Univalent Functions and Conformal Mapping

ERGEBNISSE DER MATHEMATIK
UND IHRER GRENZGEBIETE

UNTER MITWIRKUNG DER SCHRIFTLEITUNG DES
"ZENTRALBLATT FÜR MATHEMATIK"
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON
L.V.AHLFORS · R.BAER· R.COURANT· J.L.DOOB· S.EILENBERG
P.R. HALMOS · M. KNESER · T. NAKAYAMA· H. RADEMACHER
F. K. SCHMIDT· B. SEG RE· E. SPERNER
======NEUE FOLGE· HEFT 18 ======
REIHE:
MODERNE
FUNKTIONENTHEORIE
BESORGT
VON
L.V.AHLFORS
SPRINGER-VERLAG BERLIN HEIDELBERG GMBH

1958
UNIVALENT FUNCTIONS
AND CONFORMAL MAPPING
BY
JAMES A.JENKINS
WITH 6 FIGURES
SPRINGER-VERLAG BERLIN HEIDELBERG GMBH

1958
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1958
Originally published by Springer-Verlag, oHG. Berlin Göttingen Heidelberg in 1958
ISBN 978-3-662-34177-3 ISBN 978-3-662-34447-7 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-34447-7
BRÜHLSCHE UNIVERSITÄTSDRUCKEREI GIESSEN

TO MY PAREN TS
Preface
This monograph deals with the application of the method of the
extremal metric to the theory of univalent functions. Apart from an
introductory chapter in which a 'brief survey of the development of this
theory is given there is therefore no attempt to follow up other methods
of treatment. Nevertheless such is the power of the present method that
it is possible to include the great majority of known results on univalent
functions. It should be mentioned also that the discussion ofthe method
of the extremal metric is directed toward its application to univalent
functions, there being no space to present its numerous other applications,
particularly to questions of quasiconformal mapping. Also it should be
said that there has been no attempt to provide an exhaustive biblio-
graphy, reference normally being confined to those sources actually
quoted in the text.
The central theme of our work is the General Coefficient Theorem
which contains as special cases a great many of the known results on
univalent functions. In a final chapter we give also a nurober of appli-
cations of the method of symmetrization.
At the time of writing of this monograph the author has been re-
ceiving support from the National Science Foundation for which he wishes
to express his gratitude. His thanks are due also to Sister BAREARA
ANN Foos for the use of notes taken at the author's lectures in Geo-
metrie Function Theory at the University of Notre Dame in 1955-1956.
Notre Dame, June 1957 ]AMES A. ]ENKINS

'fable of Contents
.T. I ntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic definitions. Classical results. Special families. Method of PRAWITZ.
, Method of LöwNER. Method of the extremal metric. Method of contour
integration. Variational method. Multivalent functions. Symmetrization
II. Modulesand Extremal Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fundamental definitions. Basic properties of modules. Some special
modules. Uniqueness Iemmas. GRöTzscH's Iemmas. Reduced module.
Generalizations. An application
III. Quadratic Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Definitions. Local structure of the traj«:lctories. Global structure of the
trajectories on a finite oriented RIEMANN surface. The Three Pole
Theorem
IV. The General Coefficient Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Definitions. Statement of the General Coefficient Theorem. Differential-
geometrie Iemmas. Construction of special subsurface. Estimation of the
area of its image from above and below. Proof of the fundamental
inequality. Discussion of the possibility of equality. Extended Theorem
V. Canonical Gonformal Mappings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Circular, radial and spiral slit mappings. Parallel slit mappings. Para-
bolic, elliptic and hyperbolic slit mappings. Domains of infinite con-
nectivity
VI. Applications of the General Coefficient Theorem. Univalent Functions . 85
Proofs of the classical results and extensions. Diameter theorems.
Regions of values results for functions in 2: (D) and I, their derivatives
and certain coefficients. Regions of values results for functions in Sand
their derivatives. TEICHMÜLLER's coefficient results
VII. Applications of the General Coefficient Theorem. Families of Univalent
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Results on the inner radius for non-overlappiJ:lg domains. New classes
of problems: an example
VIII. Symmetrization. Multivalent Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Definitions. Geometrical results on symmetrization. Relation to
DIRICHLET integrals and modules. Uniqueness results for modules.
Extension to RIEMANN domains. Application to multivalent functions
Bibliography. 160
Author Index 168
Subject Index 169
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 The study of univalent functions to-day consists of the investi-
gation of certain families of functions regular ~r meromorphic and
univalent in prescribed domains which may be simply- or multiply-
connected especially from the aspects of the values which they assume
and extremal problems for their coefficients in power series expansions,
function values and derivatives. These problems are often closely
connected with questions in conformal mapping and indeed in many
cases have arisen from them. For the sake of definiteness we give first
Definition 1.1. Let the lunction I (z) be regular or meromorphic in the
domain D on the z-sphere. Then I (z) is called univalent il lor zv z 2 E D,
z1 i= z2 , we have
I (zl) i= I (z2) .
Some authors use the termschlicht for this concept. We restriet the
use of the latter term to domains (to emphasize the distinction from
RIEMANN domains).
In most of our work no generality is lost in imposing certain normali-
zations on the functions to be treated. Thus we will in general confine
our attention to the following families of functions.
Definition 1.2. Let S denote the lamily ol lunctions I (z) regular and
univalent lor lzl < 1 with I (0) = 0, f' (0) = 1.
Definition 1.3. Let D be a domain on the z-sphere containing the point
at inlinity. Let 1: (D) denote the lamily ol lunctions I (z) meromorphic and
univalent in D with Laurent expansion in the neighborhood ol inlinity
given by
I (z) = z + a0 + ~
a
+ ···+ ~
1 an
+ ···. (
1.1
)
Let };' (D) denote the subclass ol I:(D) consisting ol those lunctions lor
which a0 = 0 in the expansion (1.1). Il D further contains the origin, let
1:0 (D) denote the subclass ol }; (D) consisting ol those lunctions I (z) which
satisly 1(0) = 0. 11 D is in particular the simply-connected domain
lzl > 1 we denote the lirst two clasess simply by }; and I:'.
1.2 What may be regarded as the first actual result in the theory of
univalent functions was obtained in 1907 by KoEBE when he proved the
result [120, p. 204]
I. There exists an absolute positive constant x such that lor I E S the
lunction values w =I (z) for lzl < 1 lill the circle lwl < n where x is the
Zargest value lor which this is true.
Ergebn. d. Mathem. N. F. H. 18, Jenkins
2 I. Introduction
He conjectured that the value of x is actually 1 / 4 . He also proved

[120, p. 204]
II. There exist positive quantities ~ (r), M1 (r) depending only on r
such that lor I E 5, lzl = r
m 1 (r) ~ II (z) I ~ M 1 (r) .
Actually the result I and the lower bound in II are implicitly con-
tained in earlier results of HURWITZ [90] but he does not explicitly refer
to univalent functions as such. The result which first seems to have
attracted strong attention, however, is KoEBE's distortion theorem
which he gave in the form [121, p. 73]
III. There exists a quantity M (r) depending only on r such that lor
I E S, lz1 1, lz21;;;; r
M\r) ~I ~:i::~ I;;;; M(r) ·
This can be rephrased as
IV. There exist positive quantities m2 (r), M 2 (r) depending only on r
such that lor I E 5, lzl ~ r
m 2 (r) ~ lf'(z)l ;;;;M2 (r).
In 1913 PLEMELJ [148] gave in an abstract the explicit expressions
r 1-fzl[k - I I+[z[ }k
\ I+fz[/ ~ (1 - zz) II (z) I;;;; \1-[zf
I
21k-l 1 -(~~::tn~ ll(z)l;;;; {C~:::r- ;k 1l

in each case for f E 5, where k is an absolute constant at most equal to 5.
It was conjectured that its best possible value was 2. Similar results
were obtained by PICK [145] in 1916.
In 1914 GRüNWALL [56] first used the area principle and proved the
Area Theorem.
V. II I EI: and has the expansion (1.1) at inlinity then
.E n lanl 2 ;;;; 1 .
n=l
He studied in that work also various other problems. In 1916 he stated

without proof [57] that the best possible bounds in II and IV are
provided by
mr(r) = (l;r)• ,
l-r
m2 (r) = (1 +r)" '
In the same year BIEBERBACH [16, 17] proved that the true value
of x in I is 1 / 4 , the extremal functions being z(l + ei"'z)- 2 , oc real. From
this the best possible bounds in II and IV are readily deduced. He
proved also the following results on coefficients of functions in 5.
Classical results 3
VI. II I ES and has the power series expansion at the origin
(1.2)
then
equality occurring only lor the lunctions z (1 + ei"' z)- 2 , ()(real.

VII. There exist constants kn depending only on n such that il I ES
and has the power series expansion (1.2) at the origin then
BIEBERBACH also obtained qualitative results on the region of possible

values of the point (A 2 , A3 , ••• , An) in (n- !)-dimensional complex
coordinate space. He conjectured [17, p. 946] that the best possible
value of kn is n.
FABER [33] also obtained the best possible value of the constant in I,
giving at the same time the equivalent diameter theorem for functions
in 1:.
VIII. 11 I E 1: and il the values a and b are not taken by I (z) in JzJ > 1
then
Ja-bJ~4
equality being possible only lor the lunctions z + c + e2 irJ.jz, ()(real, c constant.
Both BIEBERBACH and F ABER used the area principle. I t should be
remarked that BrEBERBACH had used similar considerations earlier in
another connection [15].
In 1919 LöWNER [137] obtained results analogaus to II and IV (in
their sharp forms) for the functions of 1:' and discussed other problems
for this dass.
The same year BIEBERBACH [18] proved the rotation theorem.
IX. 11 I E S then lor JzJ = r
I+r
Jarg f' (z)J ~ 2log -1 - r
where the branch ol arg f' (z) is that taking the value zero at the origin.
However this inequality is not best possible.
SzEGÖ [184, 185] extended the result I by proving
X. Let f E S and let c, c' be values not assumed by I (z) for JzJ < 1 with
arg c' =arg c + n, then
max (JcJ, Jc'J) ~ 1 / 2 ,
equality occurring only lor the functions z (1 + eiO z 2 ) -l, () real.
Various authors gave explicit sequences of numbers admissible as
bounds in VII (although certainly not the best possible) but LrTTLE-
WOOD [134] was the first to give a sequence of bounds having the correct
order of magnitude.
!*
4 I. Introduction
XI. II I E 5 and has the power series expansion (1.2) at the origin then
IAnl < e n , n = 1, 2, ....

By a refinement of LITTLEwoon's technique LANDAU [131] proved
XII. Il kn denotes the best possible bound in VII
---k
lim __r:_ < -
n
(1 + -:n1) e .
2
n-..oo
While there have been any nurober of alternate proofs, modifications

and reformulations of the preceding results they constitute essentially
the body of facts which have up to the present been found accessible
to the dassical elementary methods in the theory of univalent functions.
To proceed further it has been found necessary to do one of two things:
either to restriet consideration to certain subdasses of the families
treated here or to develop more powerful methods applicable to the full
families.
1.3 The first special subdass of 5 to be treated was that of convex
functions introduced by STUDY [181]. These are functions which map
Jz) < 1 onto convex domains. They were studied also by GRONWALL[57,
58], LöwNER [136] and others. Next to be considered was the dass of
starlike functions first treated by ALEXANDER [6] and later by NEVAN-
LINNA [143] and others. These functions map lzl < 1 onto a domain
star-shaped with respect to the origin. PrcK [146] began the study of the
subdass of functions I (z) in S which satisfy the uniform bound I/ (z) I ~ M.
For these classes of functions bounds similar to those of § 1.1 were
obtained, the results in many cases being more restrictive than those for
the full dass 5. Perhaps the most striking of these results isthat due to
NEVANLINNA [143].
XIII. If the starlike lunction I E 5 has the power series expansion (1.2)
at the origin then
equality occurring only lor the lunctions z(1 + eirxz)- 2 , rx real.

The same bounds were proved to hold for functions in S for which the
coefficients An are real by DIEUDONNE [30], RoGOSINSKI [159] and
SzAsz [182]. Equality can then occur only for the functions z(1 ± z)- 2 •
RoGOSINSKI treated the larger dass of typically real functions.
Other authors have treated those subclasses of functions in S which
map lzl < 1 onto domains which have certain rotational symmetries
with respect to the origin. In particular LITTLEWOOD and PALEY [135]
proved
XIV. If f E 5, is odd and has the power series expansion at the origin
f(z) = z + A 3 z3 + A 5 z 5+ · · · + A 2n+I zZn+l+ • • · (1.3)

Method of PRAWITZ 5
there exists a constant K independent of I and n such that

IA2n+1! ~ K, n = 0, 1, 2, ....
These authors conjectured that the best possible value of K was 1
but this was shown incorrect by FEKETE and SzEGÖ who proved [36]
XV. Under the conditions of XIV
3
_2
!As!~ 1 /2+e
this bound being best possible.
Over the years numerous other special subclasses of functions in 5
have been considered. In many cases their definitions lead at once to
certain analytic conditions from which the desired properties can be
fairly easily deduced. There have also been studied similar subclasses
of functions of L. We will not pursue these questions further in the
present work.
1.4 Of the more powerful methods developed to treat the theory of
univalent functions the closest in spirit to the elementary methods is
that of FRAWITZ [155]. It is essentially a generalization of the area
principle. While it has not of itself produced directly many explicit
solutions of problems on univalent functions both PRAWITz's method
and his explicit theorems have proved most useful as auxiliary tools.
Several results obtained by this method are [46, 100]
X VI. I f f E L and has the expansion ( 1.1) at infinity then
!a2! ~ 2 /a
equality occurring only for the functions z (1 + ei 8 z-3)"+ c, c constant,
2
() real.
If f E };' and its inverse function (jj (w) has expansion in the neighborhood
of injinity
b1
w + -w
bn
(jj (w) = + · · · + ---
wn + · · ·
then
lbal ~ 1
equality occurring only for the functions I (z) = z + eiajz, oc real.
Chronologically the first of the deeper methods to be applied in the
theory of univalent functions was the parametric method due to Löw-
NER [138]. The first person to treat the theory of univalent functions
in a unified manner by a single method was GRÖTZSCH [61-78] who used
the method of the extremal metric. Several years later GRUNSKY [79]
treated a number of the same problems by the method of contour
integration. Finally ScHIFFER [167-170] developed a variational method
for treating extremal problems for univalent functions. These four
methods are so important that we will give abrief sketch of each in the
following sections.
6 I. Introduction
1.5 LöWNER's method applies basically to the family of functions

I (z)which are regular and univalent for lzl < 1 with I (0) = 0, II (z) I < 1
and more particularly to those functions of the family which map lzl < I
onto a domain obtained from lwl < 1 by producing a JoRDAN arc from
a boundary point into the interior. It is seen that the latter functions
are dense in the entire family. Controlling the growth of the arc by a
parameter t it is shown that the corresponding mapping function satisfies
a certain differential equation. From this it is possible to obtain para-
metric representations of the coefficients in its TAYLOR expansion about
the origin. Finally by a passage to the limit the method leads to results
on functions in 5. LöWNER hirnself used it to obtain the following
conclusions.
XVII. II I ES and has the power series expansion (1.2) at the origin
then
equality occurring only lor the lunctions z(l + ei"'z)- 2 , oc real.

XVIII. If f E S and its inverse lunction ifJ (w) has the power series
expansion at the origin
f/J(w) = W + B 2 w2 + · · · + Bnwn+ · · •
then
I· 3 .. · (2n-I)
IBnl :;; I . 2 ... (n+ I) zn . n = 2, 3, ...
equality occurring only for the lunctions f(z) = z(l + ei"z)- 2 , oc real.
No distinct proof of XVII was found for about twenty years but since
that time there have been a nurober [48, 99, 162]. All of them; however,
are on the non-elementary level.
Some years after LöwNER's paper, GoLUsiN [41, 42] took up the
parametric method and used it to provide a unified derivation of the
basic results for univalent functions. He also obtained some new results
most notable of which was the sharp form of the rotation theorem.
XIX. 11 f ES then lor lzl = r
Iarg f' (z) I :;; 4 sin-1 r, r:;; 2 2
_l
r2 _.!_
~ 71: + log l-r 22 ,
2 < r < 1
where tlie branch ol arg f' (z) is that taking the value zero at the origin and
sin-1 r denotes the principal value.
About the sametime PESCHL [144] resumed the general study of the
coefficient problem, i. e., the problern of determining the region of
possible values of the point (A 2 , A 3 , ••• , An) corresponding to expan-
sions (1.2) for functions in 5. He used a slightly extended form of
LöwNER's method and, together with certain qualitative results, obtained
explicitly a partial characterization for the region of values of (A 2, A3).
Method of the extremal metric 7
Various other interesting results have been obtained by LöWNER's

method. Let us mention only that this was the method used by FEKETE
and SzEGÖ to prove XV and that ScHAEFFER and SPENCER [163] used
it to find the exact bound for IAal in the expansion (1.2) for functions in S
which satisfy the additional condition that 1/(z)l < M (M > 1). Also
RoBINSON [158] employed it to make a very thorough investigation of
the relationships between 1/'(0)1. lzl, 1/(z)l and 1/'(z)l for functions f(z)
regular and univalent in lzl < 1 which satisfy f (0) = 0, I/ (z) I < 1. The
method is currently used in research on the theory of univalent functions.
Frequently it is very successful in providing explicit estimates but as a
rule does not provide complete information about uniqueness and
description of extremal functions. The method has also been extended
to functions defined in domains other than the unit circle, especially
circular rings [127], but the attendant formal complications are so great
that little in the way of explicit results has been obtained.
1.6 The method of the extremal metric found its first applications
in problems of function theory and conformal mapping rather distaut
from the central problems of the theory of univalent functions. In its
siruplest form it involves the possibility of giving geometrically certain
estimates on length of curves and the area of some region swept out by
them tagether with an application of ScHWARZ's inequality. Proofs of
this form may well be referred to as primitive length-area proofs.
The first users of the method appear to have been BoHR [25]
dealing with "streckentreu" mappings, GRass [59, 60] in proving his
Star Theorem and other results, F ABER [35] and CouRANT [91] the
latter two both treating boundary correspondence under conformal
mapping.
As we have remarked GRöTZSCH first used it as a method in the
theory of univalent functions. He states that its use was suggested to
him by the work of F ABER. His approach, called by him the method of
strips, represents a very essential improvement over the primitive
length-area proofs, operating with the characteristic conformal invariants
of doubly-connected domains and quadrangles. He readily obtained
most of the then known results and in an outstanding series of papers
[61-78] obtained many interesting new results, attacking with equal
facility problems for simply-connected domains and for domains of finite
connectivity. Notahle also are his contributions to the theory of domains
of infinite connectivity. We will not mention his particular results here
explicitly since most of them will be treated in the later chapters. I t is
difficult to understand the slowness with which proper recognition came
to him. Even to-day, when one feels that his work must be universally
known, we find his results being explicitly credited to others (see for
example [19, p. 169]). Perhaps the best measure of the brilliance of his
accomplishment is the effort required for some mathematicians at the
8 I. Introduction
present time, working with the best tools now available, to rediscover
his results, obtained twenty-five years ago and more.
Not long after GRÖTZSCH began his work AHLFORS [1] made a striking
application of tbe metbod of the extremal metric, proving tbe DENJOY
conjecture on integral functions. Tbe use oftbis method was suggested
to him by tbe book of HURWITZ-COURANT [91, p. 351]. Wbile bis
approach is also an improvement over tbe primitive length-area proofs,
it is actually, as be states [3], not as sopbisticated as that of GRÖTZSCH.
However it drew much attention to tbis method. It is an interesting
fact that the two principal lines of development of the metbod of tbe
extremal metric bad their beginning in tbe problern of boundary
correspondence.
In 1933 RENGEL [156] used the metbad to solve and extend a problern
of SzEGÖ. BEURLING [14] used a form of tbe method of tbe extremal
metric in treating quasi-analytic functions. GoLUSIN [43, 45] used it
in the form of GRöTzscH's method of strips to prove the n-segment
theorem.
XX. Let f E 5, then in the image of lzl < 1 under f there exists a set
of n open rectilinear segments issuing from the origin at equal angles of
2 n/n the sum of whose lengths is at least n.
This result was extended by BERMANT [10, 11] (using tbe metbod of
contour integration, see § 1.7) and put in a more or less definitive form
by SPENCER [176, 95] again by means of tbe method of tbe extremal
metric. SPENCER also used this method in bis work on generalizations of
multivalent functions.
Some of tbe most fundamental forward steps in the development
of the method of tbe extremal metric were taken by TEICHMÜLLER [186
to 189]. On tbe one band he made explicit tbe close relationship oftbis
method witb Differential Geometry. (However this idea is present
implicitly and in some places even explicitly in the work of GRÖTZSCH,
see especially [75, 77].) Even more important was his discovery, based
on his study of GRöTzscH's results and his own work on quasiconformal
mapping, of tbe essential role played by quadratic differentials. In tbis
connection be formulated a notable principle giving the manner in
which quadratic differentials are associated witb the solutions of extremal
problems particularly in so far as the singularities of the quadratic dif-
ferential correspond to given data of the extremal problem. However
he did not prove any general result realizing this principle in concrete
form. As far as explicit results on univalent functions go bis cbief
contribution was tbe proving of certain important general inequalities
bearing on tbe coefficients of functions in S and E [187]. Since these
results are treated in detail in Chapter VI we do not state them bere.
In 1946 AHLFORS and BEURLING [4] gave an important new formula-
tion of the metbod of the extremal metric. Their approach Ieads to
Method of contour integration 9
conformal invariants (called extremallengths or modules) as the solutions

of differential geometric extremal problems. AHLFORS and BEURLING
were chiefly interested in studying general properties of extremal length
and did not make any direct applications to the theory of univalent
functions except rather indirectly in [5]. In the simpler problems their
method operates essentially in the same way as GRöTzscH's method
of strips. However their approach has the advantage of great intu-
itive naturalness together with the possibility of extension to wider
situations.
The present monograph deals principally with the application of the
method of the extremal metric to the theory of univalent functions.
Its central theme is the General Coefficient Theorem which we have
given elsewhere [106] but present herein an extended form. This result
provides a concrete expression of TEICHMÜLLER's principle and provides
a statement which includes all the elementary results of the theory of
univalent functions and indeed practically all such results (not merely
a method which has to be reapplied to each particular problem). It
should be realized however that there are applications of TEICHMÜLLER's
principle which go beyond the present form of the General Coefficient
Theorem [103, 104, 108, 110, 111].
The method of the extremal metric has great advantages in the
theory of univalent functions, among others it applies with almost
equal facility to problems on simply- and multiply-connected
domains. In additions it admits application to many topics which we
cannot deal with here, among others to general regular functions [98]
and problems on RIEMANN surface classification. Finally it is the
principal method in the theory of quasiconformal mapping, another
fruitful concept due to GRÖTZSCH [63].
1.7Themethod of contourintegration wasintroduced byGRUNSKY[79]
who used it to give new proofs for some of GRöTzscH's results. In some
cases he gave also explicit bounds for functions in 5 and L: where
GRÖTZSCH bad given just the corresponding general result for multiply-
connected domains. GRUNSKY derived also some general relationships
for tbe coefficients of univalent functions [81]. Tbe metbod of contour
integration starts essentially witb some two-dimensional integral which
can be affirmed to be positive. This is transformed into a boundary
integral, in general involving functions whicb are not analytic. Under
suitable conditions this integral can be replaced by the integral of a mero-
morphic function wbich by using tbe residue theorem provides an
appropriate inequality. This method bears certain relationsbips to the
metbod of orthogonal functions wbicb bad earlier been used in connection
with other problems in tbe Theory of Functions by SzEGÖ [183], BocH-
NER [24] and BERGMANN [9].
10 I. Introduction
Following GRUNSKY the method of contour integration has been used

by various authors in particular GoLUSIN and ScHIFFER. GoLUSIN [49, 53]
used certain results derived by this method to prove
XXI. If f ES and has the power series expansion (1.2) at the origin then
IA,.I < 3 / 4 e n.
BASILEVITCH [7, 8] used similar considerations to prove asymptotic
results for the coefficients, their final form being
XXII. lf k,. denotes the best possible bound in VII
-r-
1m n-<
k,. lf2 e.
n-+oo
In the final form of his proof he used also LÖWNER' s method. Moreover
he obtained bounds for the individual coefficients. Perhaps the most
outstanding results by the method of contour integration are those
connected with the so-called span of multiply-connected domains [79,
171]. This method applies also to questions outside the theory of
univalent functions. In the latter theory it serves to treat certain of the
same problems as can be treated by the method of the extremal metric.
In particular it applies equally well to simply- and multiply-connected
domains. However it suffers the defect that it does not apply to problems
which correspond to a quadratic differential which has zeros of odd order.
Also in its use it is necessary to make certain assumptions on the boundary
behaviour of the functions to which it is applied and these have to be
removed by subsequent approximation considerations.
1.8 Variational methods come under the general heading of the direct
methods in the Calculus of Variations, that is, they deal with extremal
problems for which it is possible in some general manner to assert the
existence of an extremal function without providing further information
as to its nature. Then in some way Variations of this function within
the class of admissible functions are introduced and the extremal
property of the function provides certain equations or inequalities. From
these it may be possible to determine or characterize the extremal
function.
The direct method in the Calculus of Variations has been studied by
CouRANT [28]. Particular instances of its use go back to HADAMARD [82]
in potential theory and JuLIA in conformal mapping [118]. DouGLAS [31]
introduced variations into the study of minimal surfaces.
LAVRENTIEV [132] ga ve a variational method for use in the study
of extremal problems for univalent functions. However it appears now
that some of his conclusions may not have been justi:fied [29, p. 313].
MARTY [139] used a very simple type of variation in studyi:ng the problern
of maximizing the modulus of coefficients in power series expansions
of functions of the family S. BIERNACKI [21] used JuuA's variational
method to treat certain problems.
Variational method 11
However the variational method first becarne a consistent tool for

treating the theory of univalent functions in the hands of ScHIFFER.
He used first boundary variations [167, 168] and later interior Varia-
tions [170]. These lead respectively to differential equations for the
boundary of extrernal domains and for the extremal functions. The
latter manifest agairr the essential role of quadratic differentials. ScHIF-
FER's early applications were mostly in the form of qualitative results
for extremal functions in the problern of rnaxirnizing the rnodulus of
coefficients of functions in S. He did prove the first result in XVI [169]
but his proof is both rnethodologically and technically rnuch rnore
complicated than that of GoLUSIN.
Following ScHIFFER, ScHAEFFER and SPENCER [162-165] and
GoLUSIN [50-52, 54] gave variants of the rnethod of interior variations.
SCHAEFFER and SPENCER concerned thernselves principally with obtain-
ing deep qualitative results in the general coefficient problern for func-
tions in S. However they also gave [162] the first new proof of XVII
after LÖWNER and found explicitly [165] the region of possible values
for (A 2 , Aa) for functions in S with the expansion (1.2). Also they gave
a method whereby the decision as to whether the BIEBERBACH conjecture
is true in the case n = 4 could be reduced to the performance of a large
number of nurnerical calculations. Apparently this program has not
been carried to cornpletion. Using their form of the variational rnethod
GRAD [165] deterrnined the region of values of log I' (z) for functions in S.
GoLUSIN used his form of the rnethod to study various problerns for
univalent functions. More recently a nurober of authors have used the
variational rnethod. Let us mention among thern SPRINGER [180] who
first obtained the second result in XVI.
Finally ScHIFFERand GARABEDIAN have used the variational method
to make essential progress in the question of finding the best possible
bounds for the moduli of the coefficients of functions in S and E. In
particular they proved [39, 40]
XXIII. II I E L: and has the expansion (1.1) then
[aa[ ~ 1/2 + e-6 ,
this inequality being best possible.

