindrical specimen of 25 cm height and 25 cm
diameter to the abrasion against rotating metal disk sprinkled with quartz sand. The loss in
weight of the cylinder after 1000 revolutions of the table is determined. The hardness of the rock
sample is expressed in an empirical formula

Hardness = 20 –
Good rock should show an abrasion value of not less than 17. A rock sample with a value
of less than 14 would be considered poor.
Los Angels test.
The test involves taking specified quantity of standard size material along with specified
number of abrasive charge in a standard cylinder and revolving if for certain specified
revolutions. The particles smaller than 1.7 mm size is separated out. The loss in weight expressed
as percentage of the original weight taken gives the abrasion value of the aggregate. The abrasion
value should not be more than 30 per cent for wearing surfaces and not more than 50 per cent for
concrete other than wearing surface.
1.7 Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of elasticity of aggregate depends on its composition, texture and structure. The
modulus of elasticity of aggregate will influence the properties of concrete with respect to
shrinkage and elastic behaviour and to very small extent creep of concrete. One of the studies
indicated that the ‘E’ of aggregate has a decided effect on the elastic property of concrete.
1.8 Bulk Density
 The bulk density or unit weight of an aggregate gives valuable information’s regarding
the shape and grading of the aggregate. For a given specific gravity the angular aggregates show
a lower bulk density. The bulk density of aggregate is measured by filling a container of known
volume in a standard manner and weighing it. The higher the bulk density, the lower is the void
content to be filled by sand and cement. The sample which gives the minimum voids or the one
which gives maximum bulk density is taken as the right sample of aggregate for making
economical mix.
1.9 Specific Gravity
In concrete technology, specific gravity of aggregates is made use of in design
calculations of concrete mixes. With the specific gravity of each constituent known, its weight
can be converted into solid volume and hence a theoretical yield of concrete per unit volume can
be calculated. Specific gravity of aggregate is also required in calculating the compacting factor
in connection with the workability measurements. Similarly, specific gravity of aggregate is
required to be considered when we deal with light weight and heavy weight concrete. Average
specific gravity of the rocks vary from 2.6 to 2.8.

1.10 Absorption and Moisture Content

Some of the aggregates are porous and absorptive. Porosity and absorption of aggregate
will affect the water/cement ratio and hence the workability of concrete. The porosity of
aggregate will also affect the durability of concrete when the concrete is subjected to freezing
and thawing.
The water absorption of aggregate is determined by measuring the increase in weight of
an oven dry sample when immersed in water for 24 hours. The ratio of the increase in weight to
the weight of the dry sample expressed as percentage is known as absorption of aggregate.
In case of weigh batching, determination of free moisture content of the aggregate is
necessary and then correction of water/cement ratio to be effected. But when volume batching is
adopted, the determination of moisture content of fine aggregate does not become necessary but
the consequent bulking of sand and correction of volume of sand to give allowance for bulking
becomes necessary.
Bulking of Aggregates
The free moisture content in fine aggregates results in bulking of volume. Free moisture
forms a film around each particle. This film of moisture exerts what is known as surface tension
which keeps the neighboring particles away from it. Similarly, the force exerted by surface
tension keeps every particle away from each other. Therefore, no point contact is possible
between the particles. This causes bulking of the volume.
The bulking increases with the increase in moisture content upto a certain limit and
beyond that the further increase in the moisture content results in the decrease in the volume and
at a moisture content representing saturation point, the fine aggregate shows no bulking. Fine
sand bulks more and coarse sand bulks less. Extremely fine sand and particularly the
manufactured fine aggregate bulks as much as about 40 per cent.
Measurement of Moisture Content of Aggregates
 Drying Method
 Displacement Method
 Calcium Carbide Method
 Measurement by electrical meter.
 Automatic measurement
1.11 Cleanliness
The concrete aggregates should be free from impurities and deletrious substances which
are likely to interfere with the process of hydration, prevention of effective bond between the
aggregates and matrix. The impurities sometimes reduce the durability of the aggregate.
1.12Soundness of Aggregate
Soundness refers to the ability of aggregate to resist excessive changes in volume as a
result of changes in physical conditions. These physical conditions that affect the soundness of
aggregate are the freezing the thawing, variation in temperature, alternate wetting and drying
under normal conditions and wetting and drying in salt water.
1.13Thermal Properties
Rock and aggregate possesses three thermal properties which are significant in establishing
the quality of aggregate for concrete constructions. They are:
 Coefficient of expansion
 Specific heat;
 Thermal conductivity.
1.14Grading of Aggregates
One of the most important factors for producing workable concrete is good gradation of
aggregates. Good grading implies that a sample of aggregates contains all standard fractions of
aggregate in required proportion such that the sample contains minimum voids. A sample of the
well graded aggregate containing minimum voids will require minimum paste to fill up the voids
in the aggregates.
Sieve Analysis
This is the name given to the operation of dividing a sample of aggregate into various
fractions each consisting of particles of the same size. The sieve analysis is conducted to
determine the particle size distribution in a sample of aggregate, which we call gradation.
Grading pattern of a sample of C.A. or F.A. is assessed by sieving a sample successively
through all the sieves mounted one over the other in order of size, with larger sieve on the top.
The material retained on each sieve after shaking, represents the fraction of aggregate coarser
than the sieve in question and finer than the sieve above. From the sieve analysis the particle size
distribution in a sample of aggregate is found out. In this connection a term known as “Fineness
Modulus” (F.M.) is being used. F.M. is a ready index of coarseness or fineness of the material.
Fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by adding the cumulative percentages of
aggregate retained on each of the standard sieves ranging from 80 mm to 150 micron and
dividing this sum by an arbitrary number 100.
The following limits may be taken as guidance:
Fine sand Fineness Modulus 2.2 - 2.6
Medium sand Fineness Modulus 2.6 - 2.9
Coarse sand Fineness Modulus 2.9 - 3.2

