Академический Документы
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1. Introduction
2. Sphere Gap
3. Electrostatic Voltmeter
4. Generating Voltmeter
5. The Chubb-fortescue Method
6. Voltage Dividers
7. High Current Measurement
INTRODUCTION
Problems in measurement of high voltages and
currents:
The equipments have large stray capacitances and
hence large voltage gradients are set up. A person
handling these equipments must be protected
against these over voltages.
large structures are required to control the
electrical fields. These structures may require to
control heat dissipation within the circuits.
Electromagnetic fields for impulse voltages and
currents should be minimized
SPHERE GAP
One of the standard methods for the measurement of
peak value of d.c., a.c. and impulse voltages.
Two identical metallic spheres separated by certain
distance form a sphere gap where the gap length should
not exceed a sphere radius.
the results obtained by the use of sphere gaps are
reliable to within ±3%.
in places with low ultraviolet radiation, irradiation of the
gap should be used for voltages less than 50 kV or
where accurate results are to be obtained. (to reduce
statistical time-lag)
CONT…
Specifications:
The surfaces must be smooth and their curvatures as
uniform as possible.
The curvature should be measured by a spherometer
over an area enclosed by a circle of radius 0.3 D about
the sparking point (D is the diameter of the sphere).
For smaller size, the spheres are placed in horizontal
configuration and for large sizes in vertical
configuration with the lower sphere grounded.
The space between spheres must be free from external
electric fields.
S
CONT…
The distance of the sparking point from any conducting
surface except the shanks should be greater than 25 +
V/3 cms
The spheres should be free from grease films, dust or
deposited moisture. Also, the gap should be free from
dust particles, fibers etc.
Protective resistors are used to limit the discharge
current and to prevent high frequency oscillations
which may otherwise result in excessive pitting of the
spheres.
For power frequency tests, a value of 1Ω/V should be used.
For higher frequencies, the voltage drop would increase and it
is necessary to have a smaller value of the resistance.
For impulse voltage the protective resistors are not required.
CONT…
For S>0.5 D, the results are less accurate
and are shown in red.
Advantages:
Extremely low loading effect limited only to the
reactive power required to charge the capacitance
(a few PFs)
Does not put any upper limit on the frequency of
supply to be measured. But there is a limit in the
range due to resonance. For low range voltmeters,
the upper frequency is generally limited to a few
MHz.
Schematic diagram of electrostatic voltmeter
D
E
C
Metal dome E
Sensitive balance D
A
Suspended plate A G
Fixed plate B
Guard plate C B
Guard rings H
Capacitance divider G
C= εA/d motor
plates of a capacitor
and D3 changes.
D3 D2 D1 Do
CONT…
Since i=dq/dt and q=CV i= VdC/dt+CdV/dt
for DC i=VdC/dt
If the capacitance varying is sinusoidal:
C=Co+Cm Sin ωt i=Imax cos ω t
Where Imax=V Cm ω = k V
If the capacitance varying is triangular:
dC/dt = ±2 Cm/ Tc I= ±2 V Cm/ Tc
For a constant speed of n rpm of synchronous
motor, time Tc is given by Tc = 60/n. Then:
I= [n/30] Cm V
CONT…
Generally the current is rectified and measured by
a moving coil meter.
For AC, motor frequency (ω) must be equal or half
the frequency of the measured voltage.
Thus a four-pole synchronous motor with 1500
rpm is suitable for 50 Hz.
The meter scale is linear and can be extrapolated
The sensitivity can be increased by increasing the
area of the pick up electrode and by using
amplifier circuits.
Disadvantage of the meter is that they require
calibration and construction is quite cumbersome
EXAMPLE
Sol:
Imax=V Cm ω
= 2*10-6*21/2=15000 Cm*1500*2π/60
Cm=1.2 pF
2*250/15= 33.3 μA
MEASURMENT OF PEAK VOLTAGE
Opamp and other electronic circuits have
replaced the conventional passive circuits.
However, passive circuits (when designed
properly) provide simplicity and adequate
accuracy. Compared with sophisticated
electronic instruments, passive circuits are
cheap, reliable and have a high order of
electromagnetic compatibility. Example of such
circuits are :
Chubb – Fortescue method
Peak Voltmeters with Potential Dividers
THE CHUBB-FORTESCUE METHOD
|I|=V/Xc=(Vm/π)*(2 π fC)=Vm 2 f C
Rd Cs C2 Cs Rd
C1
EXAMPLE Rd Cs C2 Cs Rd
R=150/10-5 =15MΩ
RC=9s C=0.6µF
Error at 50 Hz is 1%
Residual inductance
Stray capacitance
Leads impedance
Testing classification:
Destructive
Breakdown strength
Non- destructive
R, partial discharge, loss factor, dielectric constant.
VOLTAGE DIVIDER
Classification:
Resistive
Bestfor measuring DC voltage (MΩ), and lightning
impulse wave shape (k Ω).
Capacitive
Best for measuring AC voltages and switching impulses.
Damped capacitive:
Best for measuring switching and lightning impulses.
Dividers with capacitors cannot be used for DC
measurements.
CONT…
Inductors are normally not used as voltage
dividing elements as pure inductances of
proper magnitudes without stray capacitance
cannot be built.
For voltages in the megavolt range, the height
of the divider becomes large (2.5 to 5 m/MV)
especially Z1 which endure most of the voltage.
This result in inaccuracy due to stray capacitances
(especially with impulse voltage) unless special
precautions are taken.
RESISTANCE POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
Advantages: simplicity of construction, less space
requirements, less weight and easy portability.
The length depend on the maximum voltage and
the resistance R required which is bound up with
the stray capacitance C.
When used for impulse measurement, the value RC
must not exceed the wave front time of measured
voltage.
It is desirable to enclose the low voltage resistance
of the potential dividers in a metal screening box.
CONT…
V1
R1
R3 Z
V2
R2
CRO
R1
R3 Z
V2
R2
CRO
R1
R3 Z
V2
R2
CRO
𝑍𝑒𝑞 𝑍
𝑉1 × ×2
𝑅1 + 𝑍𝑒𝑞 𝑅3 + 𝑍
𝑅2
Since Zeq≈ R2 and Z ≈ R3 Vout ≈ 𝑉1
𝑅1+𝑅2
Since the voltage at the end of the line now is
greater the wave will get reflected.
When this reflected wave return to R2 it will get
absorbed completely as Z = R2 + R3. (This is
why R3 is there)
For V> 100 kV:
R1 is large It is made of sections.
Has to be considered as an equivalent
distributed network with its stray capacitances as
shown:
The output for a step input.
intersectional series
capacitances
terminal to ground
capacitances
μs
step response
This type of divider produces:
A non-linear voltage distribution
Acts like an RC filter for applied voltages
To reduce the distortion and get faster
response:
Add guard rings.
Adding capacitive field distribution.
CONT…
V1
R1
R3 Z
V2
Z4
R2
CRO
𝑅2
Recorded voltage is: 𝑉1
2(𝑅1+𝑅2)
V1 V1
R1 R1
R3 Z R3 Z
V2 V2
R2 R2 Z4
CRO CRO
A B
C1 C1
Z Z3 Z
Z3
V2 V2
Z4
C2 C2
CRO CRO
A B
R1
Z3 Z
V2
C2
R2