XXIV. Il I E S and has the expansion (1.2) then
[A 4 [ ~ 4
equality occurring only lor the functions z (1 + ei" z)- 2, IX real.
The treatment of XXIV is on sornewhat the lines suggested by
ScHAEFFER and SPENCER. However the use of additional concepts
allows the arnount of calculation to be reduced while still formidable.
pansion (1.1) there held [an[ ~ n:l .

There had been a rather vague conjecture that for f E E with the ex-
As far as the disproof of that
12 I. Irrtrod uction
conjecture goes let it be noted that GoLUSIN [55] had considerably

earlier recognized the existence of functions in E with !aal = 1 / 2 + e- 6 •
The variational method has the advantage that when the existence
of an extremal function is known (which in the theory of univalent
functions usually follows by the method of normal families) it frequently
will provide in a mechanical manner certain information about that
function. The method of boundary variations has the disadvantage that
it becomes involved in difficult point set topology problems. The
method of interior variations has the disadvantage that it is primarily
a method for simply-connected domains. It can be extended to multiply-
connected domains and RIEMANN surfaces but essential new difficulties
intervene. Moreover, and perhaps more important, in all but the
simplest explicit problems, the information supplied by the variational
method per se falls far short of determining the extremal functions and
auxiliary methods are required, usually of a more difficult and com-
plicated nature. The essential information provided by the variational
conditions can often be inferred directly from TEICHMÜLLER's principle.
1. 9 The notion of a univalent function is readily extended to that
of a multivalent function, a p-valent function defined in a certain
domain being one which in that domain takes no value more than
p times (P an integer). BrERNACKI [22] asserts that this concept was
first employed by MONTEL who used it chiefly in his studies on normal
families and their extensions [140]. Various authors soon applied to
p-valent functions analogues of the elementary methods for univalent
functions. In this way they obtained generalizations of the results
of § 1.2 but only in qualitative form. Also subclasses of p-valent func-
tions similar to the special subclasses in § 1.3 were studied. In the other
direction SPENCER [177-179] introduced classes of functions p-valent
in the mean in various senses and proved certain results for them.
However the first success in obtaining sharp inequalities for p-valent
functions was attained by HAYMAN [83, 84]. In his work an essential
role was played by the method of symmetrization.
The idea of symmetrization was used in geometrical problems by
STEINER. However its first application to the Theory of Fundions
seems to have been made by FABER [34]. He applied it to the concept
of transfinite diameterandin this way obtained new proofs foranurober
of the results given in § 1.2. Later a related method was used by BEUR-
LING [13] in solving the problern of CARLEMAN-MILLOUX. AHLFORS and
BEURLING also developed a notion of symmetrization in connection
with extremallength, see [190]. However the most effective approach
to symmetrization for function theoretic problems seems to be that
introduced by P6LYA and SZEGÖ [149-151]. These authors have
applied their method to univalent functions as well as to many problems
in other fields. In his work HA YMAN used both this method [83] and one
Fundamental definitions 13
related tothat of FABER [84]. As an extension HAYMAN [85] obtained

some very interesting asymptotic properties of the coefficients of multi-
valent functions.
The PöL Y A-SZEGÖ method of symmetrization combines very
effectively with the method of the extremal metric to solve problems which
have been solved in no other manner [103, 104, 108, 110, 1ll].
Chapter Two
Modules and Extremal Lengths

2.1 One of the most important applications of the method of the
extremal metric is in the definition of conformal invariants. These
considerations may be carried out on the most general RIEMANN surface.
Definition 2.1. Let ~ be a Riemann surface. By a conformally
invariant metric e (z) [dz[ defined on ~ we mean an entity which associates
to every local uniformizing parameter z of ~ a real valued non-negative
measurable function e (z) satisfying the conditions
(i) if y is a rectifiable curve in the Parameter plane neighborhood for z,
f e(z) [dz[ exists (as a Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral), possibly having the
y
value + oo,
(ii) if the neighborhood on ~ for the local uniformizing parameter z* of ~
overlaps that for z and to z* is associated the function e* (z*), then at every
common point of the neighborhoods for z and z* we have
e(z) Idz* I·
I dz I
e* (z*) =
Definition 2.2. A curve on a Riemann surface ~ is called locally

rectifiable if, for every compact subcurve lying in the neighborhood on SR for
a lxal uniformizing parameter z, the corresponding curve in the z-plane is
rectifiable.
It is clear that for any locally rectifiable curve y on a RIEMANN
surface on which is given a conformally invariant metric e (z) [dz[ the
integral J e (z) [dz[ is weil defined (possibly having the value + = ).
y
Definition 2.3. Let r be a family of locally rectifiable curves given on a
Riemann surface SR. We say that a module problem is defined for F if
there isanon void class P of conformally invariant metrics e (z) [dz[ on SR for
which e (z) is of integrable square in the z-plane for each local uniformizing
parameter z ( = x + i y) so that
Ae(~) = JJ g 2 dxdy
!;1\
is defined and such that Ae(~) and

Le(F) = g.l. b. Je [dz[
yEF y
14 II. Modulesand Extremal Lengths
arenot simultaneously 0 or oo. Then we designate the quantity

Ae (?\)
m(F) = g.l. b. -(L (F)l2
eEP e
as the module ofr. This quantity admits the values 0 and oo. The reciprocal
of m (F) is called the extremallength Ä (F) of the family F.
As given in Definition 2.3 the module problern is homogeneaus in
that the value Ae('~t) (Le(F))- 2 is unchanged if we replace the metric
e (z) [dz[ by K e(z) [dz[ where K is anypositiveconstant. Moduleproblems
may be normalized in various manners. Firstlet PL be the subdass of P
suchthat for 12 E PL and E y r
f e [dz[;;:; 1.
y
If PLis not void we have
m(F) = g.L b. Ae('R).
eEPL
Thus we obtain an alternate definition of the module of a curve family
by taking this value when PLis non void and the value oo when Pis non
void but PL is. This definition is called the L-normalization of the
module problem. Next let PA be the subdass of P consisting of those
metrics for which
If PA is not void we have

m(F) = g.l.b. (Le(F))-2.
e EPA
The definition of the module of a curve family obtained by taking this
value when PA is not void and the value oo when P is not void but PA is
will be called the A-normalization of the module problem. In the
remainder of this work when we speak of a module problern for a curve
family without further qualification we will understand it to be given
in the L-normalization.
r
Definition 2.4. Let be a family of locally rectijiable curves given on a
Riemann surface 9\ for which a module problem is defined with m (F) =1= oo.
lf the module problem is taken in the L-normalization any metric in PLis
called an admissible metric. If there exists in PL a metric e* (z) [dz[ for
which
this metric is called an extremal metric.

If we have a plane domain Q in the role of the RIEMANN surface 9\
it has been remarked [5] that the module of a curve family r
in fJ
depends only Ollrand not Oll Q. However in all applications known
to the author r is defined in dependence Oll Q SO that this remark has
no essential effect.
Basic properties of modules 15
2.2 We give now some of the most basic properties of modules.

Most fundamental is the fact that they are conformally invariant in the
following sense.
Theorem 2.1. Let the Riemann surlaces 'n and m' be conlormally
equivalent, related by a mapping I lrom 'n to 'n', the inverse mapping being
denoted by q;. Let F be a lamily ol locally rectiliable curves given on 'n
and let F' be the lamily ol image curves ol curves in runder 1. Let there
be a module problem delined lor F, the module being m (F). Then there is a
module problem delined lor F' with module m (F') = m (F).
Indeed let e(z) ldzl be a metric in Pon 9Z. Letz' be a local uniformizing
parameterOll 'n'. A pointOll m' represented by the parameter value z'
will be the image under I of a point in the neighborhood of a local
uniformizing parameter z. We define then the function
e' (z') = e(q; (z')) I9?' (z') I

where Iq;' (z') I derrotes I ::1
calculated at the point z'. It is immediately
seen that this provides a conformallyinvariant metric onm' independently
of the choice of the local uniformizing parameter z. The curves of F'
are evidently locally rectifiable. Moreover if y' = I (y)' y E r
J e(z) ldzl =Je' (z') ldz'l (2.1)

)' y'
while (z' = x' + i y')
ff(e(z)) 2 dxdy=ff (e'(z')) 2 dx'dy'. (2.2)
"" ""'
Thus the dass P' of conformally invariant metrics e' (z') ldz'l Oll 9Z' for
which e' (z') is locally of integrable square and suchthat Ae'(m') and
LQ' (F') == g.l. b. J e' Idz' I

y' E f" y'
are not simultaneously 0 or oo is not void. Thus a module m (F') is

defined for F'. Contrawise to any metric e' (z') ldz'l in P' we obtain as
above a metric e (z) ldzl in P for which equations (2.1) and (2.2) hold.
Thus m(F) = m(F').
Next we will see that when an extremal metric exists it is essentially
unique.
Theorem 2.2. Let r be a family ol locally rectiliable curves given on a
Riemann surlace 'n lor which a module problem is defined with module
m (F) =!= oo. Let the module problem be taken in the L-normalization.
lf e1 * (z) ldzl and e 2 * (z) ldzl are extremal metrics for this problem then
e2*(z) = el*(z)
apart at most lrom a set of measure zero on 'n.
16 II. Modules and Extremal Lengths
We observe first of all that although there is no measure defined on ~

in the large it is meaningful to speak of a set of measure zero on ~ since
this is a local property for a separable space.
Clearly
f f (rh* (z)) 2 dxdy = f f (r.h* (z)) 2 dxdy = m (F).
~ ~
Moreover 1/ 2(rh*(z) + e2*(z)) ldzl is an admissible metric with
f f (_e1(~)_ + ~!_(:)_)• dx dy + f f (-e~ (z)- e~ (:)_)• dx dy = m (F)

~ \ 2 ~ 2
so that
1J1*(z) = IJ2*(z)
apart from a set of measure zero.
2.3 We will now determine the modules of certain specific curve
families.
Definition 2.5. The configuration consisting of a simply-connected
domain D of hyperbolic type with four assigned distinct boundary elements
is called a quadrangle. These boundary elements, called vertices, divide the
remaining boundary elements in the natural sense of boundary cor-
respondence into four sets, called sides. An open curve in D is said to join
two sides of the quadrangle if it tends at its respective ends to boundary
elements belanging to those sides.
Theorem 2.3. Let Q be a quadrangle with vertices denoted by 1, 2, 3, 4
r
taken in the natural order on the boundary of Q. Let be the class of locally
rectifiable curves in Q joining the sides 12 and 34. The quadrangle can be
mapped conformally onto a reetangle R with vertices A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , A 4 so that
1, 2, 3, 4 correspond respectively to these vertices. Let A 1 A 2 have length a,
A 2 A 3 length b. Then F has module m (F) equal to ajb.
Performing a magnification if necessary we may suppose that A1 A2
has length l = ajb, A 2A 3 length I and choose coordinates in the z-plane
(z = x + i y) so that R is given by
0<x<l,O<y<1
with A 1 at the origin. By Theorem 2.1 it is enough to find the module
of the dass of locally rectifiable curves joining the horizontal sides of R.
We take this problern in the L-normalization. Clearly the Euclidean
metric ldzl is admissible and
AdR) = l.
Now let e (z) ldzl be any admissible metric for this problern and
let y., be the intercept made by R on the ordinate at x. By hypothesis
f (! dy ~ 1.
Since (! E V(R), by FumNr's Theorem we can integrate f edy with

Yx
Some special modules 17
respect to x over (0, l) and obtain

l
ff (! dx dy = J dx f (! dy ~ l.
R 0 Yx
Now
0:;:;; f f (e-1) 2 dxdy = ff (! 2 dxdy- 2 f f edxdy + f f dxdy (2.3)
R R R R
or
0 ~ JJ (! 2 dx dy- l .
R
Hence l is the minimal value of Ae (R) for (! E PL· Thus m (I) = ajb and
in R an extremal metric is given by the Euclidean metric. By Theorem 2.2
any other extremal metric differs from it at most on a set of measure
zero. If z = C/J (w) maps Q onto R in the manner given above the (essential-
ly unique) extremal metric in Qis given by lW' (w) lldwl.
Corollary 2.1. Let Q be as in Theorem 2.3. Let T' be the class oflocally
rectijiable curves in Q foining the sides 23 and 41. Then F' has module
m (F') equal to bja. Thus m (F) m (F') = 1.
This result is immediate.
It is well known that either m (F) or m (F') provides a characteristic
conformal invariant for Q. Thus m(F) may be called the module of Q
for the dass of curves r and similarly for m (F') and F'.
Corollary 2.2. Let the quadrangle Q lie in the z-plane. In the Euclidean
r
metric let every curve in have length at least d, let every curve in F' have
length at least J and let Q have area A. Then
ö d~A.
Indeed in the module problern for F d-1 ldzi provides an admissible
metric. Thus
Similarly
m(F') ~ J- 2 A.
Multiplying these inequalities and using Corollary 2.1 the result follows.
It is not hard to see that equality can occur only when Q is a reetangle
with vertices those given geometrically.
Corollary 2.2 is due to TEICHMÜLLER [186]. Recently a proof without
use of conformal mapping has been given by BESICOVITCH [12]. Analysis
of his proof, however, shows it to be basically a length-area proof of
primitive type.
Theorem 2.4. Let D be a doubly-connected domain lying in the w-plane
for which neither boundary component reduces to a point. Let F be the
class of rectifiable Jordan curves lying in D and separating its boundary
components. The domain D can be mapped conformally onto the circular
Ergebn. d. Mathem. N. F. H. 18, Jenkins 2
18 II. Modulesand Extremal Lengths
ring C in the z-plane defined by

r1 < jzj < r 2 (0 < r1 < r2) •
Then F has module m (F) equal to -21n log ~.

r1
By Theorem 2.1 it is enough to find the module of the dass of
rectifiable JoRDAN curves separting the boundary components of C.
In this module problern the metric (2 n jzj)-1 jdzj is admissible.
Indeed setting z = rei'~'we have for a rectifiable JoRDAN curve yseparating
the boundary components of C
f J (2 n r)-1 (dr + r2dq;2) 2
1
(2 n jzj)-1 jdzj = 2
y y
1
~ 2n
y
f jdrpj
~ 1.
Further the corresponding area is
ff (2 n r)-2 rdrd rp =-log-.
1 r2
c 2n r1
Now let e (z) jdzj be any admissible metric for this problern and let Yr
be the circle jzj = r, r1 < r < r 2. Then by hypothesis
Je rdrp?;; I
Yr
or
Since e E L 2 (C) as before we can integrate f e d q; with respect to r over

(r11 r 2) and obtain Yr
1 1 r, 1 r, d r 1 r
-!Je
2n 0 drdrp=-
2n fdrf ndm?-
<:: T - 2n J -=-log_!_.
r 2n r 1
r1 Yr r1
Now
0~ JJ (e- -}---) rdrdq;
C nr
2
= JCJ e2 rdrdrp- 2-/--
n C
JJe drdrp
(2.4)
1
+ ff420rdrdq;
0 n r
or
1
Hence-
2 log
n r1
~is the minimal value of A"(C)
"
for e E PL. Thus m(r)
= -21 log ~and in C an extremal metric is given by the logarithmic
n r1
Some special mod ules 19
rnetric (2 n [z/)-1 fdz[. This is uniquely deterrnined up to sets of rneasure

zero.
It is weil known that m(T) is a characteristic conformal invariant
of D. It may thus be called the rnodule of D for the dass of curves r.
Theorem 2.5. Let D be a doubly-connected domain lying in the w-plane
for which neither boundary component reduces to a point. Let F' be the class
of locally rectifiable curves lying in D and foining its boundary components.
The domain D can be mapped conformally an the circular ring C in the
z-plane defined by
r1 < [z[ < r 2 (0 < r1 < r 2) •
Then F' has module m (F') equal to 2 njlog 2.

rl
z
rl
Agairr it is enough to solve the similar problern in C. In this rnodule
problern the rnetric (izflog :: \dz\ is adrnissible. Indeed Setting
= reüp we have for a locally rectifiable curve y in C joining \z\ = r 1 and
t t
[z[ = r2
J (lz\log
y
:: 1
[dzf = J (r log
y
:: 1
(dr 2 + r2 d 1p2l
r2 )-1 J ldrl
;s ( 1og ---:;;- -r-
)-1 J
1 y
r2 r, dr
;s ( log -;; -r-
;sl.
The corresponding area is
r2
ff ( r log- )-2 r d r d ({! =
r
2 njlog- . 2
c ~ ~
Now let e (z) \dz\ be any admissible rnetric for this problern and let
y"' be the segrnent intercepted by C on the ray of argument ({!· By
hypothesis
J e dr ;s 1 .
y<p
As before we can integrate this with respect to ({! over (0, 2 n) and obtain
(
r2
log-
rl
)-1 JJ C
edrd([J~
~
2njlog-.
rl
Now
0~ ff r
[ (!- ( r log- 2)-1]2 r d r d ({!
C r1 (2.5)
= f J e2 r dr d ({!- 2 (log
c
2)- Jcf
~
1
(! dr d ({! + f f(r log2)-2 r dr d ({!
c ~
or
0 ~ff
c
e2 rdrd!p-2njlog :·. 1
2*
20 li. Modules and Extremal Lengths
Hence 2 nflog~is the minimal value of Ae(C) for

rl
e E PL. Thus m(F')
= 2 nflog 2. The extremal metric in Cis given by (Jz[log~)-l

~
[dz[.
~
Corollary 2.3. For the families Fand F' of Theorems 2.4 and 2.5 we
have m(F) m(F') = 1.
Evidently an analogue to Corollary 2.2 holds for doubly-connected
domains.
2.4 The calculations of § 2.3 can be modified to obtain results which
are very effectual in proving statements of uniqueness.
Lemma 2.1. Let the reetangle R in the z-plane (z = x + i y) be given by
0 < x < a, 0 < y < b
and let y" be the intercept by R on the ordinate at x (0 < x < a). Let the
function e
EV (R) be such that
J e ay ~ c (2.6)
Yx
for almost all x in (0, a) except for x in (/, g) where 0 ~ f < g;;;; a. Let
(2.7)
for almost all xin (/, g). Then
ff ridxdy ~ a (2c-b) + 2 (d-c) (g-f).

R
Indeed integrating (2.7) with respect to x over the interval (/, g),
(2.6) over the remainder of (0, a) and adding we obtain
ff (! dX dY ~ C [a - (g- j) J + d (g - j) .
R
Inserting this in inequality (2.3) we have the result of the lemma.

In particular if a = l, b = 1, c = 1, d = 1 + k, k > 0 we obtain
JJ e 2 dxdy~l+2k(g-f)
R
giving the excess of this area over the module of R for the dass of curves
joining its horizontal sides.
Lemma 2.2. Let the circular ring C in the z-plane (z = reiq;) be given by
r1 < [z[ < r 2 (0 < r 1 < r 2)

and let Yr be the circle JzJ = r, r 1 < r < r2• Let the function e EP(C) be
suchthat
(2.8)
Unigueness lemmas 21
for almost alt r in (r1 , r 2 ) except for r in (!, g) where r 1 ;::;; f < g ;::;; r 2 • Let
(2.9)
for almost alt r in (/, g). Then
J J flr dr d f{! ~ (Zc2- _ll_

n
log 2
r1
+ _Ld-c)
n
log gf •
0
Indeed writing (2.9) as

d
fedfP~--:;-
)'
r
and integrating with respect to r over (/, g), writing (2.8) as
JedfP~~
Yr
and integrating with respect to r over the remainder of (rv r 2) and adding
we have
JJ edrdfP~ (d-c) logL
1 + c log~.
c ~

In particular if c = 1, d = 1 + k, k > 0 we obtain
J0 J (!2 r d r d rp ~ -21n log -r

r2
1
+ -nk log -1
g
giving the excess of this area over the module of C for the dass of curves
separating its boundary cornponents.
Lemma 2.3. Let the circular ring C in the z-plane (z = rei'P) be given by
r1 < lzl < r 2 (0 < r1 < r 2 )

and let yq; be the segment intercepted by C on the ray of argument fP· Let the
function e EL2 (C) be such that
J e dr ~ c (2.10)
Yq;
for almostalt directions except those given by f{! in(!, g) where f < g ;::;; I + 2 n.
Let
Je dr ~ d (2.11)
Yq;
for almostalt f{! in (f, g). Then
f f e 2 r dr d fP
c
~2n (2c-I) (log 2)-
~
1
+ 2 (d- c) (g- f) (log 2)-
~
1
•
lndeed integrating (2.11) with respect to g; over (I, g), integrating

(2. 10) with respect to g; over the remainder of (0, 2 :n:) and adding we
obtain
f f Q dr d g; ;;;;,_ c [2 :n:- (g- /)] + d (g- f) .
0

In particular if c = 1, d = 1 + k, k > 0 we obtain
ff e2 r dr d rp ;;;;,_ 2 :n:jlog-
r, rs
+ 2 k (g -/)flog-
o r, rl
giving the excess of this area over the module of C for the dass of curves
joining its boundary components.
2.5 Let D1 , D 2 be two doubly-connected domains 1n-J., m2 their
modules (each for the dass of curves separating their boundary com-
ponents). Evidently D1 and D 2 are conformally equivalent if and only if
m1 = m 2 • However these modules give informationalso about conformal
mappings of one domain into the other. On the one hand if 1n]_ ;;;;,_ m2
it is clearly possible to map D 2 conformally into D 1 so that it separates
the boundary components of D 1 • This much can be seen using as con-
formal invariant the ratio of the radii of a conformally equivalent circular
ring. However the present method makes it easy to prove the converse
of this result. Indeed we can do even better.
Theorem 2.6. Let D be a doubly-connected domain with module M for
the class of curves separating its boundary components. Let D 1, j = 1, ... ,
n, be non-overlapping doubly-connected domains lying in D and each
separating the boundary components of D. Let D 1 have module M 1 for the
class of curves separating its boundary components. Then
n
(2.12)
Let D be conformally equivalent to the circular ring C: r 1 < izl < r2

(0 < r 1 < r 2). Then equality in (2.12) occurs if and only if the domains D1
are obtained by dividing D along n- 1 curves corresponding to circles in C,
concentric with its boundary circles.
Clearly we may take D coincident with C. The metric (2:n; jz!)-1 jdzl
is then the extremal metric for the moduleproblern in D. However it is
admissible for the moduleproblern in each D 1, thus
r 2= JJ --,rdrdrp
M = -1l o g - 1
2 :n; r1 D 4nr
n I n
;;;;,_ I JJ 42rdrdg;;;;; I M1 •
i=lDi nr i=l
Let now D1 be the image of
rj < lwl < Rj
GRöTzscH's Lemmas 23
under the function f 1 (w). Then