Sand having a fineness modulus more than 3.2 will be unsuitable for making satisfactory
concrete.

Q 1 . The Effect of Aggregate Properties on Concrete

Concrete is a mixture of cementious material, aggregate, and water. Aggregate is

commonly considered inert filler, which accounts for 60 to 80 percent of the volume and 70 to 85
percent of the weight of concrete. Although aggregate is considered inert filler, it is a necessary
component that defines the concrete’s thermal and elastic properties and dimensional stability.
Aggregate is classified as two different types, coarse and fine. Coarse aggregate is usually
greater than 4.75 mm (retained on a No. 4 sieve), while fine aggregate is less than 4.75 mm
(passing the No. 4 sieve). The compressive aggregate strength is an important factor in the
selection of aggregate. When determining the strength of normal concrete, most concrete
aggregates are several times stronger than the other components in concrete and therefore not a
factor in the strength of normal strength concrete. Lightweight aggregate concrete may be more
influenced by the compressive strength of the aggregates.

Other physical and mineralogical properties of aggregate must be known before mixing concrete
to obtain a desirable mixture. These properties include shape and texture, size gradation,
moisture content, specific gravity, reactivity, soundness and bulk unit weight. These properties
along with the water/cementitious material ratio determine the strength, workability,
and durability of concrete.

The shape and texture of aggregate affects the properties of fresh concrete more than
hardened concrete. Concrete is more workable when smooth and rounded aggregate is used
instead of rough angular or elongated aggregate. Most natural sands and gravel from riverbeds or
seashores are smooth and rounded and are excellent aggregates. Crushed stone produces much
more angular and elongated aggregates, which have a higher surface-to-volume ratio, better bond
characteristics but require more cement paste to produce a workable mixture.

The surface texture of aggregate can be either smooth or rough. A smooth surface can
improve workability, yet a rougher surface generates a stronger bond between the paste and the
aggregate creating a higher strength.

The grading or size distribution of aggregate is an important characteristic because it

determines the paste requirement for workable concrete. This paste requirement is the factor
controlling the cost, since cement is the most expensive component. It is therefore desirable to
minimize the amount of paste consistent with the production of concrete that can be handled,
compacted, and finished while providing the necessary strength and durability. The required
amount of cement paste is dependent upon the amount of void space that must be filled and the
total surface area that must be covered. When the particles are of uniform size the spacing is the
greatest, but when a range of sizes is used the void spaces are filled and the paste requirement is
lowered. The more these voids are filled, the less workable the concrete becomes, therefore, a
compromise between workability and economy is necessary.

The moisture content of an aggregate is an important factor when developing the proper
water/cementitious material ratio. All aggregates contain some moisture based on the porosity of
the particles and the moisture condition of the storage area. The moisture content can range from
less than one percent in gravel to up to 40 percent in very porous sandstone and expanded shale.
Aggregate can be found in four different moisture states that include oven-dry (OD), air-dry
(AD), saturated-surface dry (SSD) and wet. Of these four states, only OD and SSD correspond to
a specific moisture state and can be used as reference states for calculating moisture content. In
order to calculate the quantity of water that aggregate will either add or subtract to the paste, the
following three quantities must be calculated: absorption capacity, effective absorption, and
surface moisture.