I R'
M; = 2 n
log -+.
ri
If I; carries every circle centre the origin into such, D; is a circular ring
concentric with D. If not the image of some such circle has length
greater than 1 in the logarithmic metric. Thus for some interval I:;; r:;; g,
r;~ I < g ~ Rj and the metric
e (w) [dw[""' (2 n [l;(w)[)-l lli (w)[[dw[

we have (with Yr the circle [w[ = r, w = reiO)
ferd8~1+k
Yr
k a positive constant. For the remaining r in (rj, Rj)

ferd8~1.
Thus by Lemma 2.2

I g
+n
k
ff 4nr• r dr d rp ~ M; log I
D;
and
The proof of the equality statement is completed when we observe that

for equality in addition to being concentric circular rings the domains D;
must fill up C.
In precisely the same manner except that Lemma 2.3 is used in
place of Lemma 2.2 we can prove the following result.
Theorem 2. 7. Let D be a doubly-connected domain with module M
lor the class of curves joining its boundary components. Let D;, j = 1, ... ,
n, be non-overlapping quadrangles lying in D and each with a pair ol
opposite sides respectively an the two boundary components ol D. Let D;
have module M 1 lor the class ol curves joining this pair ol opposite sides. Then
n
(2.13)
Let D be conformally equivalent to the circular ring C: r1 < [z[ < r 2

(0 < r1 < r2). Then equality occurs in (2.13) il and only il the domains D;
are obtained by dividing D along n open arcs corresponding to radial
segments in C, the boundary elements to which these arcs tend at either end
giving the vertices ol the various quadrangles.
Theorems 2.6 and 2.7 are GRöTzscH's Lemmas [61]. They are
readily extended to the case of an infinity of subdomains which is the
form in which he originally used them. Of course he prove<?- them
without using the geometric notion of module and then made them the
basis of his method of strips.
2.6 Let Q be a simply-connected domain of hyperbolic type in the
z-plane containing the point z0 • If r > 0 is small enough the set
Q n {z \iz-z0 i > r}
is a doubly-connected domain Q (r). Let Q (r) have module m (r) for
the dass of curves separating its boundary components. If 0 < r' < r
then by Theorem 2.6
I r
m (r) + Zn log 7 ~m (r')
or
m (r) + -2I-log
:n - m (r') + -2
r S:
I
'lt
log r'.
Thus m (r) + 2~ log r is increasing as r tends to zero and there exists the
limit
lim (m (r)
,___,. 0
+ 2In log r).
This limit is called the reduced module of Q with respect to z0 [186, 5].
Theorem 2.8. Let the simply-connected domain Q ol hyperbolic type
in the z-plane have inner conlorm radius R with respect to the point z0 E Q.
Then Q has reduced module ZI:n log R with respect to z0 •
Let the function w = I (z) map Q conformally onto Iw I < R with
I (z0 ) = 0, f' (z0) = 1. The image of the circle iz- z0 1 = r willlie between
circles
lwl = r (1 + ~(r))
lwl = r (1- ~(r))
where lim () (r) = 0. The image of Q (r) under f willlie in the circular ring
r (1- CJ(r)) < lwl <R
separating its boundary components and contain the circular ring
r (1 + Cl (r)) < lwl <R
which separates its boundary components. Thus by Theorem 2.6
I R I R
2;;log r(1+o(r)) ;;;;m(r)~-z-nlog r(I--o(r))
and
I 1 1 1
Zn log R-2n log (1 +Cl (r)) ~ m (r) + --z-n log r;;;;; log --z;· R
1
- 2 :n log (1 - ~ (r)) .
Letting r tend to zero the result of Theorem 2.8 follows.
Generalizations 25
It is readily shown that a result similar to Theorem 2.6 holds for

reduced modules [186].
2.7 Definition 2.3 of the module of a family of curves can be extended
in various ways. For example, instead of requiring the elements of the
family tobe individually curves one may allow an element of the family
to consist of a finite (or possibly even infinite) set of curves. Considera-
tions of this type combined with the notion of reduced module lead to
relations with the theory of capacity of plane sets. We will not pursue
these matters further here.
More important for applications to the theory of univalent functions
is the extension obtained by considering simultaneously a number of
curve families. The definition here is best couched in the L-normalization.
Definition 2.6. Let Fj, f = 1, ... , n, be families of locally rectifiable
curves given on a Riemann surface 9\. Let a;, j = 1 , ... , n, be non-negative
real numbers not all zero. Let P(av ... , an) be the class of conformally
invariant metrics e (z) [dz[ on 9t for which e (z) is of integrable square in
the z-plane for each local uniformizing parameter z = x + i y and such that
f e(z) [dz[ ~a;, YiET;,j= 1, .. . ,n.

Yj
If P (a1 , . . . , an) is not void we say a module problern P(av . .. , an) is

defined for the families F; and numbers a;, j = 1, ... , n. In this case
M(av····an)= g.l.b. Jfe 2 dxdy

Q E P(a., ... ,an) ~\
is called the module for this problem. A metric in P (av ... , an) is called
an admissible metric for the problem. I f a metric e* (z) [dz[ exists in
P (av ... , an) for which
ff (e*(z)) 2 dxdy = M (av ... , an)
~
it is called an extremal metric for the problem.

The module defined in this manner is a function rather than a number.
Once agairr it is a conformal invariant. A uniqueness result for extremal
metrics completely analogaus to Theorem 2.2 holds for these modules.
The author has provcd the existence of extremal metrics in situations
of considerable generality [114].
2.8 By direct application of the concept of module it is possible to
prove all the elementary results for univalent functions. Indeed by his
method of strips GRÖTZSCH proved not only these results and extensions
of them but striking new results. All of his proofs can be reformulated
in terms of modules. This frequently provides technical simplifications
but the basic ideas are unchanged. Since all these results follow as
corollaries from the General Coefficient Theorem we will not pursue
them here to any extent by this method. However it is of some interest
to give one example of this method. For this purpose we choose the
KoEBE 1 I 4 - Theorem.
Theorem 2.9. F or I E S the image ol \z\ < 1 under the mapping w =I (z)
covers the circle Jw\ < 1 / 4 . It omits a point with Jw\ = 1 / 4 only il I (z)
= z (1 + ei" z)- 2, rt. real.
The extremal functions indicated are all obtained by elementary
operations from the function i (z) = z (1 + z)-2 which maps \z\ < 1 onto
the domain D consisting of the w-plane (w = u + i v) slit along the half-
infinite segment w ~ 1h. Lettheinverse mapping defined in D be given
by z = ffJ (w). Suppose now that the image of \z\ < 1 under I omits
a point on Jwl = 1 f4 • Then the image of Jz\ < 1 under eiß I for a suitable
real ß will omit the point w = 1 / 4 .
In D we regard the metric
e(w) Jdw\ = (2 n fP (w)J)-1 1 q/ (w) 1\dw\
1
= (2 n Jw\\1-4 wJ' 1,)-1 Jdw\.

Let us denote the image of \z\ = r under i by C (r) and the image of
o < \z\ < 1 (0 < (J < 1) under f by D (fJ). If under eiß I a circle lzl = r does
not go into some curve C (r') its imagewill have length greater than 1 in
e
the metric (w) Id wl. (This holds even if the image does not lie in D
because of the reflectional symmetry of the metric e
(w) \dw\.) Then
for the metric
e (z) Jdz\ = (2 n II (z) I \1 - 4 eiß 1(z) 1'1•)-1 II' (z) 11dz\
we have for some interval g < r < h (0 < g < h ~ 1)
f e ldz\ ~ 1+k
)'
r
where Yr is the circle \z\ = r, k is a constant greater than zero. Of course
for all r, 0 < r < 1
f e\dzl ~ 1.
Yr
Thus for o< g we have by Lemma 2.2

1 1 k h
Jf
d< !zl <1
e 2 dxdy~z-log-;r+-log - .
n :n; g
(2.14)
On the other hand the image of \z\ = (J under eiß I will contain
C (o (1- c; (fJ))) where lim c; (o) = 0. Hence
ll---;.0
!! e2 dx dy ~ D'JJ (! 2 dudv =f-log

< !zl < 1
ö :n
o(1~e -(~))
u
where D' derrotes the domain D ((J (1- s (o))). Combining this with
inequality (2.14) we have
1 1 k h 1 1
2n log -;r +-;:(_log g ~ 2n log o(1-s(o))
Definitions 27
or
k h 1 1
n log g;;;, --z-n log 1-.e (o) .
Letting (J approach zero we obtain a contradiction.

If under eiß I every circle lzl = r goes into a curve C (r') then cp (e;ß I (z))
carries each circle lzl = r into another such and has derivative of modulus
1 at z = 0. Thus
I<p (eiß I (z)) I = lzl
and
oc real, or
I (z) = e-iß j (ei"' z) .
Since f' (0) = 1 this implies rx = ß and I (z) = z (1 + ei" z)- 2 •
2.9 In addition to the extensions of the definition of the concept of
module given in § 2.7 it is possible to modify Definition 2.3 for module
and extremallength in various ways. Eight or nine years ago it occurred
to the author that the definition could be modified by dropping the
r
conditions of rectifiability on the curves of and of square integrability
Oll the functions (! and replacing the line integrals involved by suitable
lower integrals, the area integrals by suitable upper integrals. While
this provides an a priori more general definition the author could find
no situation in which it proved an effective advantage whereas it involved
a certain loss of intuitive content and naturalness and so did not follow
the matter up. Recently HERSCH [87] has proposed such a definition
and redeveloped the basic AHLFORS-BEURLING results starting with it.
Despite HERSCH's assertions to the contrary the author still finds no
effective advantage in this approach. Indeed in most function theoretic
applications it is sufficient to work with piecewise analytic curves.
Actually these ideas may be traced back to GRoss [59, 60] who used
upper and lower integrals in his applications of the length-area principle.
Chapter Three
Quadratic Differentials
3.1 We concern ourselves first with quadratic differentials and the
local structure of certain important curves associated with them.
Definition 3.1. Let sn be an ( oriented) Riemann surface ( open or
closed). By a quadratic differential defined on sn we mean an entity which
assigns to every local unilormizing parameter z ol sn a function Q (z) mero-
morphic in the neighborhood for z and satisfying the following condition.
If z* is a second local uniformizing parameter of 9\ and Q* (z*) is the
corresponding lunction associated with z* and if the neighborhood on sn
28 III. Quadratic Differentials
for z* overlaps that for z, then at common points of these neighborhoods we

have
dz
Q* (z*) = Q (z) ( dz*
)2 .
Quadratic differentials will be denoted generically by symbols such as

Q (z) dz 2 • A point P of 'R is called a zero or pole of order k of Q (z) dz 2 if
for every local uniformizing parameter z it is represented by a point having
this property relative to Q (z). The zeros and Poles of Q (z) dz 2 are called
the critical points of the quadratic differential. Zeros and simple poles are
called finite critical points and the totality of them will be denoted generically
by C. The totality of poles of order at least two will be denoted generically
by H.
Note that unlike TEICHMÜLLER [188] we here confine ourselves to
oriented RIEMANN surfaces. Evidently the critical points of a quadratic
differential are isolated.
Definition 3.2. Let 'R be a Riemann surface, Q (z) dz 2 a quadratic
differential given on ~- A maximal regular curve on which Q (z) dz 2 > 0
is called a trajectory of Q (z) dz 2 • A maximal regular curve on which
Q (z) dz 2 < 0 is called an orthogonal trajectory of Q (z) dz 2 •
It is seen at once that trajectories and orthogonal trajectories are
intrinsically associated with the quadratic differential, i. e., independently
of the choice of local uniformizing parameters.
3.2 If ~ is a RIEMANN surface, Q (z) dz 2 a quadratic differential
J
given on 9\, then, on 'R- (C v H), (Q(z))'f, dz will be defined locally
as a regular function independently of the choice of local uniforrnizing
parameters. Of course it is in general not single-valued in the large.
This function is of great use in studying the local structure of the
trajectories of Q (z) dz 2 • In all cases of course analogous results apply
to the orthogonal trajectories.
Theorem 3.1. Fora Point P E 'R- (C v H) there exists a neighborhood
N of P on ~ and a homeomorphic mapping of N onto the circle 1wl < I
(w = u + i v) under which a maximal open arc of a trajectory an N goes
into a segment on which v is constant.
Indeed in a sufficiently small parameter neighborhood of P (with
P represented by z = 0) !; = J (Q (z))'f, dz will be a single-valued regular
function with ~; at P non-~ero. Thus in a possibly further restricted
neighborhood N'!; will be univalent as a function of z. Setting w = K!;
with a suitable positive constant K the image of N' in the w-plane will
contain the circle lwl < 1. Since on the image of a trajectory ()!; is
constant the proof is completed.
Corollary 3.1. Through every point of ~- (C v H) there is a trajectory
of Q (z) dz 2 which is either an open arc or a Jordan curve on ~-
Local structure of the trajectories 29
Theorem 3.2. Forapoint PE C of order ft (~-t > 0 for a zero, ft = - 1

for a simple pole) there exists a neighborhood N of P an ~ and a homeo-
morphic mapping of N onto the circle Jw/ < 1 under which a maximal open
I' t2
arc of a trajectory on N goes into an open arc on which \3 w-

2 - is constant.
There exist ft + 2 trajectories

with limiting end points at P
and limiting tangential direc-
tions there spaced at equal angles
equal to 2 nf(~-t + 2).
The structure of tra j ectories
near a simple zero is indicated
in figure 1, that near a simple
pole in figure 2.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
We confine our attention
to a parameter neighborhood of P (with P represented by z = 0), in which
with appropriate constants A, b1 , b2, • • •• We set Z 2 = z, that is, we map

a two-sheeted covering of the z-neighborhood onto a simply covered
neighborhood N' of Z = 0. On the latter is induced a quadratic dif-
ferential q (Z) dZ 2 given by
q (Z) = 4 AZ2 ~'+ 2 (1 + b1 Z 2 + b2 Z 4 + · · ·).
The trajectories of q (Z) dZ 2 occur in pairs symmetric in the origin and
correspondingtothe sametrajectoryof Q (z) dz 2 • We set C= J (q(Z))'i•dZ.
0
In a possibly smaller neighborhood of Z = 0, t; will be regular, given by
the expansion
for certain constants c1 , c2, • • • • By this some neighborhood of Z = 0

is mapped onto a (~-t + 2)-sheeted branch element with branch point at
1
C= 0. We set W = K t; ~' + 2 with K a positive constant which is chosen

so that the branch element is mapped onto a plane domain containing
the circle JWI < 1. A pair of trajectories of q (Z) dZ 2 symmetric in the
origin go by the combined mapping into a pair of curves on which 5 W~' +2
is constant, also symmetric in the origin. Finally we set W = w2 • By
1'+2
this the preceding pair of curves go into the same curve on which 5 w-2-
is constant. The combined mapping from the z-plane to the w-plane is
thus a homeomorphism which maps a neighborhood of z = 0, representing
a neighborhood N of P on ~' on Iw I < 1 with the open arcs of trajectories

J.t+2
in this neighborhood going into curves on which 5 w-2- is constant.
On the branch element there are 2 (p + 2) segments lying above the
real '-axis with limiting end points at the branch point and making
equal angles with one another on the branch element. These correspond
!<+2
in pairs to the p + 2 openradial segments in Iw/ < 1 on which 6 w-2 -
is constant. The corresponding curves in N are the trajectories of the
final statement of Theorem 3.2.
Theorem 3.3. Let the point PE H be a pole of order p, (p > 2). If a
trajectory has a limiting end point at P it tends to P in one of p- 2
directions and these limiting directions are equally spaced at angles of
2 nf (p- 2). There exists a neighborhood N of P on ~ with the following
properties.
(i) Every trajectory through a point of N in each sense either tends to P
or leaves N.
(ii) There is a neighborhood N* of P contained in N such. that every
trajectory through a point of N* tends in at least one sense to P, remaining
in N*.
(iii) lf a trajectory lies entirely in N and thus tends in each sense to P
it does so for its respective senses in two adjacent limiting directions. The
domain D enclosed by the Jordan curve obtained
by adjoining to the trajectory the point P and
containing Points in the angle between the associated
directions is such that a trajectory through any of
its points tends to P respectively in its two senses
in these adjacent limiting directions. The domain
onto a half-plane 6'

D ismapped by asuitable branch ofi; = f (Q (z))'l•dz
> c (c real).
(iv) Corresponding to each pair of adjacent
Fig. a limiting directions there is a trajectory conditioned
as in (iii).
The structure of trajectories near a pole of order three is indicated in
figure 3.
A trajectory may be regarded as an integral curve of the differential
equation
dz)2 = 1
Q (z) (di (3.1)
where T maybeinterpreted asthe real partofthe function C= f (Q(z))''•dz.

We now confine our attention to a parameter neighborhood of P
for a local uniformizing parameter z in terms of which P is represented
by z = 0 and set s2 = z, i. e., we map a two-sheeted covering of the
z-neighborhood on a simply covered neighborhood .E of s = 0. In terms

of this variable the differential equation (3.1) can be written as
ds
-
h = A s~'- 1 (1 + b1 s2+ b2 s4+ ... ) (3.2)
with appropriate constants A, b1 , b2 , • • • • Here we have made an

arbitrary choice of square root (which does not affect the trajectories)
and the series converges in some circle /sl < R contained in .E.
Now we substitute s = ( - A ([l- 2)Z)-1 i(f1- 2) with the root chosen
so that the differential equation (3.2) becomes
dZ
--;,;:r = 1 + c1 z-2i(p-2) + c2z-41("-2) + ... (3.3)
for constants c1 , c2 , • • • • The above mapping carries /s/ < R into a

([l- 2)-fold branch element, exterior to a circle in the Z-plane, on which
the series in Z- 2 /(1-'- 2) converges. Let us choose ß so that for /Z/ ~ ß
for each choice of the root. Set Z = X + i Y. Let the ([l- 2)-fold
branch element exterior to /Z/ = ß be denoted by B and let the branch
point on B covering Z = oo be denoted by T. Then on an integral curve
of (3.3) on B we have
(3.4)
Thus, irrsofaras such a curve lies on B, on it X varies monotonically

with -r and the curve has slope of absolute value less than one. Since
every point of B other than T is the image of a point of 9\- (C v H)
an integral curve of (3.3), as the image of a trajectory, cannot terminate
at a point of B covering a finite point of the Z-plane. Thus, in a given
sense, such a curve either tends to T or leaves B. If the curve tends
to Tin a particular sense the first inequality in (3.4) shows that also r
tends to infinity. Also it is clear that ~~ tends to zero, thus the curve
tends to Tin the direction of the positive or negative real axis. Thus
on B there are at T 2 p - 4 possible limiting directions.
An integral curve of (3.3) lying entirely on B lies simply above the
Z-plane thus has as limiting directions in its two senses a consecutive pair·
of the possible limiting directions. Such a curve A closed by T bounds
on B a simply-connected domain LI. An integral curve of (3.3) through
a point of LI cannot meet A and thus also lies entirely on B and must
have the same limiting directions.
Let B* be the branch element contained in B and lying exterior to the
circle /Z/ = 2'/, ß. If an integral curve of (3.3) passes through a point of
32 111. Quadratic Differentials
B* over ';>\ Z ~ 0, the fact that it has slope of absolute value less than
one shows that in the sense in which X increases the curve cannot reach
a point over IZI = ß thus must tend to T. Similarly an integral curve
of (3.3) through a point of B* over 9\ Z :;:;: 0 must tend to T in the sense
in which X decreases.
In particular an integral curve of (3.3) through a point of B* over the
imaginary Z-axis must tend to T in either sense. Such curves through
the 2 f l - 4 points of B* over ± 2'/, ßi andin the { l - 2 sheets of B* have
in turn each possible pair of limiting directions adjacent in cyclic
description about T as respective limiting directions in their two senses.
All the preceding statements translate back to give information about
the integral curves of (3.2) in a circle Isl < oc'/, (oc'/, ~ R). To each portion
of an image of a trajectory of Q (z) dz 2 in lzl < oc correspond two such
integral curves symmetric ins = 0. Translating the preceding statements
back into the z-plane and the neighborhood N on 9\ corresponding to
lzl < oc we then have all statements of Theorem 3.3 but the final one
under (iii).
To prove this statement we call upon the following lemma.
Lemma 3.1. In a simply-connected domain containing no critical
point of Q (z) dz 2 an arc of a trajectory and an arc of an orthogonal trajectory
can have at most one point of intersection.
This lemma is a special case of a general result for regular curve
families [115, 116]. Indeed in such a domain the trajectories form a
regular curve family and the orthogonal trajectories are transversals for
this family. In the present instance the result is an immediate conse-
quence of the manner in which the function J (Q(z)) '!, d z maps the domain.
Now let A be a trajectory as in (iii), D the corresponding domain.
Then an orthogonal trajectory entering D at a point of A must tend in
that sense to P meeting each trajectory in D once and once only (as we
see from the representation on the brauch element). From this the final
statement is immediate.
Theorem 3.4. Let the point P E H be a pole of order 2. Let z be a local
uniformizing parameter in terms of which Pis represented by the point z = 0.
Let (Q (z))-'/, have (for one choice of theroot) the expansion aboutz = 0
(Q(z))-'1•= (a + ib) z {1 + b1 z + b2 z 2 + · · ·} (3.5)

for suitable real constants a, b and complex bv b2 , • • • • The structure of the
images of the trajectories of Q(z) dz 2 regarded in the z-plane then comes
under three cases.
Case I, a =I= 0, b =I= 0: For oc > 0, sufficiently small, every trajectory
image which meets lzl < oc tends in the one sense to z = 0 and in the other
sense leaves lzl < oc. Both modulus and argument of z vary monotonically
on the trajectory image in Izl < oc. Each trajectory image spirals about z = 0,
behaving asymptotically like a logarithmic spiral.
Case II, a =I= 0, b = 0: For IX > 0, sufficiently small, every trafectory

image which meets lzJ < IX tends in the one sense to z = 0 andin the other
sense leaves Jzl < oc The modulus of z varies monotonically on the trafectory
image in lzl < IX. Distinct trafectory images have distinct limiting directions
atz= 0.
Case III, a = 0, b =I= 0: Given s > 0 there exists IX (s) > 0 such that
for 0 < IX ;;,"IX (s) a trafectory image which meets Izl = IX is a Jordan curve
which lies in the circular ring
IX (1 + s)-1 < lzl < IX (1 + s) .
The structure of tra j ectories near a pole of order two in the three
cases is indicated respectively in figures 4, 5 and 6.
Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6
Once agairr we can regard the trajectories as integral curves of the

differential equation
dz )2
Q(z) ( dT = 1
so that in the z-plane the trajectory images are integral curves of the
differential equation
~~ = (a + i b) z {1 + b z + 1 b2 z2 + · · ·}
in a suitably chosen circle J zl < R in which the series is convergent.
Substituting z = eZ the differential equation becomes
dZ
d-r:
= a + i b + c1 eZ + c2 e2Z + · · · (3.6)
for suitable constants cv c2, • • • • Under this mapping a left-hand half-

plane 9\ Z -;:;, log IX (IX < R) corresponds to 0 < Izl -;:;, IX covered by a
logarithmic branch element. The series in (3.6) converges uniformly
for 9\ Z-;:;, log IX. We agairrsetZ =X+ i Y.
Case I. We can choose IX sufficiently small so that for 9\ Z ;:::; log IX

Then on an integral curve of (3.6) in ~Z;:; log IX we have
ldxl > M2 ' laYI > Jli2 .

d-r: d-r:
(3.7)
Thus on such a curve X and Y vary monotonically with T. As in the

proof of Theorem 3.3 an integral curve of (3.6) cannot terminate at a
point of ~ Z ;:; 1\.ig IX. From the inequalities (3. 7) then follows that in the
one sense the curve must tend to Z = oo and in the other sense it must
leave X < log IX.
Setting W = (a + ib)-1 Z, W = U + iV, we have
dV
a.= S {blez+ bzezz+ ... }.
Thus for a suitable positive constant M
I~~ I
;:;MeX
in X < log IX. As a consequence the variation of V on the portion of an
integral curve of (3.6) to the left of the ordinate X = t tends to zero
as t approaches - oo. Hence the curve in question has as asymptote
a line with slope bja.
Translating these results back to the z-plane we obtain the statements
of Theorem 3.4 in Case I.
Case I I. We can choose IX sufficiently small so that for ~ Z ;:; log IX
Iei eZ + c2ezz + .. ·I < 1;1 .