Most stockpiled coarse aggregate is in the AD state with an absorption of less than one
percent, but most fine aggregate is often in the wet state with surface moisture up to five percent.
This surface moisture on the fine aggregate creates a thick film over the surface of the particles
pushing them apart and increasing the apparent volume. This is commonly known as bulking and
can cause significant errors in proportioning volume.

The density of the aggregates is required in mixture proportioning to establish weight-

volume relationships. Specific gravity is easily calculated by determining the densities by the
displacement of water. All aggregates contain some porosity, and the specific gravity value
depends on whether these pores are included in the measurement. There are two terms that are
used to distinguish this measurement; absolute specific gravity and bulk specific gravity.
Absolute specific gravity (ASG) refers to the solid material excluding the pores, and bulk
specific gravity (BSG), sometimes called apparent specific gravity, includes the volume of the
pores. For the purpose of mixture proportioning, it is important to know the space occupied by
the aggregate particles, including the pores within the particles. The BSG of an aggregate is not
directly related to its performance in concrete, although, the specification of BSG is often done
to meet minimum density requirements.

For mixture proportioning, the bulk unit weight (a.k.a. bulk density) is required. The bulk
density measures the volume that the graded aggregate will occupy in concrete, including the
solid aggregate particles and the voids between them. Since the weight of the aggregate is
dependent on the moisture content of the aggregate, a constant moisture content is required. This
is achieved by using OD aggregate. Additionally, the bulk density is required for the volume
method of mixture proportioning.

The most common classification of aggregates on the basis of bulk specific gravity is
lightweight, normal-weight, and heavyweight aggregates. In normal concrete the aggregate
weighs 1,520 – 1,680 kg/m3, but occasionally designs require either lightweight or heavyweight
concrete. Lightweight concrete contains aggregate that is natural or synthetic which weighs less
than 1,100 kg/m3and heavyweight concrete contains aggregates that are natural or synthetic
which weigh more than 2080 kg/m3.

Although aggregates are most commonly known to be inert filler in concrete, the
different properties of aggregate have a large impact on the strength, durability, workability, and
economy of concrete. These different properties of aggregate allow designers and contractors the
most flexibility to meet their design and construction requirements.

Q 2. Artificial aggregates

Artificial aggregates are made out of various waste materials. Artificial aggregates are
sometimes produced for special purposes:

- for making lightweight concrete: burned clays, artificial cinders, foamed slag, expanded
shales and slate, sintered fly ash exfoliated vermiculite are used

- for making heavy- weight concrete: steel rivet punchings and iron ore (Magentite) have
been used.

Q 3. Method of Production Artificial Aggregate

Basically, production of artificial aggregate is using the same principle which is mixing
of raw materials, agglomeration, hardening or binding of the particles and then further
processing like curing and sintering. Desire size of artificial aggregate is obtained according to
the application by agglomerate any raw waste materials during the production process of
artificial aggregate. A process such as sintering, autoclaving and cold bonding are the general 3
methods to produce artificial aggregate after the mixing of raw materials, agglomeration,
hardening or binding of the particles.

1) Sintering

Previous research had used the sintering method for producing lightweight aggregate in a
furnace up until 1000 degree C – 1200 degree C to fuse particles at the points of mutual contact.
The raw materials usually are pelletizing by mixing with 20 – 30 % water as a binding agent to
get the desire and consistency size and dried at 1100 C. There are different types of palletizer
machine that can be used during the agglomeration process by granulation, such as disc or pan
type, drum type, cone type and mixer type. The plate revolution speeds during pelletize process
using rotating disk are also affecting the physical and mechanical properties of the aggregates.
The sintering method required high energy, but has high engineering properties depending on
agglomerated material properties and process efficiency. There are also fly ash aggregate that
using the 2 steps of thermal treatment where the first at 750 dgree C for 10 -15 minutes and
second the expansion step at 1150 degree C1175 degree C for 10-15 minutes. The two-step of
high heat treatment give more porous and property similar to commercial lightweight aggregate
compared to one step of heat treatment.

2) Autoclaving.
 The autoclaving process is where the chemical such as the cement and lime or gypsum
are mixed with the source material in agglomeration stage. After that, the sample area exposed to
the autoclaving or cure in pressurized saturated steam at a temperature of 140 degree C for
several hours.

3) Cold Bonding

Meanwhile, the cold bonding method is normal water curing at ambient temperature to
bonding the mixing material. The bonding achieved from this method are more rigid and higher
drying shrinkage. The disadvantages of this method can be overcome by using compaction
during agglomeration techniques. The compaction agglomeration technique is by using uni-
directional piston type compaction, roll pressing, extrusion and pellet mills.