Then on the portion of an integral curve of (3.6) in ?\ Z ;:; log IX we have
~~~\ >Jt.
Thus, on such a curve in X < log IX, X varies monotonically with T and,
as before, in the one sense the curve must tend to Z = oo, in the other
sense it must leave X < log IX.
For a suitable positive constant K
\ dXI < Kex

dYI
in X < log IX. As a consequence the variation of Y on the portion of an

integral curve of (3.6) to the left of the ordinate X = t tends to zero as t
approaches - oo.
Translating these results back to the z-plane we obtain the first two
statements of Theorem 3.4 in Case II. Further every trajectory image
has a limiting tangential direction at z = 0. It remains only to prove
these directions distinct for distinct trajectory images.
Since in Case II
J (Q(z))'l•dz = a-llog z + d0 + d1 z + ···
Global structure of the trajectories 35
in /z/ < cx with suitable constants d0 , dv ... , the function

f (z) = exp {a J (Q (z))'/, dz}
extended to have the value zero at z = 0 is regular for /z/ < cx with
f' (0) =F 0. It is thus univalent in a sufficiently small neighborhood of
z = 0. Further it carries the trajectory images into radial segments.
From this it follows at once that the limiting tangential directions at
z = 0 are distinct for distinct trajectory images.
Case III. In this case the function
g (z) = exp {ib J (Q (z))'/, dz}
extended to have the value zero at z = 0 will be regular and univalent
in a sufficiently small circle /z/ < r. It carries the trajectory images into
circles centred at the origin. The statements in Case III then follow from
the simplest local properties fo univalent functions. Case II could be
treated completely by this method also if one used the local star-like
property of univalent functions.
TEICHMÜLLER [187] first described the local structure of the trajec-
tories of a quadratic differential without proof. ScHAEFFER and SPEN-
CER [165] gave the first detailed account under the stated but irressential
condition that the quadratic differential be hyperelliptic. The author
gave a simpler version in [105].
3.3 In analyzing the global structure of the trajectories of a quadratic
differential it is advantageaus for our purposes to confine our attention
to finite oriented RIEMANN surfaces [106, 188]. A finite oriented Rm-
MANN surface SR is of finite genus and may have a finite nurober ofhyper-
bolic boundary components. If such boundary components are actually
present they have corresponding boundary uniformizers which map
boundary neighborhoods of 9\ onto sets in the upper half-plane so that,
in a weil defined sense boundary points of SR go into a segment on the
real axis. A finite oriented RIEMANN surface is conformally equivalent
to a domain lying on a closed RIEMANN surface and bounded by a finite
nurober (possibly zero) of simple closed analytic curves. Either in this
way or abstractly we may consider the boundary points of 9\ (if SR is not
closed) as being adjoined to 9\ and we denote the entity so obtained by?Z.
Definition 3.3. By a quadratic differential on a finite oriented Rie-
mann surface SR we mean a quadratic differential Q (z) dz 2 in the sense of
Definition 3.1 which satisfies the further condition that, in terms of a
boundary unijormizing parameter z, Q (z) is to be regular apart from simple
poles and real-valued on the segment oj the real axis corresponding to
boundary points oj SR.
Such a quadratic differential is thus a ScHOTTKY differential in the
sense of AHLFORS [2] providing we extend this concept so that singulari-
ties are allowed. For a quadratic differential as given in Definition 3.3
3*
=======
we understand the set C to include zeros and simple poles of Q(z) dz 2

on the boundary of ~. Boundary curves on which Q (z) dz 2 > 0 are
again called trajectories, those on which Q (z) dz 2 < 0 orthogonal
trajectories. If ~ is closed the additional condition of Definition 3.3 is
vacuous.
Definition 3.4. By a positive quadratic differential Q (z) dz 2 an a finite
oriented Riemann surface 9\ we mean a quadratic differential an 9\ such
that, in terms of a boundary uniformizing parameter z, Q (z) is positive
on the segment of the real axis corresponding to boundary points of ~ apart
from possible zeros of Q (z).
A positive quadratic differential is automatically regular on the
boundary of .9Z. In giving general results for finite oriented RIEMANN
surfaces we will agree to regard any quadratic differential on a closed
RIEMANN surface as positive even though the condition of Definition 3.4
is vacuous.
Lemma 3.2. Let a positive quadratic differential on a finite oriented
Riemann surface ~ of genus g with n boundary components have poles of
total order p and zeros of total order q, where boundary zeros (necessarily
of even order) are counted with half multiplicity. Then
p- q = 4- 4g- 2n.
This is readily derived from well known results on algebraic func-
tions [86, 188].
If Q (z) dz 2 is a quadratic differential on a RIEMANN surface ~ its
trajectories form a regular curve family on 9\ - (C v H) [115, 116].
Indeed with a slight extension of the notion of regular curve family this
would be true even on 9\- H.
Definition 3.5. A set K an 9\ is called an F-set (with respect to Q (z) dz 2)
if any trafectory of Q (z) dz 2 which meets K lies entirely in K.
Definition 3.6. By the inner closure of a set on 9\ we mean the inferior
of the closure of the set. The inner closure of a set K will be denoted by K.
In the following four definitions [106, 117] we understand in each
case 9\ tobe a finite oriented RIEMANN surface, Q (z) dz 2 tobe a quadratic
differential on ~.
Definition 3.7. An end domain ~ (relative to Q (z) dz 2 ) isamaximal
connected open F-set an 9\ with the properlies
(i) ~ contains no critical point of Q (z) dz 2 ,
(ii) <f is swept out by trafectories of Q (z) dz 2 each of which has a limiting
end point in each of its possible senses at a given point A in H,
(iii) <f is mapped by t, = J (Q (z))'f,dz conformally onto an upper or
lower half-plane in the t, -plane ( depending an the choice of determination).
It is seen at once that A must be a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order at least
three.
==================
Definition 3.8. A strip domain 6 (relative to Q (z) dz 2) ts a maximal
connected open F -set on 0t with the properfies
(i) 6 contains no critical point of Q (z) dz 2 ,
(ii) 6 is swept out by trajectories of Q (z) dz 2 each of which has at one
point A in H in the one sense a limiting end point and at another ( possibly
coincident) point B in H in the other sense a limiting end point,
(iii) 6 is mapped by C= f (Q (z)) '/, dz conformally onto a strip
a <SC< b (a, b finite real numbers, a < b).
It is not hard to see by examples [117] that A and B may be poles
of Q (z) dz 2 of order two or more.
Definition 3.9. A circle domain <r (relative to Q (z) dz 2) is a maximal
connected open F-set on 0t with the properfies
(i) <r contains a single double pole A of Q (z) dz 2,
(ii) <r- A is swept out by trajectories of Q (z) dz 2 each of which is a
] ordan curve separating A from the boundary of <r,
(iii) for a suitably chosen purely imaginary constant c the function
w = exp {c J (Q (z))'f,dz}
extended to have the value zero at A maps <r conformally onto a circle
J wJ < R, A going into the point w = 0.
Definition 3.10. A ring domain ~ (relative to Q (z) dz 2) is a maximal

connected open F-set on 0t with the properfies
(i) ~ contains no critical point of Q (z) d z 2 ,
(ii) ~ is swept out by trajectories of Q (z) d z 2 each of which is a Jordan
curve,
(iii) for a suitably chosen purely imaginary constant c the function
w = exp {c J (Q (z))'l,dz}
maps ~ conformally onto a circular ring
r 1 < JwJ < r 2 (0 < r 1 < r 2 ) •
When working with a particular quadratic differential Q (z) dz 2 we
will speak of these types of domains without explicit mention of the
quadratic differential.
3.4 We are now ready to prove a principal result.
Theorem 3.5. (Basic Structure Theorem.) LetCJ\ be a finite oriented
Riemann surface and Q (z) dz 2 a positive quadratic differential on 0t
where we exclude the following possibilities and all configurations obtained
from them by conformal equivalence:
I. CJ\ the z-sphere, Q (z) dz 2= dz2,
II. CJ\ the z-sphere, Q (z) dz 2 = Keirx dz 2 fz 2, rx real, K positive,
III. CJ\ a torus, Q (z) dz 2 regular on 9t.
Let </J denote the union of all trajectories which have a limiting end
point at a point of C. Then
(i) ?\- iP consists of a finite number of end, strip, circle and ring
domains,
(ii) each such domain is bounded by a finite number of trajectories
tagether with the points at which the latter meet; every boundary component
of such a domain contains a point of C exept that a boundary component
of a circle or ring domain may coincide with a boundary component of 9\;
for a strip domain the two boundary elements arising from points of H
divide the boundary into two parts on each of which is a point of C,
(iii) every pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order m greater than two has a neighbor-
hood covered by the inner closure of m- 2 end domains and a finite number
( possibly zero) of strip domains,
(iv) every pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order two has a neighborhood covered by the
inner closure of a finite number of strip domains or has a neighborhood
contained in a circle domain,
(v) the inner closure iJ of cfJ is an F-set consisting of a finite number
of domains on 9\ each with a finite number ( possibly zero) of boundary
components,
(vi) each boundary component of such a domain is a piecewise analytic
curve composed of trajectories and their limiting e'!_d points in C.
Explicit examples [117] readily show that cfJ need not be empty and
indeed may contain any finite number of components.
The function C= f (Q (z)) '/, dz maps 9\- H in general in a one-
many fashion onto a RIEMANN surface U lying above the C-plane. This
mapping, denoted by 5', is locally univalent apart from the points of C.
From the fact that ~ is compact and the local structure of the tra jectories
of Q (z) dz 2 in the neighborhoods of points of ?\ follows that starting
at a point on U other than a branch point and moving horizontally we
either proceed indefinitely or reach the image of a point of C.
Any two determinations C1 and C2 of Cin the neighborhood of a point
of ?\- (C v H) are related by an equation of the form
where B is a constant depending on the particular determinations.

Thus if two points on U correspond to the same point on 9\ there is a
rigid motion of U (i. e. a translationplus a possible rotation through 180°)
which carries the one point into the other and carries U into itself as a
whole.
On U let the set of all images of points of cfJ be denoted by P. Since
at points of 9\- (C IJ H) the mapping 5' is locally a homeomorphism
the closure P of P on U is the set 5' (iP).
N ow ll - rp might be void in which case so is ~ - iP and iJ
is 9\
itself. Otherwise every component of U -- P contains with each of its
points the horizontal straight line through that point and lies simply
above the C-plane. It thus covers simply one of the following
(a) a horizontal strip, a < 8' C 8' C(a a finite real number),
(c) the entire 2,"-plane.
(a) Let a component 5 of U ~ TJl cover the strip a < 8' C < b. Let P
be a point on the centreline of s(which covers \} 2," a;b ). Let P=fJ (p),
=
p E0\. Let Q be another point in 5, Q = f5' (q), q E0\. Then if p has no

image but P in S, q has no image but Q in S. Indeed, otherwise there
would be a non-identical rigid motion of U into itself leaving P fixed and
interchanging points corresponding to the same point on 0\. This would
mean that iJ would not be locally a homeomorphism at p which is
impossible forapointnot in il>. Thus if p has no image but P in S, 5 is
the (1,1) image underfJ of a simply-connected domain6 on 0\ ~ (C V H).
We will show now that 6 is a strip domain.
Let us divide 6 into two subdomains 6L and 6R by an arc which
maps into a segment <;R C= constant, a :;:;; S 2," :;:;; b. If no trajectory
ray in6L had a limiting end point at a point of H, 6L would be bounded
from H by Theorems 3.3 and 3.4. Then 6 L would be mapped by f5' onto
a domain with finite area on U, contrary to fact. Thus at least one
trajectory ray in 6 L has a limiting end point at a point A in H. From
Theorems 3.3 and 3.4 we see that if we take a sufficiently small neighbor-
hood N of A, any point K in N and a segment a on an orthogonal
trajectory centred at K of sufficiently short but fixed length (independent
of K) in the metric JQ (z) J'''JdzJ, then every trajectory meeting a will tend
to A in a given sense of leaving a if one such does. Thus every trajectory
ray in 6L tends to A as limiting end point. Similarly every trajectory
ray in 6R has limiting end point at a point B in H (possibly coincident
with A). Since 6 is a component of <;n- iJ5 it is thus a strip domain
according to Definition 3.8.
Suppose now that p has other images than P in S. These images
must be isolated since f5' is locally a homeomorphism on 0\- (C V H)
and must lie on the centre line of 5. Let P* besuch an image at minimal
distance from P and to the right of P on the centre line of 5. The rigid
motion of U carrying P into P* must be a translation since if not the
argument used above would show that the midpoint of the segment PP*
would be the image under iJ of a simple pole of Q (z) dz 2 • Let the
translation be then C--;. C+ h, h positive. We see at once that this
translation and the group it generates are the only rigid motions of U
which relate points of 5 which are the images under iJ of the same point
of 0\. The mapping ® of 5 given by the function w = exp ( Z~i 2,") maps
S onto the circular ring
exp (- 2 ;b) < Jwj < exp (- -2 ~a) 0 (308)
Further it is suchthat ® 5' is a (1,1) mappingofa domain ~ on'?\-(C u H)

onto the circular ring (308) 0 Since by this latter mapping trajectories in~
are carried into concentric circles it follows that ~ is a ring domain in tl:e
sense of Definition 301 Oo
(b) Let now a component E of ll- P cover the half-plane 6 C> a
or 5 C < a, for definiteness say the former. Let P be a point on E, the
image of p in 9\ under 5'0 Then if p has other images in E it follows at
once that they comprise all points of the form P + nh with h positive
and n running through all integerso Further the same situation obtains
whatever point we take in E (and with the same value of h)o Let us take
the mapping f> of E given by the function w = exp(
in a many-one fashion onto the punctured circle
z:i C)o ThismapsE
0 < Iw! < exp - Zna)

( -h- o (3.9)
However the combined ma pping .f) 5' will carry a domain E on 9\- (C u H)
in a (1,1) manner onto the punctured circle (309)0 Since this domain has
a degenerate boundary component the latter must consist of a point A
of 9\0 At this point w will be an admissible local uniformizing parameter.
In terms of this
Thus A isadouble pole of Q (z) dz 2 Let us derrote the domain Eu A

o
by <ro Since the mapping .f) 5' carries trajectories in <r into concentric
circles it follows that <r is a circle domain in the sense of Definition 3.9.
Suppose now that for P on E, P = rr
(p), p E 9\, p has no other image
in Eo Then E is the (1,1) image of a simply-connected domain G: in
9\- (C V H). As in alternative (a) it follows that all trajectories in G:
tend in the one sense to a point A in H in the other sense to a point B
in H, possibly coincident with Ao However from Theorem 303 (iv)
follows that if a set of trajectories tend to distinct elements in Hin their
respective senses and their union contains a segment of an orthogonal
trajectory the latter has bounded length in the metric JQ (z)j'/, jdz/0
Hence the trajectories in ~ tend to the same point of H in both their
senses and G: is an end domain in the sense of Definition 3070
(c) If a component of lt- P covers the whole finite C-plane it must
comprise all of ll so that P and thus ifJ and C are empty. If PE ll is
then the image by 5' of p in 9\ and p has no other image in ll it follows
as before that ll is a (1, 1) image of 9\- Ho The set H must consist of a
single element A and 9\ must be conformally equivalent to a sphere.

In terms of the parameter C
Q (z) dz 2 = d C2
thus A is a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order four. The configuration is thus
conformally equivalent to thc excluded possibility I.
If PE 1l satisfies P = fY (p), p E9\, and p has other images in U
suppose that they all arise from P under the group of transformations
generated by a translation
Then as before it follows that the same is true for every point in U.
The mapping ~ given by the function w = exp ( -~:~- C) is then suchthat
~fr maps 9\- H in a (1,1) manner on the w-sphere with the points
w = 0 and w = oo deleted. The set H then consists of two points and 9\
is conformally equivalent to a sphere. In terms of the parameter w
h2 dw 2
Q (z) dz 2 = d "'?" 2 = ----- =
4n 2 w2
K ei" dw 2 fw 2
for suitable real 'X and positive K. The configuration is thus conformally
equivalent to the excluded possibility II.
If PE 1l satisfies P = rr
(p), p E 9\, and p has other images in U
beyond those obtained under a group of transformations generated by a
single translation it follows as in the theory of doubly-periodic func-
tions [91 J that these points are the set of points of the form
(3.10)
where n, m take allintegral values and w 1 , w 2 are complex numbers with
S _f'l2_ > 0. The same conclusion follows at once for all points of U and
w,
9\- H is thus conformally equivalent to the surface obtained by
identifying the sets of points given by (3.1 0). This surface is a torus and
thus H must be empty. The quadratic differential Q (z) dz 2 is then
regular and non-zero on 9\. It is seen at once that the ratio of two such
quadratic differentials is constant. This configuration is thus conformally
equivalent to excluded possibility III.
Since alternative (c) leads only to the excluded possibilities while
alternatives (a) and (b) provide end, strip, circle or ring domains state-
ment (i) of Theorem 3.5 is proved. Note that every point of His in i/5
apart from a double pole in a circle domain.
To prove statement (ii) we observe that a domain on 1l such as E or S
is bounded on U by trajectory images possibly meeting at images of
points of C which are isolated. If the corresponding domain D on 9\ is a
circle or ring domain there can clearly be at most a finite number of
trajectory images in a portion of the boundary of E or S representing the
boundary of D and there will be actually images of points of C on each

component of it unless the corresponding boundary component of D
is a boundary component of 9\. If the corresponding domain D on <;.)\
is an end or strip domain the boundary portians of E or S for which
9\ Z: > M or <;.){ Z: <- M with M positive and sufficiently large are the
images of the portion of a trajectory in the canonical neighborhood of a
point of H as described in Theorem 3.3 or Theorem 3.4 (Case I or II).
They will thus be free from the images of points of C and from the limit
points of such images. Thus there are only a finite nurober of trajectory
images in the boundary of E or 5. For an end domain there is a point
of C on the boundary (since no point of H is on the boundary of <;.l\).
For a strip domain the two boundary elements arising from points of H
divide the boundary into two parts on each of which is a point of C.
To prove statement (iii) we take for a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order m
greater than two the neighborhood N* of Theorem 3.3. The intersection
of c[J with this neighborhood consists of just a finite number of open
arcs on trajectories. Thus 9\- (/J is everywhere dense on N*. However
N* can meet no circle or ring domain thus it is in the inner closure of a
finite number of end and strip domains.
Statement (iv) is immediate for a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order two if
that pole lies in a circle domain. If not we take for the pole the neighbor-
hood N on <;.)\ corresponding to the circle [z[ < IX in Case I or Case II of
Theorem 3.4. The intersection of N with <P consists of a finite number
of open arcs on trajectories. Further N cannot meet an end, circle or
ring domain. Thus N lies in the inner closure of a finite nurober of strip
domains.
Removing from <;.)\ all end, strip, circle and ring domains tagether with
their boundaries we have left a finite nurober of domains on 9\ each
bounded by a finite nurober of piecewise analytic curves composed of
trajectories and their limiting end points inAC. [No point of H intervenes
by (iv).] However this residual set is just <P which is evidently an F-set.
This proves statements (v) and (vi) and completes the proof of Theorem 3.5.
3.5 In the work of ScHAEFFER and SPENCER [165] on the coefficient
problern for univalent functions considerable emphasis was placed on
shm~ing that for certain special quadratic differentials on the sphere the
set c[J was empty. Actually proper use of the General Coefficient Theorem
of Chapter IV would have obviated the necessity for such a consideration.
However there is considerable independent interest in giving conditions
under which this situation obtains.
\Ve begin with a discussion of the manner in which a positive quadratic
differential on a finite oriented RIEMANN surface 9\ induces positive
quadratic differentials on certain subdomains of 9\.
The Three Pole Theorem 43
Lemma 3.3. Let Q (z) dz 2 be a positive quadratic differential on a finite

oriented Riemann surface ~- Let L1 be a subdomain of ~ bounded by a
finite number of trajectories tagether with their limiting end points which
are to be in each case points in C tagether with a finite number of arcs in
~- H on closures of trajectories. Fora well defined assignment of boundary
uniformizing Parameters LI becomes a finite oriented Riemann surface. The
quadratic differential Q (z) dz 2 induces a positive quadratic differential
QLI (z) dz 2 on L1 for which the following statements hold:
(i) a boundary point of L1 not at a point of C or the end point of a
boundary arc is a regular boundary point of QLI (z) dz 2 ,
(ii) a boundary point of LI at a simple pole of Q (z) dz 2 is a regular
boundary point of QLI (z) dz 2 ,
(iii) a boundary point P of LI at a zero of Q (z) dz 2 of ordern such that
locally m trajectory arcs with limiting end point at P are contained in LI
is a boundary zero of QLI (z) dz 2 of order 2m,
(iv) a boundary point of LI at the end point of a boundary arc and not
in Cis a double boundary zero of QLI (z) dz 2 •
At points of L1 we use of course the same local uniformizing parameters
as for ~- To obtain the quadratic differential QLI (z) dz 2 induced by
Q (z) dz2 on L1 we assign to such a parameter z the function Q (z).
A boundary uniformizing parameter for LI at a point P is obtained by
mapping the intersection with L1 of a neighborhood N of P on ~ con-
formally on a set in the upper half-plane \J z > 0 so that the intersection
of the boundary of L1 with N goes into a segment on the real axis.
At a boundary point of L1 not in C or at the end point of a boundary
arc such a mapping is provided (for suitable choice of determination and
constant of integration) by C= J (Q (z))'l•di. In terms of this
Q (z) dz 2 = d C2 •
Thus the boundary point is a regular boundary point of QLI (z) d z2 •
At a boundary point of LI which isasimple pole of Q (z) dz 2 the same
mapping defines a boundary uniformizing parameter thus again we have
a regular boundary point of QLI (z) dz 2•
At a boundary point P of LI at a zero of Q (z) dz 2 of ordern suchthat
locally m trajectory arcs with limiting end point at P are contained
in LI a boundary uniformizing parameter is provided (for suitable choice
1
of determination) by T = Cm+l with Cas above. In terms of this
Thus Pis a boundary zero of QLI (z) dz 2 of order 2 m.

At a boundary point of LI at the end point of a boundary arc and
not in C a boundary uniformizing parameter is provided (for suitable
choice of determination) by r = (1'. In terms of this

Q (z) dz 2= d C2 = 4 r 2 dr 2 •
Thus the point is a boundary zero of QLl (z) of order two.

dz 2
Lemma 3.4. Let 9Z be a simply-connected domain of hyperbolic type
and Q (z) dz 2 a positive quadratic differential an m regular apart from two
simple poles. Then in the notation of Theorem 3.5, iP is an arc joining
these poles and 9\- iP is a ring domain.
The surface 9\ can be mapped conformally on the unit circle \zj < 1
so that the simple poles go into the points 0 and r (0 < r < 1). The
quadratic differential
dz 2
Q (z) dz2= z(z-r) (z-r-•)
is a positive quadratic differential on \zj < I with simple poles at 0 and r.

Thus the ratio of Q (z) dz 2 (taken in \z\ < I) and Q (z) dz 2 is regular
on \zl < 1 and takes positive values on jzj = 1. Thus for a positive
constant A.
Q (z) dz 2 =}. Q (z) dz 2
and Q (z) dz 2 , Q (z) dz 2 have the same trajectories. The statements of