4) Geopolymer.

There also researcher to implement geopolymerisation process bonding during

agglomeration by granulation of manufactured aggregates. Geopolimerisation is an inorganic
polycondensation reaction which is yielding three-dimensional zeolitic framework to produce
geopolymer cement. The hardening mechanism of geopolymeration process is when the
aluminium and silicate oxides in any raw material react with alkali polysilicates. The physical
and mechanical properties of the geopolymer artificial aggregate are also affected by the
molarities and quantity of the alkaline activator use. The geopolymer fly ash shows an increase
in strength after exposing to 1000 degree C. The porosity of the artificial aggregate is decreasing
after the heat treatment is increasing .The source materials also had a huge role in geopolymer
properties according to the reactivity and chemical composition. Lower compressive strength can
be seen in cold bond geopolymer artificial aggregate using only fly ash show compared with the
geopolymer lightweight aggregate blends with ground granulated blast slag and rice husk ash.

Q 4. Recycled aggregates

a) Recycled aggregate is derived from crushing inert construction and demolition waste. It
may be classified as recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) when consisting primarily of
crushed concrete or more general recycled aggregate (RA) when it contains substantial
quantities of materials other than crushed concrete. Currently, only the use of coarse
aggregate derived from construction or demolition waste is recommended for use in new
concrete construction.
b) The characteristic of recycled aggregates could be different by its parent concrete because
the parent concrete was designed for its purposes such as permeable, durable and high
strength concrete
c) Recycling of concrete is a relatively simple process. It involves breaking, removing, and
crushing existing concrete into a material with a specified size and quality. Reinforcing
steel and other embedded items, if any, must be removed, and care must be taken to
prevent contamination by other materials that can be troublesome, such as asphalt, soil
and clay balls, chlorides, glass, gypsum board, sealants, paper, plaster, wood, and roofing
materials.
d) In general, applications of recycled aggregates without any processing include:
  many types of general bulk fills ,
 bank protection,
 base or fill for drainage structures,
 road construction ,
 noise barriers and embankments

e) applications of new concrete with recycled aggregates include:

 pavements, shoulders, median barriers, sidewalks, curbs and gutters

 bridge foundations
 econocrete bases
 bituminous concrete

Q5. What is aggregate sampling?

See the IS code 2430

Cement
Types of Cement
(a) Ordinary Portland Cement
(i ) Ordinary Portland Cement 33 Grade
(ii) Ordinary Portland Cement 43 Grade
(iii ) Ordinary Portland Cement 53 Grade
(b) Rapid Hardening Cement
(c) Extra Rapid Hardening Cement
(d) Sulphate Resisting Cement
(e) Portland Slag Cement
( f ) Quick Setting Cement
( g) Super Sulphated Cement
(h) Low Heat Cement
(j) Portland Pozzolana Cement – (fly ash based)
– (calcined clay based)
(k) Air Entraining Cement
(l) Coloured Cement: White Cement
(m) Hydrophobic Cement
 (n) Masonry Cement
(o) Expansive Cement
(p) Oil Well Cement
(q) Rediset Cement
(r) Concrete Sleeper grade Cement
(s) High Alumina Cement

(t) Very High Strength Cement

(a) Ordinary Portland Cement

The OPC was classified into three grades, namely 33 grade, 43 grade and 53 grade
depending upon the strength of the cement at 28 days when tested as per IS 40311988. If the 28
days strength is not less than 33N/mm2, it is called 33 grade cement, if the strength is not less
than 43N/mm 2 , it is called 43 grade cement, and if the strength is not less then 53 N/mm 2 , it is
called 53 grade cement. But the actual strength obtained by these cements at the factory are
much higher than the BIS specifications.
(b) Rapid Hardening Cement
As the name indicates it develops strength rapidly. Rapid hardening cement develops at
the age of three days, the same strength as that is expected of ordinary Portland cement at seven
days. The rapid rate of development of strength is attributed to the higher fineness of grinding
(specific surface not less than 3250 sq. cm per gram) and higher C3S and lower C2S content.
(c)Extra Rapid Hardening Cement
Extra rapid hardening cement is obtained by inter grinding calcium chloride with rapid
hardening Portland cement. The normal addition of calcium chloride should not exceed 2 per
cent by weight of the rapid hardening cement. It is necessary that the concrete made by using
extra rapid hardening cement should be transported, placed and compacted and finished within
about 20 minutes. It is also necessary that this cement should not be stored for more than a
month.
(d)Sulphate Resisting Cement
To remedy the sulphate attack, the use of cement with low C3A content is found to be
effective. Such cement with low C3 A and comparatively low C4 AF content is known as
Sulphate Resisting Cement. In other words, this cement has a high silicate content. The
specification generally limits the C3 A content to 5 per cent.
(e) Portland slag cement
Portland slag cement is obtained by mixing Portland cement clinker, gypsum and granulated
blast furnace slag in suitable proportions and grinding the mixture to get a thorough and intimate
mixture between the constituents. It may also be manufactured by separately grinding Portland
cement clinker, gypsum and ground granulated blast furnace slag and later mixing them
intimately. The resultant product is cement which has physical properties similar to those of
ordinary Portland cement. In addition, it has low heat of hydration and is relatively better
resistant to chlorides, soils and water containing excessive amount of sulphates or alkali metals,
alumina and iron, as well as, to acidic waters, and therefore, this can be used for marine works
with advantage.
(f) Quick Setting Cement
This cement as the name indicates sets very early. The early setting property is brought
out by reducing the gypsum content at the time of clinker grinding. This cement is required to be
mixed, placed and compacted very early. It is used mostly in under water construction where
pumping is involved.
(g) Super sulphated cement
Super sulphated cement is manufactured by grinding together a mixture of 80-85 percent
granulated slag, 10-15 per cent hard burnt gypsum, and about 5 per cent Portland cement clinker.
The product is ground finer than that of Portland cement. Super-sulphated cement has low heat
of hydration.
(h)Low heat cement
A low-heat evolution is achieved by reducing the contents of C3 S and C3 A which are
the compounds evolving the maximum heat of hydration and increasing C 2 S. A reduction of
temperature will retard the chemical action of hardening and so further restrict the rate of
evolution of heat. The rate of evolution of heat will, therefore, be less and evolution of heat will
extend over a longer period. Therefore, the feature of low-heat cement is a slow rate of gain of
strength. But the ultimate strength of low-heat cement is the same as that of ordinary Portland
cement.
(j) Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC)
Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC) is manufactured by the intergrading of OPC clinker
with 10 to 25 per cent of pozzolanic material (as per the latest amendment, it is 15 to 35%). A
pozzolanic material is essentially a silicious or aluminous material which while in itself
possessing no cementitious properties, which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of
water, react with calcium hydroxide, liberated in the hydration process, at ordinary temperature,
to form compounds possessing cementitious properties.
(k) Air entraining cement
This cement is made by mixing a small amount of an air-entraining agent with ordinary
Portland cement clinker at the time of grinding.
(L) High alumina cement
High alumina cement is obtained by fusing or sintering a mixture, in suitable proportions,
of alumina and calcareous materials and grinding the resultant product to a fine powder. The raw
materials used for the manufacture of high alumina cement are limestone and bauxite.
Chemical Composition
The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consist mainly of lime, silica,
alumina and iron oxide. These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at high temperature to
form more complex compounds. The relative proportions of these oxide compositions are
responsible for influencing the various properties of cement; in addition to rate of cooling and
fineness of grinding.
 Table : Approximate oxide composition limits of ordinary Portland cement

Oxides persent in the raw materials when subjected to high clinkering temperature
combine with each other to form complex compounds. The identification of the major
compounds is largely based on R.H. Bogue’s work and hence it is called “Bogue’s Compounds”.
The four compounds usually regarded as major compounds are listed in table.
  Tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate are the most important compounds responsible
for strength. Together they constitute 70 to 80 per cent of cement.
Properties of Cement

Cement, a popular binding material, is a very important civil engineering material. This
article concerns the physical and chemical properties of cement, as well as the methods to test
cement properties.
Physical Properties of Cement

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their physical

properties. Some key parameters control the quality of cement. The physical properties of good
cement are based on:

 Fineness of cement
 Soundness
 Consistency
 Strength
 Setting time
 Heat of hydration
 Loss of ignition
 Bulk density
 Specific gravity (Relative density)

These physical properties are discussed in details in the following segment. Also, you will find
the test names associated with these physical properties.

 Fineness of Cement

The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement is
achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process. As hydration
rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is very important.
 Tests are Sieve Test and Air Permeability Method
Sieve Test
Weigh correctly 100 grams of cement and take it on a standard IS Sieve No. 9 (90
microns). Break down the air-set lumps in the sample with fingers. Continuously sieve the
sample giving circular and vertical motion for a period of 15 minutes. Mechanical sieving
devices may also be used. Weigh the residue left on the sieve. This weight shall not exceed 10%
for ordinary cement. Sieve test is rarely used.
Air Permeability Method
This method of test covers the procedure for determining the fineness of cement as
represented by specific surface expressed as total surface area in sq. cm/gm. of cement. Lea and
Nurse Air Permeability Appartus used for measuring the specific surface of cement. Fineness can
also be measured by Blain Air Permeability apprartus. This method is more commonly employed
in India.
 Soundness of Cement

Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality cement
retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free
lime and magnesia.