the lemma are verified directly in the case of Q (z) dz 2 •
Lemma 3.5. Let 9Z be a doubly-connected domain ( of planar type,
with non-degenerate boundary components) and Q (z) dz 2 a regularpositive
quadratic differential on 9\. Then, in the notation of Theorem 3.5, i[J is
void and mis itself a ring domain.
The surface 9Z can be mapped conformally onto the circular ring
r 1 < jzj < r2 (3.11)
for certain rv r 2 (0 < r 1 < r 2 ). The quadratic differential
dz 2
Q (z) dz 2 = - 7
is a regularpositive quadratic differential on the ring (3.11). Thus as in

Lemma 3.4
Q (z) dz 2=}. Q (z) dz 2
forapositive constant A. The statement of Lemma 3.5 is then immediate.
Lemma 3.6. Let 9Z be a doubly-connected domain ( of planar type with
non-degenerate boundary components) and Q (z) dz 2 a positive quadratic
differential an 9\ regular apart from one simple pole P. Then Q (z) dz2
has eilher one simple zero in 9\ or a double boundary zero. In eilher case
we denote this point by Q. Then in the notation of Theorem 3.5, i!J consists
of a trajectory joining P and Q, a trajectory running from Q back to Q,
P and Q, and 9\- iP consists of one or two ring domains.
The statement concerning the zero of Q (z) dz 2 follows by Lemma 3.2.
The surface 9\ can be mapped conformally on a domain ~ consisting
of the z-plane slit along rectilinear segments from z1 to z2 and from z3 to z4

where z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 are real with z1 < z2 < z3 < z4 and so that further P
goes into a point z* with z 2 < z* < z3 •
Then for every IX, z 2 ~ IX < z* or z* < IX ~ z3
_ _ _ _ (z--cx) dz 2
Q (z, IX) dz 2 = - (z-z1 ) (z-z 2 ) (z-z 3 ) (z-z,) (z-z*)
(where if IX is equal to z2 or z3 we understand the equal factors to be
cancelled) isapositive quadratic differential on ~, regularapart from z*
and with a. a simple zero on ~ or a double boundary zero (see Lemma3.3).
Now the image of Q will be a point say with affix z0 • We choose IX subject
to the above conditions, in ~ and distinct from z0 • Then the quotient
cp (z) = Q (z) dz 2 jQ (z, IX) dz 2
is a function regular in~ apart from IX which isasimple pole and taking
non-negative real values on the boundary of ~- We see at once that
w = cp (z) maps ~ conformally onto the w-plane slit along segments on
the positive real axis (possibly including the origin) with IX going into
the point at infinity. By symmetry the segment of the real axis on the
w-sphere complementary to these slits and containing the point at
infinity is the image of the segment z2 < z < z3 • Further the origin is the
point corresponding to the image of Q. Thus z0 lies on the segment
z 2 ~ z ~ z3 • It follows at once that for a suitable positive constant A
Q (z) dz 2 = A Q (z, z0 ) dz 2 •
Hence Q (z) dz 2 , considered in~, has the same trajectories as Q (z, z 0 ) dz 2

for which the statements of Lemma 3.6 are readily verified directly.
Lemma 3.7. Let~ be a triply-connected domain (of planar type with
non-degenerate boundary components) and Q (z) dz 2 a regular positive
quadratic differential on ~- The surface ~ admits a unique anti-conformal
mapping A onto itself which leaves invariant each boundary component.
The set of fixed points under A constitutes three analytic arcs on ~ which are
collectively termed the line of symmetry L of ~- The zeros of Q (z) dz 2 fall
under one of the following cases
(i) two simple zeros Q1 and Q2 in~ interchanged by A,
(ii) two zeros Q1 and Q2 on the same component of L, simple if in ~'
double if boundary zeros,
(iii) one zero Q on L, double if in~' four-fold if a boundary zero,
(iv) two double boundary zeros Q1 and Q2 on the same boundary com-
ponent interchanged by A.
In these respective cases iP consists of
(i) (iv) three trajectories joining Q1 and Q2 , Q1 and Q2,
(ii) a trajectory joining Q1 and Q2 , a trajectory running from Q1 back
to Q1 , a trajectory running from Q2 back to Q2 , Q1 and Q2 ,
(iii) two trajectories, each running from Q back to Q and Q.

In the various cases 9Z- iP consists of one, two or three ring domains.
By Lemma 3.2 Q (z) dz 2 has zeros of total multiplicity two where
boundary zeros are counted with half multiplicity. The surface 9Z can be
mapped conformally onto a domain ~ consisting of the z-plane slit along
rechlinear segments from z1 to z 2 , from z3 to z4 and from z5 to z6 where
z1 , z 2 , z3 , z4 , z5, z6 are real with z1 < z2 < z3 < z 4 < z5 < z 6 • Under this
mapping the segments complementary to z1 < z < z2 , z3 < z < z4 , z5 < z < z 6
are the images of the components of L and the mapping A becomes
conjugation.
On~ we regard the quadratic differentials
Q ( * **) d 2 (z-z*) (z-z**) dz 2

(3.12)
Z, Z 'Z Z = - (z-z 1 ) (z-z 2 ) (z-z3 ) (z-z 4 ) (z-z5 ) (z-zo)
where either
(a) 8z*>O,z**=z*,
(b) z*= z**, z1 < z*< z2 or z3 < z*< z4 or z5 < z*< z 6 ,
(c) z* and z** both lie in the same interval complementary to those
given under (b) [in particular z* or z** may be at the point at infinity
which is manifested by the corresponding factor being omitted in (3.12)].
It is seen at once that in each case .Q (z, z*, z**) dz 2 is a regular
positive quadratic differential on ~. It is understood that when equal
factors appear in the numerator and denominator they aretobe cancelled.
Suppose first that Q (z) dz 2 (taken in ~) has a zero at 7: where
8 7: =F 0. Then unless this isasimple zero and i is also a zero of Q (z) dz 2
the ratio
"P (z) = Q (z) dz 2 j.Q (z, T, i) dz 2
will have a simple pole at i and be real and non-negative on the boundary
of ~. The mapping w = "P (z) is seentobe a conformal mapping of ~
onto the w-plane slit along segments on the positive real axis (possibly
including the origin). The line of symmetry of ~ would have to go into
the remainder of the real axis. However i has as image the point at
infinity thus would lie on the line of symmetry. This is impossible and
hence "P (z) reduces to a positive constant A and
Q (z) dz 2 = A .Q (z, i, i) dz 2 •
Next let Q (z) dz 2 have a zero at a point of the line of symmetry.

Let this point taken in ~ be z* and let z be a point on the open interval
corresponding to that component of L and distinct from z* and the
possible other zero of Q (z) dz 2 • Then
X (z) = Q (z) dz 2 j.Q (z, z*, z) dz 2
z
has a simple pole at and is real and non-negative on the boundary
components of ~. Thus w = X (z) provides a conformal mapping of ~
onto the w-plane slit along segments on the positive real axis (possibly
including the origin). Agairr the line of symmetry of ~ goes into the
z
remainder of the real axis and into the point at infinity. The origin
in the w-plane is the image of a zero z** of Q (z) dz 2 which lies on the
z
same component of the line of symmetry as and, in particular, may
coincide with z*. As before it follows that
Q (z) dz 2 = A Q (z, z*, z**) dz 2

for a suitable positive constant A.
Finally let Q (z) dz 2 have a zero Q at a boundary point which is
represented in the z-plane by one of the boundary points of ~ with
affix z* where z1 < z* < z2 , z3 < z* < z4 or z 5 < z* < z6 • Consider the ratio
() (z) = Q (z) dz 2 jQ (z, z*, z*) dz 2 •
If Q (z) dz 2 has a zero also at the boundary point related to Q by the

mapping A this reduces as before to a positive constant. If not we see
that w = () (z) would map ~ conformally onto the w-plane slit along
segments on the positive real axis (possibly including the origin) one of
which would extend to the point at infinity. Again the line of symmetry
would go into the remainder of the real axis and Q would lie at an end
point of a component of L. This is impossible and thus the firstalternative
holds.
We have now shown that Q (z) dz 2 regarded in ~ has thc same
trajectory structure as one of the quadratic differentials given by (3.12).
For these it is readily verified directly that the statements of Lemma 3.7
are correct (see [92]). Foranother proof of Lemma 3.7 see [93].
Theorem 3.6 (Three Pole Theorem). Let <;R be the z-sphere, Q (z) dz 2
a quadratic differential with n~t more than three distinct poles. Then,
in the notation of Theorem 3.5, ([J is empty.
By Lemma 3.2 there must be at least one pole of Q (z) dz 2 with order
greater than one. For excluded possibilities I and II of Theorem 3.5
the result of Theorem 3.6 is immediate.
Suppose first that Q (z) dz 2 has just one pole P of order greater than
one and is not one of these possibilities. Then by Theorem 3.5 (iii) or (iv)
P has a neighborhood covered by the inner closure of a ifnite nurober of
end, strip or circle domains. Removing the closures of these domains
from 9Z we have left at most af inite nurober of simply-connected domains
each bounded by a piecewise analytic curve composed of a finite nurober
of trajectories and their end points in C. By Lemma 3.3 Q (z) dz 2
induces a positive quadratic differential on each such domain. By
Lemma 3.2 such a domain can exist only if it contains two simple poles
of Q (z) dz 2 • The result of Lemma 3.4 then completes the proof of
Theorem 3.6 in this case.
-----·---· ----
48 IV. The General Coefficient Theorem
Next suppose that Q (z) dz 2 has two poles P 1 and P 2 of order greater
than one. Each of P 1 and P 2 has a neighborhood covered by the inner
closure of a finite nurober of end, strip or circle domains. Removing the
closures of these domains from 9Z we have left at most a doubly-connected
domain bounded by piecewise analytic curves composed of a finite
number of trajectories and their end points in C (simply-connected
domains are excluded by the argument of the preceding paragraph).
The positive quadratic differential induced by Q (z) dz 2 on such a domain
is either regular or has one simple pole. We thus have the situation
either of Lemma 3.5 or of Lemma 3.6 and Theorem 3.6 is proved in this
case.
Finally let Q (z) dz 2 have three poles P 1 , P 2 and P 3 of order greater
than one. Each of these has a neighborhood covered by the inner
closure of a finite nurober of end, strip or circle domains. Removing the
closures of these domains from 9Z we have left at most a doubly-connected
domain or a triply-connected domain bounded by piecewise analytic
curves composed of a finite number of trajectories and their end points
in C. The positive quadratic differential induced by Q (z) dz 2 on such
a domain is regular. The result of Theorem 3.6 then follows from
Lemma 3.5 or Lemma 3.7.
Corollary 3.2. Let 9Z be a finite oriented Riemann surface and Q (z) dz 2
be a positive quadratic differential on 9\ coming zmder one of the following
possibilities.
1. 9Z a simply-connected domain of hyperbolic type, Q (z) dz 2 with not
more than two distinct poles,
2. 9Z a doubly-connected domain ( of planar type with non-degenerate
boundary components), Q (z) dz 2 with not more than one pole,
3. 9Z a triply-connected domain ( of planar type with non-degenerate
boundary components), Q (z) dz 2 regular.~
Then in the notation of Theorem 3.5, c{J is empty.
It can readily be shown that the conditions of Theorem 3.6 and
Corollary 3.2 are the only conditior:_s on genus, connectivity and number
of distinct pol es which assure that c{J is empty (compare [117]).
Chapter Four
The General Coefficient Theorem
4.1 TEICHMÜLLER [188] enunciated the principle that the solution
of a certain type of extremal problern in Geometrie Function Theory
is in general associated with a quadratic differential. If in the problern
a point is assumed to be fixed without further requirement the quadratic
differential will have a simple pole there. If in addition the functions
treated in the problern are required to have at the point, in terms of
Definitions 49
suitably assigned local uniformizing parameters, fixed values for their

first n derivatives, the quadratic differential will have a pole of order
n + 1 there. More generally, the highest derivative occurring may not
be required to be fixed but some condition on its region of variation
may be desired. TEICHMÜLLER was led to this principle by abstraction
from the numerous results of GRÖTZSCH [61-78] and by his considera-
tions on quasiconformal mappings. However he never gave anything
in the nature of an explicit general result embodying this principle.
In this chapter we will prove the General Coefficient Theorem which,
while it does not exhaust the possibilities of application of TEICH-
MÜLLER's principle (other applications will be given in Chapter VIII)
does constitute a precise formulation of this principle for a wide dass of
extremal problems and does include as special cases almost all standard
results for univalent functions of the classes S and .I:.
Definition 4.1. Let 9\ be a finite oriented Riemann surface, Q (z) d z 2
a quadratic differential on 9\. By an admissible family {Ll} of domains LI;,
f = 1, ... , k, on 9\ with respect to Q (z) dz 2 we mean the complement on 9\
of the union of a finite set of trajectories of Q (z) dz 2 each of which is either
closed or has a limiting end point in each sense at a point of C, possible end
points of these trajectories and a finite mtmber of arcs in 9\- H on closures
o f trajectories.
Clearly every point of His interior to a domain Ll;. There may of
course be just one domain in the family and either the set of complete
trajectories orthat of trajectory arcs may be void.
Definition 4.2. Let {LI} be an admissible family of domains LI;.
j = 1, ... , k on the finite oriented Riemann surface 9\ with respect to the
qttadratic differential Q (z) dz 2 • Let{/} be a family of functions f;, i = 1, ... ,
k, with the following properties
(i) /; maps LI; conformally into 9\,
(ii) if a pole A of Q (z) dz 2 lies in L1 ;. f 1 (A) = A,
(iii) /;(Ll;) nfr(Lir) = 0, i =I= l, j, l = 1, ... , k.
Then the family {/} is said to admit an admissible homotopy F into the
k
identity if there exists a function F (P, t) defined for P EV L1 i• 0 ~ t ~ 1,
j~ 1
with values in'R, continuous in both variables tagether satisfying the following
conditions
(a) F(P,O) =f;(P), PELld= 1, ... , k,
k
(b) F(P, 1) = P, PE vLl;,
j~l
k
(c) F (P, t) = P, Pa pole of Q (z) dz 2 in \.J LI;, 0 ~ t ~ 1,
i=l
(d) F (P, t) =!= Q, Q a pole of Q (z) dz 2 in 9\, P =I= Q, 0 ~ t ~ 1.
Lemma 4.1. Let {/} be a family of functions satisfying conditions (i),

(ii), (iii) of Definition 4.2 and admitting an admissible homotopy F into
the identity. Let A be an element of H and N the neighborhood of a local
uniformizing parameter z in terms of which A is represented by z = 0.
For P sufficiently near to A, F (P, t), 0:;;; t;;::; 1, will lie in N- {A}.
Let i5 (F, P) denote the change in argument as we describe the image of
F (P, t) from the image of F (P, 1) to that of F (P, 0) in the z-plane.
Then
lim b (F, P)
P-->A
exists and is independent of the choice of local uniformizing parameter z.

Note however that b (F, P) may depend on this choice ofparameter.
Indeed suppose A lies in L1 1. Then in terms of the local uniformizing
parameterz the mapping f 1 is locally represented by a T AYLOR series
f1 (z) = az + higher powers of z.

It is readily seen that the above limit is equal to one of the possible
values of arg a which does not depend on the choice of local uniformizing
parameter.
Definition 4.3. Let {LJ} be an admissible family of domains on the finite
oriented Riemann surface 9\ with respect to the quadratic differential
Q (z) dz 2 • Let {f} be a family of functions satisfying the conditions (i),
(ii), (iii) of Definition 4.2 and admitting an admissible homotopy F into
the identity. Then for a pole A in H the limit of Lemma 4.1 is called the
deformation degree of the family {f} for the homotopy F at A and is denoted
by d (F, A).
Definition 4.4. Let {L1} be an admissible family of domains L1 1, j = 1, ... ,
k, on the finite oriented Riemann surface 9\ with respect to the quadratic
differential Q (z) dz 2 • Then by an admissible family {f} of functions /;,
j = 1, ... , k, associated with {LJ} we mean a family with the following
properfies
(i) f 1 maps L1 1 conformally into 9\, j = 1, ... , k,
(ii) if a pole A of Q (z) dz 2 lies in L1 1, f1 (A) = A,
(iii) f1 (L1 1) nfz (L1 1) = 0, j =f= l, j, l = 1, ... , k,
(iv) if Ais a double pole of Q (z) dz 2 in L1; in terms of a local parameterz
representing A as the point at infinity f1 (z) admits locally the representation
f1 (z) = az + a 0 + a1 /z + higher powers of z-1 , a =f= 0, (4.1)
(v) if A is a pole of order m greater than two of Q (z) dz 2 in L1 1 in terms

of a local parameter z representing A as the point at infinity f1 (z) admits
locally the representation
f 1 (z) = z+ :;::::}· + higher powers of z- 1 (4.2)

Statement of the General Coefficient Theorem 51
(vi) the family {/} admits an admissible homotopy F into the identity,
(vii) the homotopy F can be chosen so that ij A is a pole of order m greater
than two of Q (z) dz 2 on the boundary of a strip domain then
d(F,A)=O.
For our purposes it is more convenient to use a parameterz conditioned
as in (iv) or (v) rather than the conventionallocal uniformizing parameter.
In these representations it is understood that f; (z) and z are both
evaluated in terms of the same local parameter. Then it is readily seen
that in terms of any other similarly conditioned local parameter we
have an expansion of the same form as (4.1) or (4.2) although possibly
with different numerical values for the coefficients.
Theorem 4.1. (General Coefficient Theorem). Let m be a finite
oriented Riemann surface, Q (z) dz 2 a positive quadratic differential on ~.
{LI} an admissible jamily of domains Li;, i = 1, ... , k, on m relative to
Q (z) dz 2 and {/} an admissible family of functions /;. i = 1, ... , k,
associated with {Li}. Let Q (z) dz 2 have double poles P 1 , . . . , Pr and poles
Pr+v ... , P n of order greater than two. W e allow either of these sets to be
void but not both. Let P;, i <;: r, lie in the domain L1l andin terms of a local
parameterz representing P; as the point at infinity let fl have the expansion
(j)
f 1 (z) = aU> z +a 0 U> + __'Ii_

z
+ higher powers of z-1 (4.3)
and Qthe expansion
+ higher powers of z-1 .

r:J.(j)
Q (z) = - z2 (4.4)
Let P;. j > r, a pole of order m; greater than two, lie in the domain L1 1 and
in terms of a local parameter z representing P; as the point at injinity let
f 1 have the expansion
(i)
(z) = z + ---'=if + higher powers of z-1

am·-~
/ 1 (4.5)
zmi
and Q the expansion
Q (z) = rxU> zm;- 4 + decreasing powers of z. (4.6)
Then
~ { i.; rxU> log aU> + j; rxU> a<j!.- 3 }~ 0 (4.7)
j~ l j~r+l 1
where log aU> =log JaU>J- id(F, P;), f ~ r.

lf equality occztrs in (4.7) / 1 reduces to the identity in a domain L1l for
which any of the following conditions holds.
(i) There is a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order greater than two in L1 1•
(ii) There is a pole P;. i ~ r, with the corresponding coefficient aU>
equal to one in L1 1•
4*
(iii) There isasimple pole or a point on a trajectory ending in a simple

pole in L1 1•
Equality can occur in (4.7) when there exists a double pole Pi, j;;;:; r,
such that for the corresponding coefficient JaUl I =\= 1 only when ~ is con-
formally equivalent to the sphere and Q (z) dz 2 is a quadratic differential
whose only critical points are two poles each of order two. I f further there
is a single domain in {L1} the corresponding function is conformally equi-
valent to a linear transformation with the points corresponding to these poles
as fixed points.
It is readily seen that the expression whose real part we take in (4.7)
is independent of the choice of local parameters at the various poles Pi.
Examples of equality occurring in (4.7) for non identical functions
under conditions other than those of Theorem 4.1 can be constructed
with almost arbitrary degrees of complexity.
The basic feature in the proof of Theorem 4.1 is the use of the metric
/d Cl = /Q (z)J'ia /dz/
which is a conformally invariant metric on the surface 9\- H. It will
frequently be referred to as the Q-metric.
4.2 We begin our proof of Theorem 4.1 with a reduction of the
problem.
Lemma 4.2. It is sufficient to prove inequality (4.7) in Theorem 4.1
under the further assumption that Q (z) dz 2 has no simple poles on 9\.
If Q (z) dz 2 has simple poles on ~ since the set H is not empty we
can form a two-sheeted covering surface ~* of 9\ branched at the simple
poles and possibly at one element of H (if there is an odd number of
simple poles). At points of 9\* other than branch points we can use
local uniformizing parameters induced by the covering of ~- At branch
points we can use a local uniformizing parameterZ such that Z 2 = z with
z a local uniformizing parameter on ~ in terms of which the point under
the branch point is represented by z = 0. Thus 9\* is clearly a finite
oriented RIEMANN surface.
The quadratic differential Q (z) dz 2 induces a quadratic differential
Q* (z) dz 2 on ~* in the following manner. For a local uniformizing
parameter z induced by the covering of ~ we set
Q* (z) = Q (z) .
Fora local uniformizing parameterZ at a branch point we set
Q* (Z) = Q (Z 2) 4 Z 2 •
I t is seen at once that this defines a positive quadratic differential on ~*.

Fora local uniformizing parameterZ as above at a branch point cor-
responding to a simple pole of Q (z) dz 2 we have
Q (z) = :!__
z
+ regular terms in z
Differential-geometrie Iemmas 53
thus
Q* (Z) = (;2 + regular terms in Z 2 ) 4 Z 2
and Q*(Z) is regularatZ = 0. Similarly if <R* is branched above a point
of H the corresponding point on <R* is seen to be a pole of order two
at least. Thus Q* (z) dz 2 has no simple poles on <R*.
Every domain of the family {Ll} is covered on 9\* by one or two
domains and the totality of these domains clearly makes up an admissible
family {LI*} of domains on 9\* relative to Q* (z) dz 2 • The family {/} of
functions is then seen to induce an admissible family of functions {/*}
associated with {LI*}. Conditions (i), (ii), (iii), (vi) and (vii) ofDefinition4.4
are verified immediately.
Let now A be an element of H, z a local parameter in terms of which
A is represented by the point at infinity and the appropriate function
in{/} and Q (z) have the expansions (4.3), (4.4) or (4.5), (4.6) according
as A isapole of Q (z) dz 2 of order equal to or greater than two. Suppose
first that 9\* is not branched above A. Then there are on 9\* two points
covering A and at each we can use the local parameter induced by z.
In terms of it the corresponding function in {/*} and Q* (z) will have
the same expansions as before. Thus at such points whichever is
appropriate of conditions (iv) and (v) of Definition 4.4 is satisfied.
Further the contribution to the sum similar to that on the left hand side
of (4.7) from these points Oll <R* will be just twice that from A Oll cn.
Next let A be an element of H above which 9\* is branched. Then
there is on <R* a single point B covering A and at it we can use a local
parameter Z given by Z 2 = z in terms of which B is represented by the
point at infinity. If we have the expansions (4.5), (4.6) at A the cor-
responding function in {/*} has expansion
a(j) }'/,
Z { 1 + ____"';_-_~ + high er powers of Z - 1
z2(m;-3)
with a suitable choice of the root, that is

la(i)
z+ 2 '";- 3 + higher powers of Z- 1
z2m .-5
J
while
Q* (Z) = (rxUl Z 2 (m;- 4 ) + decreasing powers of Z) 4 Z 2
= 4 rx (j) Z 2 m;- a + decreasing powers of Z .
Thus Q* (Z) has a pole of order 2m;- 2 at B and condition (v) of
Definition 4.4 is satisfied at this point. Moreover the contribution to
the sum similar to that on the left band side of (4.7) is 2 ocUla~.-a that
J
is, just twice the contribution from A on <n. If we have the expansions
(4.3), (4.4) at A the corresponding function in{/*} has the expansion
(aU>)'I.z + decreasing powers of Z

while
Q*(Z) = 4 otU>Z-2 + decreasing powers of Z.
Thus Q* (Z) has a double pole at B and condition (iv) of Definition 4.4
is satisfied at this point. Moreover the contribution to the sum similar
to tha t on the left band side of (4. 7) is
4 ot(j) log (aU>)'I'= 2 IX(i) log aU)
just twice the contribution from A on 'n, it being verified at once that the
determination of the logarithm is the same as before.
Thus on 'n* all conditions of Theorem 4.1 obtain and the sum on the
left band side of (4.7) is replaced by one of just twice its value. This
shows it is enough to prove the inequality (4.7) under the assumption
that the quadratic differential has no simple poles on the RIEMANN
surface.
From this point on in the proof of inequality (4. 7) we will assume that
this condition is satisfied for Q (z) dz 2 itself on 9\.
Definition 4.5. By a geodesie on 'n- H we understand a eurve such
that every sufficiently short subare of it is the shortest join of its end points
in the Q-metric.
Lemma 4.3. A curve on 9\- H is a geodesie if and only if every point
of it not in C lies on a subare on which is satisfied
arg Q (z) dz 2 = constant (4.8)
while a point of it at an m-fold zero of Q (z) dz 2 is the eommon end point
of two subarcs on each of whieh (4.8) is satisfied and forming two angles
eaeh at least 2 nf(m + 2).
This follows at once from Definition 4.5 and the local structure of the
Q-metric.
In speaking of homotopy classes of curves in 9\- H j oining two points
A and B we understand that only those deformations are allowed under
which the images of A and B remain fixed throughout.
Lemma 4.4. Given points A and Bin 'n- H there is in every homotopy
class of eurves in 'n- H joining A and B a unique geodesie which is the
shortest join of A and B among curves of this homotopy class.
This lemma and its proof are closely related to a result of TEICH-
MÜLLER [188, § 138], seealso [175].
On the universal covering surface 'rl of 'n- H there is by the covering
a metric induced by the Q-metric in which 'rl is a differential geometric
surface. The existence of a geodesie in this metric joining any pair of
given points of 'rl and forming the shortest join of these points then
follows in various ways by general considerations. One way is to form

first the double [188, 2] ~ of ~- H a~ross !he boundary components
of ~. The universal coverillg surface cn of 9?. is seen at ollce to be a
complete differential geometric space in the sense of HOPF-RINow~ [89]
with the metrie indueed oll it as above. Thus a pair of poillts on cn are
joined by a geodesie in any given homotopy dass with the shortest join
property. For a pair of points Oll sn an appropriate geodesie on cn is
verified at once to project into the desired curve.
Suppose now that two poillts A' and B' on cn could be joined by two
distillct geodesies in the metric illduced by the Q-metric. We may
suppose that they form the boundary of a simply-collllected domain D
sillce otherwise the followillg argument could be applied to a domain
bounded by portions of them. I t is readily seell that D call be triangulated
by geodesics in such a way as to obtain a triangular complex among
whose vertices are included all points of I5 which cover zeros of Q (z) dz 2
Oll~. Let this eomplex have F faces, vb boundary vertices, V; interior
vertices, Eb boundary edges and Ei interior edges. The function
~ = f (Q (z))'i•dz Oll 9\ induces Oll SlJ a function which maps every faee
illto a Euclidean triangle. Combining this with Lemma 4.3 and the
Euler formula we deduce at once the followillg equalities and in-
equalities (we observe in addition that the geodesics must form positive
allgles at A' and B')
nF > 2 n V;+ n (Vb- 2), (4.9)
F- (E; + Eb) + (V;+ Vb) = I,
3F=2E;+Eb,
vb = Eb.
The last three equalities are seen to lead to
F= 2 Vi + Vb-2
in colltradietion to (4.9). Thus any two points of stl are joined by a
ullique geodesie which is the shortest join of thcse poillts in the metric
induced by the Q-metric. This simply paraphrases the result of Lemma 4.4.
Corollary 4.1. For any homotopy class of closed curves on 9?.- H
there is through any given point P of 9?. - H a unique closed geodesie in
this homotopy class which is the shortest curve in this class through P.
Lemma 4.5. With the notation of Theorem 4.llet L1 be a member of the
admissible family {LI}, f the corresponding function in the family {/} and
K a compact subset of LI- H. Let A be a geodesie in L1 with its end points
in K and A' its image under f. Then there exists a real constant M~ depending
on K but not on A such that
f ld Cl > .f ld ,,_ M (4.10)
A' A
where ld Cl = IQ (z) ['/, /dzl denotes the element of length in the Q-metric.
This result is essentially due to TEICHMÜLLER [188, § 136].

For fixed P in LI- H the function F (P, t), 0 ~ t ~ 1, determines
a curve with end points f (P) and P which we call the path curve of P.
By Lemma 4.4 there is in<;.>\- H a geodesie gp (relative to the Q-metric)
joining f (P) and P (taken as sensed from I (P) to P) and homotopic to
the path curve of P. Let its length be Ap. Our first step is to prove
that Ap is bounded for P in K. For this it is enough to prove that Ap
varies continuously with P in L1 - H. For positive s let N 2 be the
neighborhood of I (P) on <;.>\ consisting of all points at a distance less
than ~ from I (P) (in the Q-metric) where e is to be sufficiently small
that N 2 is homeomorphic to an open disc. Let NI be the neighborhood
of P on <;.>\ consisting of all points at a distance less than b from P where
the positive nurober (J is not greater than ~ and further is to be suf-
ficiently small that NI C L1 and f (NI) C N 2 • For P' in NI let ftpp•, Vpr
be the respective geodesics in NI and N 2 joining P, P' and I (P), I (P').
It is readily seen that #"PP· gp• vpr is homotopic to gp (in products of
curves the curve first described will be written on the right). Thus
Similarly
This implies that
for P' in NI. Thus Ap varies continuously with P. At once Ap is bounded

for P in the compact set K.
Let M besuchthat
for P in K. Let A be a geodesie with end points P and P' in K lying

in L1 and .A' its image under f. Then gP' A' gp 1 is homotopic to A and thus
A
J ld Cl ~ J /d Cl
A'
+M
from which inequality (4.10) follows at once.
For closed geodesics an even stronger result is true.
Lemma 4.6. ll A is a closed geodesie an 9Z- H and A' is any c/osed
curve homotapic ta A an <;.>\ - H then
! ld Cl ~f ld Cl . (4.11)
A A'
Let p be a point on A, P' a point Oll A', let r

be the curve with two
end points at P obtained by describing A starting from P and returning
there and let F' be the curve with two end points at P' obtained by
describing A' similarly in the sense corresponding to that used for A

under the given homotopy. Let y be a rectifiable arc (in the Q-metric)
joining P and P' in 9\- H and having length l. Then Fn is for any
positive integer n a geodesie with both end points at P and y-1 (F')ny is
homotopic to it. Thus
n f Jd Cl~ n f Jd 'I+ 2l .
..1 A'
Dividing by n and letting n approach infinity we obtain inequality (4.11).

Lemma 4.7. With the notation ol Theorem 3.5 and Theorem 4.1 let
L1 be a member ol the admissible la;:tily {Ll}, let I be the corresponding
lunction in the lamily {/}, let ~n = fJJ n L1 and let ~, be the image ol 'm
under 1. Let dA (P) denote the element ol area at P in the Q-metric. Then
ffdA~ffdA.
snr \ln
Equality can occur only il themapping lis everywhereisometric inthe Q-metric.
The proof of this result is closely related to one of TEICHMÜLLER [188,
§ 135] but rather essential modifications have tobe made to allow for the
greater generality of the present situation.
Clearly there is so mething to prove only if 'm is non void. I t is seen
at once that then 'm is bounded by a finite number of curves each a
piecewise analytic curve composed of trajectories and their limiting end
points in C plus possibly a finite number of slits on closures of trajectories.
Moreover every trajectory in ~ can be extended indefinitely in either
sense apart from a finite number of trajectories which end at points of C
or which bear a boundary slit of ~. Starting from any point P not on
such a trajectory we draw in each sense on the trajectory through P a
segment of length 1 / 2 L in the Q-metric (L positive). On the arc so
obtained we denote arc length measured algebraically from P by t and
parametrize the arc as a curve by the function S (t, P),- 1 / 2 L ~ t:;:;; 1 / 2 L,
where 5 (t, P) is the point on the trajectory through P corresponding
to arc length t. Evidently 5 (t, P) lies in 'm and 5 (0, P) = P.
We now denote by Jf' (P) I the distortion produced at the point P by I
relative to the Q-metric. We consider the integral
1/2L
ff J II' (5 (t, P)) I dt dA (P) (4.12)
m -'/,L
where we may neglect the set of measure zero for which 5 (t, P) is not
defined. Here we may replace t, Pas independentvariables by jtj, S
noting that
dtdA(P) = d jtj dA (5).
Making this substitution and changing the order of integration we find
that the integral (4.12) is equal to
'/, L
2ff J/'(5)J dA (S) f d jtj
'm 0
that is
'/,L
ff f l/'(5(t,P))IdtdA(P)=Lff/f'(5)ldA(5). (4.13)
'm -'/,L 9l1
Now given r:: positive let K, be a compact subset of 'm of measure not
less than
ff dA-r::
"n
bounded say by a finite nurober of piecewise analytic curves. Then for P
in a subset '?11, of 011 of measure at least
ffdA-2r::
m
both points S (1f2 L, P) and 5 (- 1 / 2 L, P) willlie in K,. Let M, be the
constant associated with K, by Lemma 4.5. (Note that 011 is bounded
from H.) Then since any trajectory arc is a geodesic, for P in 011,
lj2L
f 1!'(5 (t, P))l dt ~ L- M,.
-'/,L
Integrating this over 'm, with respect to area in the Q-metric we obtain
'I,L
ff f 1/'(5 (t, P))l dtdA(P):;;; (L-M,) (Jf dA -2r::).
m, -'/,L m
Combining this with equation (4.13) we have
Lff 1!'(5)1 dA(5) ~ (L-M,) (Jf dA-2s).
~n m
Dividing by Land letting it approach infinity we obtain
JJ I!' (5) I dA (5) :;;; f f dA - 2 s

sm ~n
for every positiver:: thus

ff l/'(5)1 dA(S) ;;;;ff dA.
"n m
Now by an obvious application of ScHWARz's inequality
ff l/'(5)l 2 dA(S) ;:;;JJ dA

m ~n
thus
ff dA ;;;;ff dA
m· m
as stated. The statement regarding equality follows at once from the
condition for equality in ScHWARz's inequality.
4.3 We now begin the proof proper of Theorem 4.1. Abrief outline
is as follows. First we remove from the domains in {L1} suitably fashioned
neighborhoods of the points of H. Then in terms of the area of the
residual domains we obtain two evaluations of the area of their images
~~--~~~~~~~~~~~-
Construction of special su bsurface 59
under the functions of {/}. On the one band we obtain an estimate from
above using the beha viour of the functions of {/} on the boundaries of the
neighborhoods removed. On the other hand we obtain an estimate from
below using the method of the extremal metric. Combining these
estimates provieles the proof of inequality (4.7).
Our first step is to describe the neighborhoods to be removed. In
proving Theorem 4.1 it is convenient to use terminology applicable only
when we exclude possibilities I and II of Theorem 3.5 for ~ and Q (z) dz 2
(possibility III is automatically excluded). The actual arguments are
readily modified to prove the result in these cases but to avoid unneces-
sary complication we will not mention these special cases in individual
considerations but will use always the terminology corresponding to
those configurations to which the Basic Structure Theorem applies.
First let P; E H, i > r, be a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order m; greater than
two. Let U be a simply-connected neighborhood of P; covered by the
inner closure of the m;- 2 end domains and possible strip domains
associated with P;. We slit this neighborhood along a trajectory A
running in the one sense to the point P; andin the other sense leaving U,
say a trajectory on the boundary of one of the end domains. In the set
U- A, C= J (Q (z))'f, dz is single-valued (choosing any particular
cletermination) and it maps this set on a portion of RrEMANN surface
over the (-plane. We regard in the (-plane a square of siele 2 L, centre
at the origin and with sides parallel to the real and imaginary axes.
We take the trace of this square on the RIEMANN surface and its inverse
image on ~. For L sufficiently large the latter is a sequence of arcs as
follows. First there is an arc of an orthogonal trajectory with initial
point on A. Then there is an arc of a trajectory lying entirely in an
acljacent end clomain. Next there is an arc of an orthogonal trajectory.
They alternate in this manner, there being m;- 2 trajectory arcs in all,
until we reach an arc of an orthogonal trajectory ending on A. Its
terminal point will not in general coincide with the initial point of the
first arc above. ] oining these points with an arc of A if necessary we
obtain a simple closecl curve which we derrote by y (P;, L). This curve
divides ~ into two components and the one which contains P; is the
neighborhoocl tobe removed. It will be clenotecl by U (P;, L).
Next let P; EH, f:::; r, be a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order two lying in a
circle domain. Let U be a simply-connectecl neighborhood of P; lying
in the circle domain. We slit U along an orthogonal trajectory N which
runs in the one sense to P; andin the other sense leaves U. In the set
U- N, C= J (Q (z)) '/, dz is single-valuecl (again any particular cleter-
mination) ancl it maps this set on a vertical half-strip in the C-plane.
We may suppose the cletermination chosen so that SC becomes positively
infinite in the half-strip. Then for L large enough we take the inter-
section of the half-strip with the line SC= L. This will be a segment
corresponding to which on ~ will be a closed trajectory in the circle

domain which we denote by y (Pi, L). It divides ~ into two components
and the one which contains P 1 is the neighborhood to be removed. It
will be denoted by U (Pi, L).
Finally let P 1 EH, j ~ r, be a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order two which
has a simply-connected neighborhood U lying in the inner closure of the
union of those strip domains which have P; on their boundaries. We
slit U along a trajectory A running in the one sense to P 1 and in the
other sense leaving U. In the set U- Ä any particular determination
of !;, = J (Q (z))''• dz is single-valued and maps this set on a horizontal
half-strip in the !;,-plane. We may suppose the determination chosen
so that 9\!;, becomes positively infinite in the half-strip. Then for L
large enough we take the intersection of the half-strip with the line
9\ !;, = L. This will be a segment corresponding to which on ~ will be an
arc of an orthogonal trajectory with end points on .A. Thesepoints will
not in general be coincident. J oining them with an arc of A if necessary
we obtain a simple closed curve which we denote by y (P1, L). This
curve divides ~ into two components and the one which contains P; is
the neighborhood tobe removed. It will be denoted by U (P 1, L).
We define
n
LI;(L)=LI;- u O(P1,L),i= l, ... ,k.
j~l
We observe that except in cases where LI;(L) coincides with LI; the
former domain will depend not only on the parameter L but also on the
various choices of the determination of!;, = J (Q (z))'l•dz in the various
sets associated with the points of H. However we shall keep one fixed
determination for each point of Hand thus LI; (L) will be a well defined
domain for given L. In the sequel we will always suppose L so large
that no boundary component of a domain LI;(L) meets any y (P1, L) or
penetrates into the interior of any U (P1, L).
4.4 Let us now denote /; (LI;(L)) by Lli (L). We will estimate the
k
area of u LI~ (L) in the Q-metric from above in terms of the area of
k i~ 1
u LI; (L) again in the Q-metric. From the form of the domains LI; (L)
;~ 1
and the properties of the functions of the family {/} it is clear that each
k
of these is finite. We observe that the area of u Lli (L) is bounded above
i = 1
by the area of the domain on 9\ having as boundaries the image curves
k
of the curves y (P1, L). Since the area of u LI; (L) is equal to the area of
i~1
the domain bounded by the curves y (P 1, L) it is enough to determine

the change in area arising from the displacement of each such boundary
curve under its mapping by the appropriate function in {/}.
Estimation of area of the image from above 61
Let first PiE H, j > r, be a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order mi greater than

two. Under the mapping (; = J (Q (z))''•dz there corresponds to y (Pi, L)
a finite sequence of segments differing from mi- 2 half-boundaries of
squares (centre the origin and of side 2 L) by at most two vertical and
one horizontal segments, each of length independent of L. Todetermine
the change in area indicated above we shall find the mapping induced
on the variable (; by the function fl such that Pi is in Lll. By this we
mean that we take for suitable (; the corresponding z, perform the
mapping fl(z) and then map this point by the same branch ofJ (Q (z))'l,dz
as before following the determination from z to fl (z) along the reverse
of the path curve corresponding to this point under the deformation F.
We derrote by w the value corresponding to (; by this process. First we
t
observe
(; = IX'/, ( ~ m -1 1
z'!,m- 1 + decreasing powers of z'l,
where we have written IX, m for IXU>, mi and for m even there may be a
logarithmic term in the expansion. The choice of roots appearing depends
on the determination of (;. Then
w = (; + (IX'!,z'l,m-2 + .. ·) ( ::=: + .. ·)
or
(4.14)
where k 2/(m- 2) and we have written am_ 3 for a~>_ 3 • Thus the
=
J
change in area arising from the effect of the mapping on the half-
boundary of a square is
m{-& J (t + 'b t- 1 ) (I- b c- 2) d ' - -21i J t ac) + o (L -")

where the integrals aretakenon the half-boundary of the square and we
have written b for IX am-a (1 / 2 m- 1)- 1 • The whole expression is seen
at once tobe 0 (L -k). As for the change in area arising from the segments
mentioned above it is clearly 0 (L-1 ). Thus the total change in area
here is 0 (L - 1) or 0 (L -k) whichever is larger. In any case the change
in area arising from the effect of fl on y (Pi, L), j >r, is o(l) which is
all we need.
Next let Pi EH, j ~ r, be a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order two lying in
a circle domain. By Theorem 3.4 this corresponds to having IXU) negative.
Under the mapping (; = J (Q (z))'f, dz there corresponds to y (Pi, L)
a horizontal segment of length 2 n IIXU) I'''· To determine the change in
area indicated above we consider the mapping induced in the {;-plane
by the function f l such that Pi is in Lll, this understood in the same sense
as previously. First we have
(; = IX' 1,log z + powers of z- 1
where we have written rx. for rx.. The choice of determination previously
made implies that this root rx.'/, has positive imaginary part. (It is pure
imaginary.) Let w denote the point corresponding to Cunder the mapping
induced by / 1• Then
w = C+ rx.''•log a + 0 (e-L) (4.15)
on the above horizontal segment, where we have written a for a<iJ, The
image domain has side boundaries corresponding to arcs on N which
are obtained from one another by a translation of 2 n lrxl' 1•. Thus the
change in area arising from the effect of f 1 on y (P 3, L) in this case is
2 n lrx.l''• 6 (rx.'''log a) + o (I) = - 2 .n ~ (rx.log a) + o (I) .

Finally let P3 EH, i ~ r, be a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order two not in a
circle domain. Under the mapping C= J (Q (z))''•dz to y (P;, L) there
correspond a vertical segment and a horizontal segment (the latter
degenerating to a point if rx. > 0), each of constant length independent
of L. Thesesegments have one end point in common and the vector
joining their other end points corresponding to a circuit once around P;
leaving P; to the right is given by 2 .n i (rx.V>)'I•, (rx.)'/, to have positive
real part corresponding to the choice of determination of C previously
made. Once again
C= rx.'1• log z + terms in z- 1
with the same simplified notation as before. Letting w denote the point
corresponding to Cunder the mapping induced by f 1 in the previously
indicated sense we have
w = C+ rx.'f, log a + 0 (e-L)
on the above segments where we have written a for a<i) and the deter-
mination of the logarithm isthat of Theorem 4.1. In case rx. is not real
and positive (in this case it cannot be real and negative) we take the
neighborhood U (P;, L) slit along an arc meeting the trajectories at
equal angles, having one end point at P;, the other on y (P;, L) and
having a limiting direction at P;. The mapping C= J (Q (z))''• dz carries
the neighborhood thus slit into a half-strip with sides parallel to rx.'/, and
of constant width 2 .n lrx.l''·· By the same argument as in the preceding
case we find the change in area arising from the effect of / 1 on y (P1, L)
tobe
2n ~ (lrx.llog a) + o (1) .
We note that in this part of the development the choice of the
determination of log a plays no role.
If we divide the poles of Q (z) dz 2 of order two according to the above
criterion into P 1 , ••. , P. lying in circle domains and P.+ 1 , .•• , Pr not
Estimation of area of the image from below 63
(where we understand that either or both of these sets may be void) we

have our first evaluation:
k k
I f f dA :;;: I ff dA- }.; 2n ~ (o:U> log aU>) (4.16)
i ~1 Ll~ (L) i ~ 1 !l;(L) j ~ 1
+ }.; 2 n~ (io:Ulllog aU>) + o (1).

j~s+l
Here dA again denotes the element of area in the Q-metric.

k
4.5 Next we estimate the area of V Lli (L) (in the Q-metric) from
. k i= 1
below in terms of the area of u LI i (L) by the use of the method of the
i= 1
extremal metric. This time we interpret the former quantity as the
k
area of u Lli (L) in a new metric. For PE LI; we denote as in § 4.2 by
i~1
lfi (P) I the distortion produced at the point P by the mapping /i relative
k
to the Q-metric. We now define the metric e ld (Ion u LI; by
i=1
e (P) ld' (P)I = IIi (P) 1ld' (P) 1, PE Lli
where ld (I = IQ (z) 1'/, ldzl. Then it is clear that
For each type of basic domain associated with the trajectory structure
of Q (z) dz 2 on ~ as in Theorem 3.5 we now take the intersection with
k
u LI i (L) and estima te the area of this in tersection in the metric e Id (I·
i=l ~
Suppose first that ([J is non void. By Theorem 3.5 (iii) and (iv) and
the choice of the neighborhoods U (Pi, L) in § 4.3
A k k
ifJn u LI; C v LI;(L).
A k
We will denote ([J r\ v LI; by ifJ*. Then
i~1
k
JJ e2 dA = I (J e2 dA.
q;,* i=l ;p r~Ai
By Lemma 4.7
ffe2dA~ ffdA.
$n LJi ~ r'\.di
Thus
ff
<P*
1ldA ~Jf dA. (4.17)
C/J*
Next let ~ be a ring domain in the trajectory structure of Q (z) dz 2•

Then
k k
~ (\ V LI; c V LI; (L)
i~l i=l
k
and ~ n v LI; (which we denote by ~*) consists of a finite number of
i=l
doubly-con nected domains each bounded by two geodesics each composed
of one or more trajectorie s and possibly slit along a finite number of
trajectory arcs. A closed trajectory A in~ 1\ LI; is mapped by /; into a
closed curve A' homotopic to it. Using Lemma 4.6 we then have
A
f e ld 'I = A'f ld Cl~ 1 ld Cl .
A
Performin g the mapping of Definition 3.10 (iii) and using Lemma 2.2
we then have at once
ff (! 2 dA~ .fJ dA , (4.18)
~· <D*
Next let <r be a circle domain in the trajectory structure of Q (z) dz2 •
k
Wederrot e by <r (L) the intersectio n of <r with V LI;(L). Then, by the
preceding argument, also i ~ 1
ff e2 dA ~ JI dA . (4.19)
ri(L) rr(L)
Let now ~ be an end domain in the trajectory structme of Q (z) dz 2

on whose boundary is a pole P 1, i > r, of order m 1• Let P; lie in the
domain LI; of the family {LI}. From Definition 4.1 follows that ~ can
meet no domain in {LI} other than LI;. We denote G: 1\ LI; (L) by ~ (L).
In the trajectory structure of - Q (z) dz 2 the limiting directions at P
1
bisect the angles between the limiting directions for Q (z) dz 2• There are
thus two end domains 0 1 and 0 2 for -- Q (z) dz 2 correspond ing to the
limiting direction associated with - Q (z) dz 2 and lying in ~- The
domains 0 1 and 0 2 coincide if m 1 is equal to three, otherwise are disjoint.
The union ~* of ~. 0 1 and 0 2 (taken for m;= 3 on a two-sheeted
covering surface of 9\ branched at P;) is then a simply-con nected set
which is mapped by C= f (Q (z))'i•dz for a suitable choice of determina-
tion in a (1,1) manner onto the union E* of an upper half-plane, a right
hand half-plane and a ldt hand half-plane. We denote by E (L) the
image of ~ (L) under this mapping. Then E (L) isareetan gle ofhorizont al
dimension 2 L and vertical dimension L + A. (where A. is independen t
of L, real, possibly either positive or negative) provided perhaps with a
finite nurober of horizontal slits. With a suitable choice of the deter-

roination of f (Q (z))'f, dz, E (L) differs from the half-square -L -;;;,1; -;;;,L,
0 ~ 'YJ ~ L (C = !; + irJ) slit as above at most by a reetangle of length 2L
and height A. independent of L.
We now transfer the roetric e (P) ld C(P) I to the C-plane by setting
e (C) ldCI = e (P) ldC (P)I.
No confusion arises by using the notation (!in each case. Clearly
ffedA=f.fed!;drJ. (4.20)
<!i(L) E (L)
Let now a (YJ) denote the horizontal segment of length 2 L lying in

E (L) on the line SC= 'YJ· This will exist for all but a finite nurober of 'YJ
in L ~ 'Y) ~- A. (i. e., unless we encounter the image of a boundary slit
of LI;). Let A (YJ), B ('Y)) be the end points of a (YJ) on the lines 9\ C= L,
9Z C= - L respectively. Let s ('Y)) be the antecedent of a ('YJ) on 9\ and
let t ('Y)) be the image of s ('Y)) under /;. Let us denote by cp; the mapping
induced on E* by /; as in § 4.4. Now for L large enough IPi (A (YJ)),
tp; (B ('YJ)) lie in E* and can be joined by a shortest polygonalline y (YJ)
in E*. The antecedent of this curve in 9\, denoted by g ('Y)), is evidently
a geodesic. For 'Y) large enough the image of a ('Y)) by cp;, which we
denote by T (YJ), lies in E* and is thus homotopic to y ('Y)) in E*. Hence,
for these values of 'Y), t ('YJ) and g ('YJ) are homotopic in 9Z- H. On the
other hand t (YJ) and g ('Y)) have for L ~ 'Y) ~- A. the saroe end points
in each case for the same value of 'YJ and as 'Y) varies froro- A. to L g (YJ)
sweeps out the continuous iroage of a square while t ('Y)) does likewise