 Tests:Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests for ensuring
soundness must be able to determine that potential.
1. Le Chatelier Test

It consists of a small split cylinder of spring brass or other suitable metal. It is 30 mm in diameter
and 30 mm high. On either side of the split are attached two indicator arms 165 mm long with
pointed ends. Cement is gauged with 0.78 times the water required for standard consistency
(0.78 P), in a standard manner and filled into the mould kept on a glass plate. The mould is
covered on the top with another glass plate. The whole assembly is immersed in water at a
temperature of 27°C– 32°C and kept there for 24 hours. Measure the distance between the
indicator points. Submerge the mould again in water. Heat the water and bring to boiling point in
about 25-30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3 hours. Remove the mould from the water, allow it
to cool and measure the distance between the indicator points. The difference between these two
measurements represents the expansion of cement. This must not exceed 10 mm for ordinary,
rapid hardening and low heat Portland cements. If in case the expansion is more than 10 mm as
tested above, the cement is said to be unsound. The Le Chatelier test detects unsoundness due to
free lime only
2. Autoclave Test

Cement paste (of normal consistency) is placed in an autoclave (high-pressure steam vessel)
and slowly brought to 2.03 MPa, and then kept there for 3 hours. The change in length of the
specimen (after gradually bringing the autoclave to room temperature and pressure) is measured
and expressed in percentage. The requirement for good quality cement is a maximum of 0.80%
autoclave expansion.

 Consistency of Cement

The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency. It is measured by Vicat Test.

In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat Apparatus. The plunger
of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top surface of the cement. The plunger will
penetrate the cement up to a certain depth depending on the consistency. Cement is said to have a
normal consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.

 Strength of Cement

Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural.
Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio,
curing conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading
conditions and age. While testing the strength, the following should be considered:

Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related. Cement
strength is merely a quality control measure. The tests of strength are performed on cement
mortar mix, not on cement paste. Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of
performing the test should be mentioned.

1.Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of hardened cement is the most important of all the properties.
Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because of difficulties of excessive shrinkage
and subsequent cracking of neat cement. Strength of cement is indirectly found on cement sand
mortar in specific proportions. Take 555 gms of standard sand (Ennore sand), 185 gms of cement
( i.e., ratio of cement to sand is 1:3) in a non-porous enamel tray and mix them with a trowel for
one minute, then add water of quantity /4 + 3.0 per cent of combined weight of cement and
sand and mix the three ingredients thoroughly until the mixture is of uniform colour. The time of
mixing should not be less than 3 minutes nor more than 4 minutes. Immediately after mixing, the
mortar is filled into a cube mould of size 7.06 cm. The area of the face of the cube will be equal
to 50 sq cm. Compact the mortar either by hand compaction in a standard specified manner or on
the vibrating equipment (12000 RPM) for 2 minutes.
Keep the compacted cube in the mould at a temperature of 27°C ± 2°C and at least 90 per
cent relative humidity for 24 hours. After 24 hours the cubes are removed from the mould and
immersed in clean fresh water until taken out for testing. Three cubes are tested for compressive
strength.
2.Tensile strength

Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production, now it
does not offer any useful information about the properties of cement.

3.Flexural strength

This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a 40 x40 x
160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until failure.

 Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on multiple
factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and admixtures.
Cement used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low and a final
setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30-45 minutes)

Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs below 10 hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

standard consistency test

For finding out initial setting time, final setting time and soundness of cement, and
strength a parameter known as standard consistency has to be used. The standard consistency of
a cement paste is defined as that consistency which will permit a Vicat plunger having 10 mm
diameter and 50 mm length to penetrate to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top of the mould. The
appartus is called Vicat Appartus.
 Take about 500 gms of cement and prepare a paste with a weighed quantity of water (say
24 per cent by weight of cement) for the first trial. The paste must be prepared in a standard
manner and filled into the Vicat mould within 3-5 minutes. After completely filling the mould,
shake the mould to expel air. A standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm long is attached and
brought down to touch the surface of the paste in the test block and quickly released allowing it
to sink into the paste by its own weight. Take the reading by noting the depth of penetration of
the plunger. Conduct a 2nd trial (say with 25 per cent of water) and find out the depth of
penetration of plunger. Similarly, conduct trials with higher and higher water/cement ratios till
such time the plunger penetrates for a depth of 33-35 mm from the top. That particular
percentage of water which allows the plunger to penetrate only to a depth of 33-35 mm from the
top is known as the percentage of water required to produce a cement paste of standard
consistency. This percentage is usually denoted as ‘ P’. The test is required to be conducted in a
constant temperature (27° + 2°C) and constant humidity (90%).
Setting Time Test