apart froro the presence of the iroages of boundary slits of LI;. Thus
t ('Y)) and g (YJ) are homotopic in 9Z- H whenever both are defined. Now
f e d; is just the length oft ('Y)) in the Q-metric. It is thus larger than
a(1)
f e ld Cl and moreover
Y(1)
f e d!; ~ 9Z [cpi(A (17))- IPi(B (17))]. (4.21)
a(1)
Now we have the mapping w = cp; (C) represented for ICI sufficiently
large by the expansion (4.14) where IX, m, am_ 3 stand for IXUl, mi, a~~l_ 3 •
1
Setting 'Y) = L tan () and writing IX am- 3 (1/ 2 m -1)- 1 = M eiP, A (YJ),
B (1]) have Coordinates L + i L tan 8, - L + i L tan e and inequality
(4.21) gives
f e d!; ~ 2 L +2M L- 1 cos fl cos 2 () + 0 (L-(l+kl). (4.22)
a(1)
Integrating this with respect to 1J over the range - A ~ 'Y) ~ L we get
(since we roay neglect the finite nurober of values of 1J for which a (n)
is not defined)
n/4
ff (! d; d 1J ~ 2 L (L + A.) +2M L - 1 cos flf cos 2 0 d L tan 0 + 0 (L- k)
~ ~
where () 0 is the value of the angle () corresponding to rJ = - J.. Replacing

it by zero changes the second term on the right hand side only by an
amount 0 (I - 1). Combining this with equation (4.20) we have
f f e dA ;;::; f f dA +n (m- 2)- 1 'n (oc am-a) + o (1) . (4.23)
!.f(L) l.f(L)
On the other hand

0 ;"; f f (e -1) 2 dA= f f e2 dA+ f f dA- 2 f.f e dA
l.f(L) l.f(L) !.f(L) <f(L)
or
ffe 2 dA;;::;2ffedA-ffdA. (4.24)
!.f(L) !.f(L) !.f(L)
Since there are m- 2 end domains associated with a pole of order m

greater than two, applying inequalities (4.23), (4.24) to all end domains
and summing we have
L .ff e2 dA ;;:;I.; f.f dA+

l.f(L) l.f(L)
2n'n{ i.;
j=r+l
ocU) aCJ:!.- 3 } + o (1)
3
(4.25)
where the first two summations are each taken over the totality of end
domains.
Finally let 6 be a strip domain which has boundary elements arising
from poles Pi and P 1 which may be distinct or coincident and of any
order greater than or equal to two. By Definition 4.1 they must lie in the
same domain LI; of the family {LI} and 6 can meet no domain in {ß}
other than LI;. We derrote 6 nLI; (I) by 6 (L). A suitable determina-
tion of C= f (Q (z)J''' dz maps 6 onto a strip S given by
0 < IH< I.
(A. positive) where the boundary element of6 arising from Pi corresponds
to the boundary point of S at infinity in whose neighborhood 'n Cbecomes
positively infinite and the boundary element of 0 arising from P 1
corresponds to the boundary point of S at infinity in whose neighbor-
hood 9\ C becomes negatively infinite. If Pi is a pole of order greater
than two the limiting direction for the trajectories in E5 at Pi lies in an
end domain 0 for- Q (z) dz 2 • If pj is a pole of order two let mbe a
simply-connected neighborhood of Pi on (9\- H) U Pi bounded by a
(closed) trajectory of - (oc(il)-1 Q (z) dz 2 • The given determination of
f (Q (z))'!,dz, extended into 0 in the first case will map it onto a right
hand half-plane. Extended into m in the second case it will map a
logarithmic branch element about Pi onto a half-plane
9\ [(ocUl)-'/, Cl > c
where c isareal constant and the root (a.U>)-'f, is chosen so that this half-
plane contains a right hand half-strip of S. The same construction per-
formed at P 1 will give as complete image under this determination of
J (Q (z))'f,dz the union5* of 5 and two half-planes which we take as a

RrEMANN covering surface in case the half-planes intersect. By the same
rnapping to 6 (L) corresponds a reetangle 5 (L)
- L + b< ~ < L + a, 0 < r; < L

(C = ~ + i r;) where a, b are real numbers possibly positive or negative
(since the present deterrnination rnay not be the one used to define the
neighborhoods U (Pi, L)), provided perhaps with a finite nurober of
c
horizontal slits. As before we transfer the metric e (P) ld (P) I to the
(-plane by setting
e (C) jd Cl = e (P) ld C (P) I
and we see at once
JJ e dA = f f e d ~ d r; . (4.26)
IS(L) S(L)
Analogously to the case of the end domain let a (17) denote the
horizontal segment of length 2 L + a - b lying in 5 (L) on the line
8' ( = r; which exists for all but perhaps a finite nurnber of r; in 0 < r; < A.
Let A (r;), B (r;) be the end points of 0' (r;) on the lines 9Z ( = L + a,
9Z ( = - L + b respectively. Let s (r;) be the antecedent of a (r;) on 9\
and let t (r;) be the image of s (r;) under /;. Let us denote by cp; the
rnapping induced on 5* by /; as in § 4.4. The rnapping w = cp; (() is
represented at the point A (r;) for L sufficiently large when Pi is a pole of
order greater than two by the expansion
(4.27)
as a consequence of condition (vii) of Definition 4.4, when Pi is a pole of

order two by the expansion
(4.28)
where (aU))'f,= laU) I'/, ei'Pj is the root with positive real part and log aU>
has the determination given in the statement of Theorem 4.1. At the
point B (r;) for L sufficiently large the mapping has the expansion (4.27)
for P! a pole of order greater than two and the expansion
w = C- (a<Z>)'f,log a(Z) + o (1) (4.29)
for Pz a pole of order two, the determinations being assigned as in the

preceding case. For L large enough cpi(A (r;)), Cf!i(B (r;)) lie in 5* and
can be joined by a shortest polygonalline y (r;) in S*. The antecedent
g (r;) of the latter curve in 9\ is evidently a geodesic. The antecedents
on 9Z of the respective rectilinear segrnents h,1, krJ joining A (r;), Cf!i (A (r;))
and B (r;), Cf!i (B (r;)) will be hornotopic to the path curves of the ante-
cedents of A (r;), B (r;) reversed in sense. Since h;;Iy (r;) krJ is homotopic
5*
to a ('YJ) this implies that g ('YJ) is homotopic to t ('YJ). Now Je d ~ is just

a(n)
the length of t (n) in the Q-metric. It is thus larger than Je ld Cl and
moreover y(~)
Je d ~ ~ ~ [rp;(A (n))- rp; (B (n))J. (4.30)

a(~)
Making use of the expansions (4.27), (4.28), (4.29) we have
Jed~~2L+a-b+bi+b 1 +o(l) (4.31)

a(~)
where 1:5 1 is 0 or (ocUl)'/, log aU> according as P 1 is a pole of order greater

than or equal to two, similarly for ö1• Integrating this with respect to 'YJ
over the range 0 ;;:;; fJ ;;:;; A. (since we may neglect the finite nurober of
values of 'YJ for which a ('YJ) is not defined) we get
ff e d ~ dfJ ~ A. [2 L +a-b]+ A. 1:5 1 + A. b1 + o (1).

S(L)
Combining this with equation (4.26) we have
f.f e dA~ JJ dA+ J. bj+ A. 1:5 1 + o (I) . (4.32)

6(L) 6(L)
As in the proof of inequality (4.24) there holds
f.( e dA
2 ~ 2 I.f e dA- J.f dA . (4.33)
6(L) 6(L) 6(L)
Applying inequalities (4.32), (4.33) to all strip domains and summing we

have
I; JJ e2 dA ~ L ff dA+
6(L) 6(L)
(4.34)
4 n~ {
j~s
f+ 1
ioe<ill ei"'i cos "Pi log aU>} + o (1)
where the first two summations are each taken over the totality of all
strip domains.
Adding inequalities (4.17), (4.18), (4.19), (4.25), (4.34) we obtain
]; f J e2 dA ~
i=lLI;(L)
.t
i=1LI;(L)
Jf dA + 4 n~ { i;
i=s+l
ioc:Ull eiV'i cos 'ljJ; log a(i)}
n } (4.35)
+ 2 n~ { }; oeU> a~l __ 3 + o (1)
i=r+1 '
the desired evaluation from below.

4.6 Recalling that
k k
i=1
L JI dA
LI~ (L)
=
i
I;
=
.rJ e dA
1 LI ;(L)
2
Discussion of the possibility of equality 69
and combining inequalities (4.16) and (4.35) we obtain
-2nm{.i:ccU>logau>}+2nm{.
1~1
i;
1~s+1
JccU>Jloga(i)}+o(1)
:;:;;4nmf. f
L~s+ 1
JccU>Jei"'icos 1f!ilogaU>}+2nm{.
1
i.; oc(i)a~)_ 3 }+o(1).
~r+1 3
The explicit terms are independent of L and an elementary calculation

gives
9\ {
i~1
i; ocU> log aU> + i;
j~r+1
cx.U> aYJ.-
3
3 }:;;; 0
which completes the proof of inequality (4.7).

4.7 As regards the possibility of equality in inequality (4.7) we
observe that this can occur in the problern as modified in Lemma 4.2
only if equality occurs in all the auxiliary inequalities. In particular by
Lemma 4. 7 applied to equality in (4.17), Lemma 2.2 applied to equality
in (4.18) and (4.19) and the conditions for equality in (4.24) and (4.33)
k
we see that we must have (! (P) == 1 in U LI;- H, that is, the mappings
i~ 1
by the functions in {/} are isometric in the Q-metric. Further application
of Lemma 2.1 or Lemma 2.2 shows that every trajectory in an end,
strip or circle domain must be mapped again into a trajectory by the
appropriate function in {/}. Moreover no open set on 9\ can be exterior
k
to U /;(iJ;). Under the conditions of Theorem 4.1 the quadratic diffe-
i~l
rential Q (z) dz 2 has on 9\ at least one pole of order greater than one.
Thus there is at least one end, strip or circle domain in the trajectory
structure of Q (z) dz 2 and one domain in {LI} such that the trajectories
in it are mapped into trajectories. This property then extends to all the
domains in {LJ}. Allthese conditions must then apply also to the problern
in its original form, i. e., even if there are simple poles of Q (z) dz 2 on m.
If there is in the domain LJ; a pole Pi of Q (z) dz 2 , j > r, of order
greater than two, the prescribed form (4.5) of the mapping /; there
combined with the above conditions implies immediately that /; is the
identical mapping in a neighborhood of Pi and thus everywhere in LI;.
A similar remark applies if there is in LI; a pole P 1 of Q (z) dz 2 , j:::;; r,
of order two for which the corresponding coefficient aU> is equal to one.
If a pole of order one exists interior to LI; it must be mapped into
itself by /; and the remairring conditions imply at once that /; is the
identical mapping in a neighborhood of this point and so everywhere
in LJ i·
Suppose that a pole P of order one exists on a slit boundary com-
ponent of LJ; but that part of the trajectory bearing the slit is interior
to Lli. Then the homotopy condition on fi implies that P lies in the

component of the complement of fi (L1i) corresponding to this slit. It is
readily seen that this component must coincide with the original slit
in view of the isometric property of /; and the preservation of trajectories
and that Lli can be enlarged to include this slit and fi extended to the
enlarged domain to have the properties of isometry and preservation
of trajectories. That fi is the identity then follows from the preceding
paragraph.
Let now P; be a pole of Q (z) dz 2 of order two for which the expansion
(4.4) of Q (z) dz 2 applies. Then a logarithmic branch element about P;
covering a neighborhood of P; bounded by a (closed) trajectory of the
quadratic differential- (aU>)-1 Q (z) dz 2 will be mapped by a determina-
tion ofC = f (Q(z))''•dz chosen as in §4.3onto a half-plane 9\ [(ocUl)-'f,Z,"J >c,
c real, with a corresponding choice of the root (aU>)'f,. Unless excluded
possibility II of Theorem 3.5 is at hand this will be contained in a maximal
schlicht half-plane {) of the form ~ [(ocUl)-'/, Z,"] > c on the RIEMANN
surface ll of § 3.4. The boundary ofthishalf-plane either bears an image
of a point of C or corresponds to a boundary component of ~. The latter
case is readily seen to be possible only when a conformal mapping
carries 9\, P; and Q (z) dz 2 into the circle jzj < 1, the point z = 0 and the
quadratic differential - K dz 2 fz 2 with K positive. In this case we
verify directly that equality cannot occur in inequality (4.7) unless
JaU>J = 1. In the former case we see that when equality occurs in (4.7)
the mapping induced in .f) by the function fi (where P; lies in Lli) must
have the form
w = z,- + (oc(i>)'f, log aU>
the determinations being those given in § 4.4. The maximality of {)

plus the presence of an image of a point of C on its boundary implies
that (aU>)'i•Iog aU> must have the form bi (a<il)'f, with b real. Thus
JaUlj = 1. This means that we can have equality in (4.7) when a double
pole of Q (z) dz 2 is present only if the corresponding coefficient JaJ is
equal to 1 unless a conformal mapping carries 9\ and Q (z) dz 2 into the
sphere and the quadratic differential s dz 2 fz 2 with s complex. The final
statement of Theorem 4.1 is then verified immediately. This completes
the proof of Theorem 4.1.
4.8 Theorem 4.1 can readily be extended in the following manner.
Theorem 4.2 (Extended Theorem). Let the same conditions apply as
in Theorem 4.1 with the following exceptions:
(a) Q (z) dz 2 is a quadratic differential on 9\, not necessarily positive,
(b) if r is a maximal open arc or closed curve an the boundary of the
domain Lli in {L1}, lying on N, an orthogonal trafectory or union of successive
orthogonal trajectories plus their common end points an the boundary of 9\
Circular, radial and spiral sli t mappings 71
which is maximal among such entities, then Ii and F (P, t) are to admit
r
continuous extensions to F which carry into N.
Then in the same notation as in Theorem 4.1 inequality (4.7) holds as do
the same conclusions as to the consequences ol equality in this inequality.
It follows at once that Ii is actually a homeomorphism into on the
above arcs and boundaries and that Ii is regular thereon in terms of
boundary ~niformizers. Theorem 4.2 is most easily proved by forming
the double 9\ of 9\ across those maximal open boundary arcs and boundary
components of 9\ on which Q (z) dz 2 :;::; 0. In this way we obtain a finite
oriented RIEMANN surface which may have boundary components
arising from boundary arcs and boundary components of 9\ on which
Q (z) dz 2 ;;::: 0.
~s a SCHOTTKY differential Q (z) di 2 extends to a quadratic differential
on ~ which we verify at once to be positive. From the families {LI}, {/}
and the deformation E we obtain in a natural manner similar entities
on ~ which are found to satisfy the conditions of Theorem 4.1 on the
latter surface. Relative to §Z the left band side of (4.7) is rep~aced by a
quantity just twice as large. Thus Theorem 4.1 applied to 9\ gives at
once the corresponding inequality for 9\. The results relative to equality
extend immediately.
4.9 The exact status of condition (vii) in Definition 4.4 is not clear,
that is, whether it is essential for the truth of Theorem 4.1 or merely
for the success of the method used in its proof. It intervenes only in the
evaluation of § 4.5 in the case of a strip domain. However the corres-
ponding considerations for double poles, in particular the choice of the
determination of log aU), are unavoidable. It will be recalled that
RoYDEN [161] has recently stated a lemma [161, Lemma 1] which, if
correct, would enable us to drop condition (vii) in Definition 4.4. It is a
simple matter, however, to give counter examples to this lemma and
an error is readily detected in its purported proof.
Chapter Five
Canonical Conformal Mappings
5.1 In this chapter we develop a number of standard canonical
conformal mappings for domains of planar type and finite connectivity,
giving at the end also some indications in the case of infinite connectivity.
The method employs certain extremal properties of the canonical
configurations tagether with compactness properties of the families of
functions considered. Essentially the same approach has been earlier
used by GRÖTZSCH [65, 70] and RENGEL [157] but here the use of the
General Coefficient Theorem provides considerable unification and
simplification.
72 V. Canonical Conformal Mappings
The first case treated is the following.

Theorem 5.1. Let the domain D in the z-sphere be of finite connectivity
and contain the origin and the point at infinity. Then there exists a unique
function tJ> (z) in .E0 (D) mapping D conformally onto a domain bounded
by slits on circles centred at the origin.
The results of the first seven theorems of this chapter are due to
KoEBE [123, 124].
Lemma 5.1. Let the simply-connected domain D contain the origin
and the point at infinity. Then there exists a function in E 0 (D) mapping D
onto a domain bounded by a slit on a circle centred at the origin.
By the RIEMANN MappingTheorem there exists a conformal mapping
w = f (z) of D onto the exterior of lwl = 1 which carries the point at
infinity into itself, the development there being
f (z) = az + regular function of z-1
with a not zero and such that f (0) = - (!, I! real and greater than one.
Let now
ew•+ e•w
g(w)= ew+!·
Then it is readily verified that a-1 g (! (z)) provides the desired function.
Lemma 5.2. Let the domain D in the z-sphere be bounded by a finite
number of slits an circles centred at the origin . I f f E E 0 (D) then
II' (O)I;;;; 1. (5.1)
Equality occurs in (5.1) only if f (z) = z.
We apply the General Coefficient Theorem, taking '?\ to be the
z-sphere, Q (z) dz 2 to be - dz 2 jz 2 , the family {LI} to consist of D alone,
f to be the corresponding function. Evidently D is an admissible domain.
Also the function f is admissible, the admissible homotopy existing
automatically in this case and condition (vii) of Definition 4.4 being
vacuously satisfied. The quadratic differential has double poles at the
origin and the point at infinity which wederrote by P 1 and P 2• In terms
of local parameters at these points conditioned as in Theorem 4.1 we
have the coefficients
oc(l) = ~(2) = - 1
a<1 > = 1/f' (0)
a(2) = 1.
Inequality (4.7) gives

'?\ {-log II' (0) l-1} :;;; 0
the values of the deformation degree at P1 and P 2 being irressentiaL This
proves inequality (5.1). The equality statement comes under possibi-
lity (ii) of Theorem 4.1.
Circular, radial and spiral slit mappings 73
----
To prove Theorem 5,1 we consider the least upper bound of I/' (O)I
for f E .E0 (D) which we derrote by fl· The compactness of .E0 (D) (which
follows from a standard normal families argument) implies that fl is
finite and that there is a function <P E ..E0 (D) with I([)' (0) I = fl· If any
boundary component of ([) (D) were not a slit on a circle centred at the
origin let a (w) be the mapping of Lemma 5.1 for its complement. If
r (z) = a (rp (z)), r E .E0 (D) and Lemma 5.2 implies
Ir' (0) I > fl
which is impossible. Thus w = (z) were a second such mapping and = k (w), w = k (w)w
derrote the compound mappings then Lemma 5.2 implies
lk' (0) I ~ 1 I lk' (0) I ~ 1
and thus
([) (z) o= iP (z)
proving uniqueness of the circular slit mapping and completing the
proof of Theorem 5.1.
and contain the origin and the point at infinity. Then there exists a unique
function P (z) in .E0 (D) mapping D conformally onto a domain bounded by
slits on half-rays emanating from the origin.
The proof of Theorem 5.2 differs from that of Theorem 5.1 only in
that we use instead of the explicit mapping g (z) of Lemma 5.1 the
mapping
h (z) = z+ z1 + e + e1 '
that in applying the General Coefficient Theorem we use the quadratic
differential dz 2 jz 2 , the inequality (5,1) being replaced by l/'(0)1 ~ 1 and
that we take the greatest lower bound of II' (0) I for f E .E0 (D) rather
than the least upper bound.
and contain the origin and the point at infinity. Then for every real() there
exists a function f 0 (z) in .E0 (D) mapping D conformally onto a domain
bounded by slits on trajectories of the quadratic differential e- 2 i 0 dz 2 jz 2 •
For ()not an integral multiple of ~ the trajectories of this quadratic
differential are logarithmic spirals making the angle () with half-rays
emanating from the origin. The present proof is essentially due to
GRÖTZSCH [69].
Consider the function
exp {eiB (cos ()log P(z)- i sin ()log <P(z))}
where ([), P are the functions of Theorems 5.1, 5.2. This function is
verified at once to be regular and single-valued in D- {0, oo }. It can
74 V. Canonical Conforrnal Mappings
be extended to the origin and the point at infinity so that, if we denote

the extended function by f e(z),
fe(O) =0
Ie(z) = z + regular function of z- 1
in a neighborhood of the point at infinity. Further fe admits a con-
tinuous extension to the boundary elements of D in the sense of boundary
correspondence, carrying them into slits on trajectories of e- 2 i 0 dz 2 jz 2 •
Since I 0 (z) is univalent at the point at infinity it is then univalent for
all z in D. Thus /eE L:0 (D) and provides the function indicated in
Theorem 5.3.
5.2 Theorem 5.4. Let D be a domain in the z-plane with a finite
number ol boundary continua C1 , C2, ••• , Cn, n ;::;: 2, and containing the
origin. Then D can be mapped conformally by w = <1>1 (z) on the circle
1w I < 1 slit along arcs on circles centred at the origin so that C1 corresponds
to lwl = 1 and
(/>1 (0) = 0, cp~ (0) > 0 .
By the given normalization the mapping function is uniquely determined.

By an application of the RIEMA!"N Mapping Theorem we may assume
that C1 is the circle \zl = 1. Let D be the union of D, its reflection in
lzl = 1 and the la~ter circle. Let IP (z) be the circular slit mapping of
Theorem 5.1 for D. Then
<1>'(0) (?i (z-1) )-1
is also a circular slit mapping in 1:0 (D) thus identical with IP (z). Setting
z = ei 0 we seethat IP' (0) is real and positive and
I<P (eiO)I = (IP' (0))'1,.
Thus <P (z) maps D conformally onto a circle centre the origin with radius
(<P' (0) )'1, slit along arcs on circles centred at the origin and (IP' (0))-'l,cp (z)
provides a mapping with the properties given in Theorem 5.4. If there
were a second distinct such mapping reversing the above process would
provide a second distinct circular slit mapping in L:0 (D) which is im-
possible. This completes the proof of Theorem 5.4.
Theorem 5.5. Let D be a domain in the z-plane with a finite number
ol boundary continua Cv C 2 , ••• , Cn, n;::;: 2, and containing the origin.
Then D can be mapped conlormally by w = P 1 (z) an the circle !wl < 1
slit along segments on radii emanating from the origin so that C1 Gorresponds
to Iw! = 1 and
pl (0) = 0, lJf~ (0) > 0 .
By the given normalization the mapping function is uniquely determined.
This is proved on the same lines as Theorem 5.4. It may be noted
that from this result is readily derived the mapping of a doubly-connected
domain on a circular ring (Theorem 2.4).
Circular, radial and spiral slit mappings 75
Theorem 5.6. Let D be a domain in the z-plane with a finite number of

boundary continua Cv C2 , ••• , Cn, n;::;; 3. Then D can be mapped
conformally by w = W2 (z) so that to C1 corresponds the circle Iw I = 1,
to c2 the circle Iw I = p (0 < p < 1) and to the remaining boundary
components slits on circles centred at the origin. The mapping is unique up
to a rotation about the origin.
Let F denote the family of functions f (z) regular and univalent in D
and with w = f (z) mapping the latter so that to C1 corresponds lwl = 1,
to C2 corresponds [wl = r, 0 < r < 1. The family Fisseen at once to be
non void and compact. There is thus a function in F for which r is
maximal, having say the value P which is thus positive and less than
one. Let us denote such a function by $ 2 (z).
If under the mapping w = c]J 2 (z) a boundary component T of W2 (D)
is not a slit on a circle centred at the origin let W = a (w) be the mapping
of Theorem 5.4 for the domain E bounded by T and lwl = 1 where the
latter plays the role of C1 . Applying the General Coefficient Theorem
with 9\ as lW I< 1, Q (z) dz 2 as- dW 2 jW 2 , {Ll} consisting of the single
domain a (E) and the corresponding function the inverse of a, we derive
at once
Ia' (0) I > 1 .
Under a let Iw I = P go into the curve C. LetZ= T (W) map the domain
D' bounded by IWI = 1 and C conformally on the circular ring
P*< IZI < 1
so that C corresponds to IZI = P*.
Now let r' be positive and sosmallthat
Ia (r' ei") I > r' , rx real . (5.2)
Let E* be the domain bounded by C and the imagc of lwl = r' under a.
In each of D' and E* the metric (2 n IWI)-1 ldWI is admissible for the
module problern for the dass of curves separating the boundary com-
ponents. Let J, J* be the areas of these domains in this metric. Then
by Theorem 2.4 and inequality (5.2) we have
I I
J~--znlogF
I p
] *:?-log-
- Zn r'
I I
J + ]* < --2-log----,-
n r
.
These imply
p < P*
contradicting the maximal property of P since T (a (c]J 2 (z))) is in F. Thus
c]J 2 provides a circular slit mapping as indicated in Theorem 5.6.
The uniqueness statement follows by application of Lemma 2.2.

Theorem 5.7. Let D be a domain in the z-plane with a finite number of
boundary Gontinua C1 , C 2, ••• , Cn, n;:;;; 3. Then D Gan be mapped
Gonformally by w = P2(z) so that to C1 Gorresponds the Gircle lwl = 1,
to c2 theGirGle lwl = e (0 < e < 1) andtotheremainingboundaryGomponents
slits on half-rays emanating from the origin. The mapping is unique up
to a rotation about the origin.
Lemma 5.3. Let the triply-Gonnected domain D in the z-plane have
boundary Gontinua Cv C 2 , C3 • Then D Gan be mapped Gonformally by
w = P2(z) so that to Cl GOrresponds the Gircle lwl = 1, to c2 the Gircle
Iw I = (!, 0 < e < 1, and to Ca a slit an a half-ray emanating from the origin.
Let (/J 2 (z) be the mapping of Theorem 5.6 for D, P again denoting the
radius of the inner circle bounding the image. We may suppose that the
circular arc corresponding to Ca is bisected by the positive real axis. Then
E = (/J 2 (D) n{Sw > 0}
can be mapped conformally onto a domain E' defined by
e< IWI<1, SW>O
so that the boundary points - 1, - P, P, 1 of E correspond to the
boundary points - 1 , - (!, (!, 1 of E'. Extending this mapping to (/J 2 (D)
by reflection in the real axis we have (/> 2 (D) and thus D mapped onto
the circular ring
e < IWI < 1
slit along a segment on the positive real axis.
Lemma 5.4. Let the domain D in the z-plane be bounded by Izl = 1,
lzl = r, 0 < r < 1 and by a finite number of slits on half-rays emanating