Take 500 gm. of cement sample and guage it with 0.85 times the water required to
produce cement paste of standard consistency (0.85 P). The paste shall be gauged and filled into
the Vicat mould in specified manner within 3-5 minutes. Start the stop watch the moment water
is added to the cement. The temperature of water and that of the test room, at the time of gauging
shall be within 27°C ± 2°C.
Initial Setting Time
Lower the needle (C) gently and bring it in contact with the surface of the test block and
quickly release. Allow it to penetrate into the test block. In the beginning, the needle will
completely pierce through the test block. But after some time when the paste starts losing its
plasticity, the needly may penetrate only to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top. The period
elapsing between the time when water is added to the cement and the time at which the needle
penetrates the test block to a depth equal to 33-35 mm from the top is taken as initial setting
time.
Final Setting Time
Replace the needle (C) of the Vicat appartus by a circular attachment. The cement shall
be considered as finally set when, upon, lowering the attachment gently cover the surface of the
test block, the centre needle makes an impression, while the circular cutting edge of the
attachment fails to do so. In other words the paste has attained such hardness that the centre
needle does not pierce through the paste more than 0.5 mm.
 Heat of Hydration

When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration.
Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in
maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation is
high, especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of hydration is
affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by water-cement ratio, fineness and
curing temperature. The heat of hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining the
difference between the dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these at 7th
and 28th days).

 Loss of Ignition

Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is obtained) causes
weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and
prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration and
carbonation, both of which might be indicated by increased loss of ignition.

 Bulk density

When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would normally be
air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement has a varying
range of density depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of cement may
be anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.

 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement has
a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag
and portland-pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.

Chemical Properties of Cement

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon),
bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace
slag, slate. Chemical analysis of cement raw materials provides insight into the chemical
properties of cement.

 Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces the hydration of
C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the early stages of hydration. C3A does not provide any
more than a little amount of strength.

 Tricalcium silicate (C3S)

C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is responsible for the cement’s early
strength gain an initial setting.
  Dicalcium silicate (C2S)

As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early strength gain, dicalcium silicate in
cement helps the strength gain after one week.

 Ferrite (C4AF)

Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the raw materials in the kiln
from 3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly, it does not contribute much to the strength
of the cement.

 Magnesia (MgO)

The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw material in dry process
plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make the cement unsound and expansive, but a little
amount of it can add strength to the cement. Production of MgO-based cement also causes less
CO2 emission. All cement is limited to a content of 6% MgO.

 Sulphur trioxide

Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.

 Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide

Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is mainly responsible for the
color of the cement.

 Alkalis

The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O) determine the alkali content
of the cement. Cement containing large amounts of alkali can cause some difficulty in regulating
the setting time of cement. Low alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride in concrete, can
cause discoloration. In slag-lime cement, ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on
its own but is "activated" by addition of alkalis. There is an optional limit in total alkali content
of 0.60%, calculated by the equation Na2O + 0.658 K2O.

 Free lime

Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.

 Silica fumes

Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of properties, especially
compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond strength. Though setting time is prolonged by
the addition of silica fume, it can grant exceptionally high strength. Hence, Portland cement
containing 5-20% silica fume is usually produced for Portland cement projects that require high
strength.

 Alumina

Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid temperatures since alumina is
chemical-resistant. It also quickens the setting but weakens the cement.

Hydration of Cement
Anhydrous cement does not bind fine and coarse aggregate. It acquires adhesive property only
when mixed with water. The chemical reactions that take place between cement and water is
referred as hydration of cement. The quality, quantity, continuity, stability and the rate of
formation of the hydration products are important. Anhydrous cement compounds when mixed
with water, react with each other to form hydrated compounds of very low solubility. The
hydration of cement can be visualized in two ways. The first is “through solution” mechanism. In
this the cement compounds dissolve to produce a supersaturated solution from which different
hydrated products get precipitated. The second possibility is that water attacks cement
compounds in the solid state converting the compounds into hydrated products starting from the
surface and proceeding to the interior of the compounds with time.

The reaction of cement with water is exothermic. The reaction liberates a considerable
quantity of heat. This liberation of heat is called heat of hydration.
On mixing cement with water, a rapid heat evolution, lasting a few minutes, occurs. This
heat evolution is probably due to the reaction of solution of aluminates and sulphates. This initial
heat evolution ceases quickly when the solubility of aluminate is depressed by gypsum. Next
heat evolution is on account of formation of ettringite and also may be due to the reaction of
C3S.
The hydration process is not an instantaneous one. The reaction is faster in the early
period and continues idenfinitely at a decreasing rate. Complete hydration cannot be obtained
under a period of one year or more unless the cement is very finely ground and reground with
excess of water to expose fresh surfaces at intervals.
Calcium Silicate Hydrates
During the course of reaction of C3S and C2S with water, calcium silicate hydrate,
abbreviated C-S-H and calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 are formed. Calcium silicate hydrates are
the most important products. It is the essence that determines the good properties of concrete.
It makes up 50-60 per cent of the volume of solids in a completely hydrated cement
paste. The fact that term C-S-H is hyphenated signifies that C-S-H is not a well defined
compound. The morphology of C-S-H shows a poorly crystalline fibrous mass.
The following are the approximate equations showing the reactions of C3S and C2S with water.
C3S readily reacts with water and produces more heat of hydration. It is responsible for early
strength of concrete. A cement with more C3S content is better for cold weather concreting. The
quality and density of calcium silicate hydrate formed out of C3S is slightly inferior to that
formed by C2S. The early strength of concrete is due to C3S. C2 S hydrates rather slowly. It is
responsible for the later strength of concrete. It produces less heat of hydration. The calcium
silicate hydrate formed is rather dense and its specific surface is higher. In general, the quality of
the proudct of hydration of C2S is better than that produced in the hydration of C3S.
Calcium Hydroxide
The other products of hydration of C3S and C2S is calcium hydroxide. In contrast to the C-S-H,
the calcium hydroxide is a compound with a distinctive hexagonal prism morphology. It
constitutes 20 to 25 per cent of the volume of solids in the hydrated paste. The lack of durability
of concrete, is on account of the presence of calcium hydroxide. The calcium hydroxide also
reacts with sulphates present in soils or water to form calcium sulphate which further reacts with
C3 A and cause deterioration of concrete. This is known as sulphate attack.
The only advantage is that Ca(OH)2, being alkaline in nature maintain pH value around
13 in the concrete which resists the corrosion of reinforcements.
Blended cement
Blended cement can be defined as uniform mix of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and
blending materials such as silica fumes, fly ash, limestone and slag to enhance its properties for
different uses. Blended cement can improve workability, strength, durability and chemical
resistance of concrete.

Characteristics of Blended Cement

The enhanced properties that are obtained due to blending of cement with different
materials are,

 Improved workability and pumpability.

 Reduced water demand
 Enhanced bleed control
 Lower drying shrinkage and creep
 Improved resistance to sulphate attack and chloride penetration
 Reduced potential for Alkali Aggregate Reaction

Types of Blended Cement

The classification of blended cement is based in the type of blending material used in the cement.

 Portland-Slag Cement

Blends containing up to 70% slag cement are used for general construction.

 Portland-Pozzolan Cement

Used for general construction, this blend can contain up to 50% pozzolan. Fly ash is the most
common pozzolan used in blended cement.

 Portland-Limestone Cement

Portland-limestone cement contains between 5% and 15% percent interground limestone.

 Ternary Blended Cement

Ternary cements are blends two complementary supplementary materials such as fly ash, slag
cement or silica fume.

Advantages of Blended Cement

 It provides a finer texture than OPC when mixed and placed. So it can be used for
finishing and elevation works.
 Water consumption is less which makes it easy to work with and shape.
 The strength gained after 28 days is significantly stronger than OPC, in both compressive
and flexural stress.
  The permeability of blended concrete is low, due to which the life of concrete is extended
by reducing penetration of aggressive water run-off compounds such as sulfates and
chlorides when compared to ordinary cement.
 Cracks occurred due to thermal stress by variation of temperature is reduced by the use of
blended cement.
 Reduced problems realted to Alkali-Silica Reaction by using a mix of blended cement as
either silica fume and slag, or silica fume and fly ash.
 Blending material used are industrial by products, the used of these industrial by product
reduces the use of natural resources such as limestone, silica and clay.

Uses of Blended Cement

 Blended cement makes it an ideal choice for a wide range of applications such as,
 Domestic construction
 Major engineering project.
 Pre-cast concrete where high durability and off-form finish are required
 Stabilisation including pavement recycling for road construction
 Mining applications
 Specialist formulations such as adhesives, renders, mortars and grouts