from the origin. Let D be mapped Gonformally by w = f (z) so that lzl = 1
Gorresponds to Iw I= 1, lzl = r Gorresponds to Iw I = r' (0 < r' < 1) and
some boundary Gomponent of D does not Gorrespond to a radial slit. Then
r< r'.
This follows at once by application of Lemma 2.3 to the metric
(Iw I log t
:, 1 ldwl in the domain f (D).
Considering again the family F of Theorem 5.6, there is a function
in F for which r is minimal having say the value (!, which is thus positive
and less than one. Let us denote such a function by P 2 (z).
If under the mapping w = P 2 (z) a boundary component F of lJI2 (D)
is not a slit on a half-ray emanating from the origin let W = a (w) be the
mapping of Lemma 5.3 for the triply-connected domain bounded by
lwl = 1, lwl = e and F. Let the circle corresponding to lwl = e have
radius r' (Iw I= 1 is to play the role of C1). Then by Lemma 5.4
r'< e
Parallel slit mappings 77
contradicting the minimal property of e since a ( P 2 (z)) is in F. Thus P 2

provides a radial slit mapping as indicated in Theorem 5.7.
The uniqueness statement follows by application of Lemma 2.3.
From either Theorem 5.6 or Theorem 5.7 we readily derive the
symmetry property of a triply-connected domain used in the proof of
Lemma 3.7.
Corollary 5.1. A triply-connected domain D admits a unique anti-
Gonformal mapping A onto itself which leaves invariant each boundary
component. The set of fixed points in D under A constitutes three open
analytic arcs.
5.3 Theorem 5.8. Let the domain D in the z-sphere be of finite connec-
tivity and contain the point at infinity. Then for each real (}, 0::;;; () < n,
there exists a unique function g0 (z) in .E' (D) mapping D onto a domain
bounded by rectilinear slits in the direction which has argument e.
This result is due to HILBERT [88].
We observe that when this theorem is proved for (} = 0 the result
for other values follows at once. Indeed if f E .E' (e-i 8 D) then ei 8 f (e-i 0 z)
is in .E' (D).
Lemma 5.5. Let the simply-connected domain D contain the point at
injinity. Then there exists a function in .E' (D) mapping D onto a domain
bounded by a slit parallel to the real axis.
This follows at once by the RIEMANN Mapping Theorem combined
with elementary transformations.
Lemma 5.6. Let the domain D in the z-sphere be bounded by a finite
number of rectilinear slits parallel to the real axis. Let f E 1:' (D) have
development at infinity
f (z) = z + _Cl!_
z
+ high er powers of r 1 . (5.3)
Then
(5.4)
Equality occurs in (5.4) only if f (z) ""z.
This result is due to GRÖTZSCH [70] and DE PosSEL [152].
We apply the General Coefficient Theorem, taking 9\ to be the
z-sphere, Q (z) dz 2 to be dz 2 , the family {LI} to consist of D alone, the
corresponding function tobe f. The conditions of the theorem are readily
verified. The quadratic differential dz 2 is regular apart from a pole of
order four at the point at infinity. The corresponding coefficients are
o:( 1l = 1 , a~l) = a 1 •
9\a1 :;;;0.
The equality statement comes under possibility (i) of Theorem 4.1.
To prove Theorem 5.8 we consider the least upper bound of SR a 1 for
functions f E .E' (D) whose expansion at the point at infinity is given
78 V. Canonical Conforrnal ~appings
by (5.3). The compactness of 1:' (D) (which is readily proved in an

elementary manner, see for example [67]) implies that this quantity
is finite and that there is a function g0 (z) for which 9\ ai0> attains this
value, g0 (z) having at infinity the expansion
a(O)
g0 (z) = z + ~ + high er powers of z- 1 •
If under the mapping w = g0 (z) a boundary component of g0 (D) were
not a slit parallel to the real axis let a (w) be the mapping of Lemma 5.5
for its complement, the expansion at infinity of the latter function being
a (w) = w +~
w
+ higher powers of w- 1 •
By Lemma 5.6, ~ b1 > 0. On the other hand a (g0 (z)) is in 1:' (D) and
has expansion at infinity
a(O) + b
+ -'-z-- + high er powers of z- 1
1
a (g0 (z)) = z
while
~ (ai0 >+ b1 ) = ~ a~o) + ~ b1 > 9\ ai0 >
contradicting the maximal property of the latter quantity. Thus
w = g0 (z) provides a horizontal slit mapping as indicated in Theorem 5.8.
The uniqueness statement follows at once from Lemma 5.6.
Corollary 5.2. In the notation of Theorem 5.8
g0 (z) = ei 0 (cos () g0 (z)- i sin () g,., (z)) (5.5)
for () real, 0 ;;:; () < n.
The function on the right hand side of (5.5) is evidently regular in D
apart from the point at infinity with expansion
z + terms in z- 1
at that point. Further it carries the boundary components of D into
rectilinear slits in the direction 8. It follows that it is a function of
1:' (D). The uniqueness result in Theorem 5.8 then shows it tobe identical
with g8 (z).
5.4 Theorem 5.9. Let the domain D in the z-sphere be of finite con-
nectivity and contain the origin and the point at infinity. Then for each
real (), 0 ;;:; () < 2 n there exists a unique function piJ (z) in 1:0 (D) mapping
D onto a domain bounded by slits on trajectories of the quadratic differential
e-iO dw 2 jw.
The results of the next seven theorems are due to GRÖTZSCH [64, 68].
The method used here is essentially one which was suggested to GRöTZSCH
by KoEBE.
Let D be the image of a two-sheeted covering surface of D branched
Parabolic, elliptic and hyperbolic slit mappings 79
at zero and infinity under the root transformation z'!,o Then, with g 012
denoting the function of Theorem 508 for D, it is readily verfied that
Pa (z)
(g 0/2 (z'l ')) 2 =
provides a function with the properties stated in Theorem 5090 If there
were a second distinct such function reversing the process would give a
contradiction to the uniqueness result in Theorem 5080
The trajectories in this case are confocal parabolas with the origin
as focus and axis in the direction with argument (), together with this
axiso
Theorem 50100 Let the domain D in thc z-sphere have a finite number
of boundary continua Cv C2 , o, Cn, n;;:;: 1, and contain the point at
0 0
infinityo Then for each real (), 0 ~ () < 2 n, there is a unique function
n 0 (z) in .E (D) under which C1 corresponds to a rectilinear segment from
the origin to a point Rei0 , R > 0, and the remaining boundary components
of D correspond to slits on trajectories of the qttadratic differential e-iO dw 2 jwo
Let a be a given point of C1 and let D be the image of a two-sheeted
covering surface of D branched at a and infinity under the root trans-
for~ation (z- a) '/,0 Then, with ga; 2 denoting the function of Theorem 508
for D, it is readily verified that
no (z)
(gatz ((z- a)'1')) 2
=
provides a function with the properties stated in Theorem 50100 Uni-

queness follows as in Theorem 5090
Theorem 50110 Let the domain D in the z-sphere be of finite connectivity
and contain the origin and the point at infinityo Let b be a further interior
point of Do Then there exists a unique function e1 (z) in 1:0 (D) mapping D
onto a domain bounded by slits on trajectories of the quadratic differential
- [w (w-e1 (b))J- 1 dw2 0
These trajectories are confocal ellipses with foci at 0 and e1 (b),

including the open rechlinear segment joining these pointso
A two-sheeted covering surface of D branched at the points 0 and
bis carried by the rnapping
Z = ~ (z- ~ + [z (z- b)]'f,} (506)
into a domain i5 of connectivity twice that of D for which a self conforrnal
mapping is provided by the function b2 (16 Z)- 1 corresponding to inter-
change of sheets on the covering surfaceo Denoting by (]J the function
of Theorem 501 for the domain i5, the irrrage of f5 under the mapping
W = (]J (Z) is a circular slit domaino The uniqueness result of Theorem 501
( lfJ (:) r
shows that (/) (D) is rnapped conformally onto itself by the function
W- 1 Thus if we set
0
w = W + (lfJ ( ~-) ) 2
/W + 2 (/) ( ~-)
the combined mapping from the z-sphere to the w-sphere defines a

function in 1:0 (D). Denoting this function by edz) it is readily verified
to provide the desired mapping. Uniqueness follows as in the preceding
theorems.
Theorem 5.12. Let the domain D in the z-sphere contain the point at
infinity and be bounded by a finite number of boundary continua Cl>
C 2 , ••• , Cn, n:;;; 2. Then there exist a unique real value (}, 0 ~ (} < 2 n
and a unique function e2 (z) in E (D) such that under the mapping w = e2 (z)
C1 corresponds to a rectilinear segment from the origin to the point r 1 ei 0 ,
C 2 corresponds to a rectilinear segment from the point r 2 eie to thepoint r3ei 8
where 0 < r1 < r 2 < r3 and the remaining boundary components of D
correspond to slits an trajectories of the quadratic differential
- [w (w-raeiBJ]-I dw2.
We prove this in the same way as Theorem 5.11 except that we use a
two-sheeted covering surface of D branched about a point of C1 and
a point of c2.
infinity and be bounded by a finite number of con#nua Cl> C2 , ••• , Cn,
n:;;;;; 2. Then for each real (), 0 ~ (} < n, there exists a unique function
s 8 (z) in }; (D) under which C1 corresponds to a segment joining points
- R ei 8 , R ei 8 , R positive, and the remaining boundary components of D
correspond to slits an trajectories of the quadratic differential
_ [w2 _ R2 e2iBJ-I dw2.
From Theorem 5.4 follows that there is a unique function c (z) in
E (D) suchthat under the mapping w = c (z) C1 corresponds to a circle
jwj = Rj2 and the remaining · boundary components of D correspond
to slits on circles centred at the origin. The function
e8 (z) = c (z) + 1/ 4 R2e2iB (c (z))-1
then provides the desired mapping. Uniqueness follows by reversing
this last step.
and contain the origin and the Point at infinity. Let b be a further inferior
point of D. Then there exists a unique function h1 (z) in 1:0 (D) mapping
D onto a domain bounded by slits on trafectories of the quadratic differential
[w (w-h1(b))]- 1dw2.
This is proved in the same way as Theorem 5.11 except that the
mapping 1/J for the domain i5 is replaced by the mapping lJI ofTheorem5.2
forthat domain.
infinity and be bounded by a finite number of continua Cl> C2 , ••• , Cn,
n:;;;;; 2. Then there exist a unique real value (), 0 ;;:;; () < 2 n and a unique
function h 2 (z) in 1: (D) suchthat under the mapping w = h 2 (z) C1 corresponds
Domains of infinite connectivity 81
to a rectilinear segment from the origin to the point r1 ei 0 , r 1 > 0, C2 corresponds

to a rectilinear segment from the point - r 2 ei 0 to the point- r 3 ei 8 where
0 < r 2 < r 3 and the remaining boundary components of D correspond to
slits an trafectories of the quadratic differential [w (w + r2 ei 8 )]- 1 dw 2 •
This result is obtained by modifying the proof of Theorem 5.14 in the
same way the proof of Theorem 5.11 was modified to give that of
Theorem 5.12.
5.5 Let D be a domain of infinite connectivity in the z-sphere
containing the point at infinity. Herewe allow also boundary components
consisting of a point. It is readily seen that for such domains there exist
parallel slit mappings analogaus to those of § 5.3 (of course point
boundaries are allowed also in the corresponding image). However this
property no Ionger need determine the mapping uniquely. There are
however certain distinguished parallel slit mappings to which the
extremal properties of the case of finite connectivity extend and
characterize them uniquely.
Theorem 5.16. Let the domain D in the z-sphere be of infinite con-
nectivity and contain the point at infinity. Then for every real number 0,
0 ~ () < n, there exists a unique function g 9 (z) in 2:' (D) mapping D onto
a domain bounded by rectilinear slits ( possibly degenerating to a point)
in the direction of argument 0 and possessing the following property:
(P 8) LetS (L, 0) be the intersection of g 0 (D) with the square defined by
- L < ~ (e-i 8 w) < L, - L < 5 (e-i 8 w) < L
where L is Zarge enough that the boundary of g8 (D) lies in this sqttare. Let
F(L, 0) be the class oflocally rectifiable curves in S (L, 0) joining the pair
of sides of the square in the direction of argument () + T.
Then the module
r
of S (L, 0) for the class of curves (L, 0) is one.
The f~tnction g8 (z) is also characterized by the property that among
functions f (z) in };' (D) with the expansion at infinity
f (z) = z + !!_
z
+ higher powers of z- 1 (5.7)
it alone maximizes the quantity ~ (e- 2 i 8 a 1 ).

As in § 5.3 the result for general () is easily reduced to the result for
() = 0, hence we confine our attention to the latter case.
Lemma 5.7. In the notation of Theorem 5.16let Dn, n = 1, 2, ... , be a
sequence of domains of finite connectivity such that
Dn+I) Dn, u D,.= D.

n=l
Let g~n) (z) be the function of Theorem 5.8 for Dn. Then there exists a
subsequence of {g~n) (z) };_"' converging uniformly on every compact subdomain
ol D to a function in E' (D). Let this limit function have expansion at

inlinity
a*
z + -z1 + higher powers of z- 1 •
Then for any function I (z) in E' (D) with the expansion (5.7) at infinity
we have
~a~ ~ !iRa1 •
The image of D by the limit function is bounded by slits parallel to the
real axis.
The existence of a Iimit function of a subsequence of {g~n) (z)}r follows
by a standard compactness argument. If g~n) (z) has the expansion at
infinity
a(n)
z + - 1z - + higher powers of z- 1
evidently
lim aink) = a~
k-+00
where {nk} is the index sequence for the above subsequence. On the
other hand for any function I (z) in .E' (D) with the expansion (5.7) at
infinity we have by Lemma 5.6
~~ ~ !iRatn)
thus
~a1 ~!;Ra~.
The final statement of Lemma 5. 7 also follows from Lemma 5.6 as in the
proof of Theorem 5.8.
For any domain D as in Theorem 5.16 there exists a sequence of
domains Dn conditioned as in Lemma 5.7 which we may suppose further
chosen so that the sequence {gh~) (z)};"' itself converges. Let us denote
the corresponding limit function by g0 (z).
Lemma 5.8. The domain g0 (D) possesses property (P0 ).
r
Let S (L, 0) have module fl for the dass of curves (L, 0). Let the
function defined in g0 (D.,.) by performing the inverse of g0 (z) followed
by g~n) (z) be denoted by ln (w). Then given 8 with 0 < 8 < L, for n large
enough, we have I~ fn (w) I < L + 8 on the vertical sides of S (L,O),
l51.,.(w)l >L-8 on the horizontal sides. Let e (w) ldwJ be a metric
admissible in the above module problern and let e' (W) ldWI be the
metric in !.. (S (L,O) rlg0 (Dn)) associated with e (w) ldwJ under the
mapping W = f.,.(w). Let R be the reetangle
- (L + e) < ~W < L + e, - (L- s) < 5 W < L- 8.
W e define the function e (W) in R n g~n) (D n) by
Q(W) = e' (W) in Rn ln(S (L,O) ng0 (Dn))
e(W) = 0 in (R ng~nl(D,.))- j,.(S (L,O) rlg0 (D.,.)).
Domains of infinite connectivity 83
It is verified at once that the metric (i (W) ldWI is admissible in the

module problern for the dass of curves in R 1\ g~n) (Dn) joining the
vertical sides of the reetangle R. Thus
L-s
fl ~ L+s ·
Since this is true for every 8 > 0 we ha ve
fl ~ 1 .
On the other hand the metric (2L)- 1 /dwl is admissible in the module
problern for r
(L,O). Thus
fl = 1.
Lemma 5.9. Let the domain D in the z-sphere contain the point at
infinity, be of infinite connectivity and possess property (P0). Let f E I:' (D)
have the development (5.7) at infinity. Then
~ a1 ;;; 0
equality occurring only if f (z) == z.
LetS (L) now be the intersection of D with the square
-L<ffi.z<L, -L< Sz<L
where L is large enough that the boundary of D lies in this square. By
hypothesis the module of S (L) for the dass of curves in it joining the
vertical sides of the square is one. Let a 1 = A ei", A ~ 0, <X real, and
suppose that A cos <X > 0. In S (L) let us consider the metric e (z) ldzl
defined by
e (z) "=' II' (z) I .
In this metric any curve m S (L) joining the points L +i L tan (),
- L +i L tan cp, - ~ < 0, rp < ~ , has length at least equal the
modulus of
(L + i L tan () + A ei"(L + i L tan ())- 1) - (-L+iL tan cp +
A ei" (- L + i L tan rp)- 1 ) + 0 (L - 2) .
An elementary calculation shows the square of its length to be at least
4 V+ 4 A cos <X+ ;, p 10- rpl 2 -16 A I ()-rp/ + 0 ( 1).

Choose 8 with 0 < 8 < 1/ 4 cos <X. For j()- cpj < 8 the length squared
is at least
4 V+ 4 A cos <X - 16 A c: + 0 ( ~).
For JO- rpj ~ 8 and V > 4 A n 2j8 the length squared is at least
4 V+ 4 A cos <X + 0 ( +) .
6*
As in§ 4.4
JJ e2 d x d y ~ 4 v + o ( ~ ) .
S(L)
Thus we have for the module of S (L) for the given dass of curves the
estimate from above
( 4 L 2 + 0 ( ~ ) ) ( 4 L 2 + 4 A cos a - 16 A s + 0 ( ~ )) - 1
which equals
1- A coscx-4Ae
L 2 + o(-1-)
L 3 •
Choosing L large enough this contradicts the hypothesis that D has

property (P 0 ). Thus
If ~ a1 = 0 an argument similar to the preceding but making use of

Lemma 2.1 shows that f (z) ="' z.
The results of Theorem 5.16 now follow at once from Lemma 5.7,
Lemma 5.8 and Lemma 5.9.
Corollary 5.3. The function g0 (z) of Theorem 5.16 has the property
that the complement E 0 (D) of g 0 (D) has measure zero.
Indeed the metric (2 L)- 1 ldwl is admissible in the module problern
for the curve family F (L, (}). If E 0 (D) had positive measure this module
would be less than one .
.A slightly more extensive proof shows that E 0 (D) has even (outer)
]ORDAN content zero. Further in the notation of Lemma 5.7 if the
complement of D has out er ] ORDAN content S
~ a~ ~ 2ln S
with 2~ the best possible constant.

The result of Theorem 5.16 is essentially due to GRÖTZSCH [67]
although his criterion expressed in terms of the method of strips is not
trivially equivalent to the one given here. As he showed, it can be proved
that these canonical slit domains areminimal slit domains in the sense
of KoEBE [122]. The exact geometrical characterization of such domains
is still not known. KoEBE [122] conjectured (in the case () = 0) that
the characterization was that the projection of the complement on the
imaginary axis have linear measure zero. This condition is readily seen
to be sufficient but GRÖTZSCH gave a counter example as to its necessity
[67, § 5]. Our present formulation is quite similar to that of AHLFORS
and BEURLING [5] in a closely related problem.
As GRÖTZSCH remarked [67, p. 200] results analogaus to those of this
section extend also to the other canonical mappings of this chapter.
Classical results and extensions 85
Some interesting extensions of these canonical mappings and their

extremal properties have been given by KoMATU and ÜZAWA [128].
Finally let it be remarked that most of these results are special cases of
more general theorems which can be obtained by a general method
recently given by the author [112].
Chapter Six
Applications of the General Coefficient Theorem.

Univalent Functions
6.1 We are now ready to apply the General Coefficient Theorem
(Theorem 4.1) to prove many of the standard results on univalent
functions. Tobesure in many of these, particularly the most elementary
ones, there is no mention of homotopy conditions corresponding to those
which appear in the General Coefficient Theorem. The reason isthat in
these cases the homotopy conditions are automatically satisfied. Indeed
we have
Lemma 6.1. Let 9\ be a simply-connected finite oriented Riemann
surface, Q (z) dz 2 a quadratic differential on 9\ and {LI} an admissible
family of domains Lli, j = 1, ... , k, on 9\ with respect to Q (z) dz 2 such
that each domain L1 i is simply-connected. Let there be M; ( distinct) poles
of Q (z) dz 2 inferior to L1 i· Let N; be one if 9\ has a boundary or i/ there
is a pole of Q (z) dz 2 exterior to LI;. Let
M;+N;-;;,3, f= 1, ... ,k.

Let {/} be a family of functions /;, j = 1, ... , k, with the properfies (i),
(ii), (iii) of Definition 4.2. and such that further no pole of Q (z) dz 2 not
k k
inferior to U L1; is inferior to U /; (Ll ;) . Then the family {/} admits an
j ~1 i~l
admissible homotopy into the identity.

This lemma follows from well known results on the homotopy
properties of simply-connected, doubly-connected and triply-connected
domains [119, 26].
6.2 Theorem 6.1. For f ES the image of lzl < 1 under the mapping
w = f (z) covers the circle lwl < 1 / 4 . It omits a point with lwl = 1 / 4 only
if f (z) = z (I + ei"' z)- 2 , cc real.
We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with 9\ the w-sphere,
dw 2
Q(w)dw 2 = w 2 ( w- 1 /4) ,
and a single admissible domain LI = t(E) where E is lzl < 1 and

f(z) = z (1 + z)- 2 • Let (jJ (w) be the inverseofT defined on LI. Suppose
86 VI. Applications of the General Coefficient Theorem
that I (E) does not cover the point 1/ 4 e-ia., cx real. Then eirx I (e-ia. z) is in S
and eirxl (e-ia.E) does not cover the point 1/ 4 • Then the function
P (w) = eirx I (e-ia.I[J (w))
is seen to be an admissible function associated with LI (Definition 4.4 and
Lemma6.1).
The quadratic differential has a single double pole P 1 at the origin.
The corresponding coefficients are
oc<1>= - 4 , a<1>= I .
Thus equality occurs in inequality (4.7) (the determination of log a<1l
being inessential). By equality condition (ii) in Theorem 4.1
eia.l (e-irx.(j) (w)) =w, w E (E). J
Setting (j) (w) = eia.z we obtain
I (z) '='= z (1 + eia.z)- 2, JzJ < 1
as stated.
Theorem 6.2. Let I ES. Then
(l~r)•~JI(z)J~ {l_:_r)"' \zl=r, Ü<r<1

equality occurring on each side only lor I (z) = z (1 + e•rxz)- 2 , oc real,
respectively lor z = r e-üx and z = - r e-ia..
Of course the right hand inequality holds for lzl ~ r.
To prove the lower bound we let ~ and LI be as in Theorem 6.1.
We set d = r (I+ r)- 2 , c =I (rei 0 ), ()real. Then we choose
dw 2
Q (w)dw 2 =w2(w-d)
---
and with (j) as in Theorem 6.1 we take

g (w) = :!_I (ei 0 I[J (w)) .
c
It is verified at once that LI is an admissible domain with respect to
Q (w) dw 2 and that g is an admissible function associated with LI.
oc<Il=- d-1' a<Il= cfdeiO.
Inequality (4.7) becomes
~ {- d- 1 log (cfdeiO)} ~ 0
which easily reduces to
II (reiB) I ;;;:; {1 ~ r)• .
By equality condition (iii) in Theorem 4.1 equality can occur here only if
d
--;I (ei 0 (j) (w))-= w, w EI- (E). (6.1)
Setting C/J (w) = e-i8 z and observing that the identity (6.1) implies
c = dei 8 we have
f (z) ~z (1 + e-i8 z)- 2 , lzl < 1
as stated.
To prove the upper bound we use the same 'R and L1, set
d = - r (1- r)- 2 , c = f (rei 8 ), choose
dw 2
Q(w) dw 2 = -w2(w-d)
----
and take
g (w) = ~ f (- eiOfjJ (w)).
Again we verify that L1 and g are admissible in the appropriate senses.
o:;(IJ = - d-l ' a(I) = - cfdeiB.
'R {- d- 1 log (- cjdei 8 )};;;; 0
I/ (reiB) I~ (1 __:_r)• .
By the same argument as before we see that equality occurs only for
f (z) """z (1 - e-io z)- 2 , lzl < I .
Theorem 6.3. Let f (z) be meromorphic and univalent for lzl < 1 with
I (0) = 0, f' (0)
= 1. Then
I/' (r eiO) I ; : :; 1 r• r• lf (r eiB)I2
when II (r ei 0 ) I is finite, equality occurring only for the functions f (z) =
z (I + cz + e2 i0 z2 )-I, () real, c an arbitrary constant.
This result appears to have been stated in this form first by Ro-
BINSON [158, p. 444] (in the special case of regular functions). However
it is very closely related to an earlier result of LöwNER [I37].
We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with 'R the w-sphere and
dw 2
Q (w) = w 2 (w-d) 2
where we take E to be lzl < 1, f(z) = z (1 + z)- 2 , LI= {(E), C/J the
inverse of {on Ll, d = r (I+ r)- 2 , c = f (rei 8 ), ()real, and
g (w) =!:___I (eiB cp (w)) .

c
We verify at once that LI and gare admissible in the appropriate senses.
The quadratic differential has two double poles: P 1 at the origin

and P 2 at d. The corresponding coefficients are
0!(1) = d-2' a<1>= cJdeiO
0!(2)- d-2 a(2) = c 1-r (deiO l'(rei0))-1
- ' (1 +r) 3 •
~ {d- 2 log (cfdei 6 ) + d- 2 log [c (11+ ~· (dei 0 f' (rei 6 ))- 1 ]}:;;;; 0
1-r
II' (reiB) I;;;;: -,.~-lf(reiB)I2.
2
The equality statement follows immediately from the final sentence

of Theorem 4.1.
Corollary 6.1. Let I E 5. Then
1 1-r
1/'(z)l;;;;:--:; 1 +r II (z)l, lzl = r,
equality occurring only lor the lunctions I (z) = z (1 + ei"' z)- 2 , 0! real.
This follows at once from Theorem 6.2 and Theorem 6.3.
Corollary 6.2. Let I E 5. Then
1-r
II' (z) I ;;;;: (1 + r)• , lzl = r,
equality occurring only lor the lunctions I (z) = z (1 + ei"' z)- 2 , 0! real.
This also follows from Theorem 6.2 and Theorem 6.3. The inequality
evidently holds for lzl ~ r.
Theorem 6.4. Let I E 5. Then lor ()real
[f'(reiO) ~~ (/~~ 3 ~ (1-r);f(reiO) \"
where
1 +r 2
,u = 2(1+---;r·
Equality occurs only lor the lunctions I (z) = z (1 + ei"'z)- 2, cx real.
This result seems to have been first stated by KuNG SuN [130] (with
a slightly different formal expression).
We take ~tobe the w-sphere,
Q( )d 2_ (w-lf~d 2
W W - w"(w-d)" w '
E to be lzl < 1, f (z) = z (1 + z)- 2 , LI = f(E), (/) the inverse of Ton LI,
d = - r (1- r)- 2, c =I (rei 8 ), 0 real and
g (w) = :I(- eiOif> (w)) .

We verify at once that LI and gare admissible in the appropriate senses.

The quadratic differential has two double poles: P 1 at the origin and
P 2 at d. The corresponding coefficients are
oc<1) = - Ij4 d-2' a(1) = - cjdeiO

oc(2) = (d- 1/4) d-2, a(2) = - c I+ r (deie f' (reiB))-1
(l-r)• .
9\ {- 1h d- 2 log (- cjdei 0 )
+ (d - 1 / 4 )d-2log [- c (Il~;)• (deiO f'(rei0))- 1]} ~ 0
lf'(reiO) I~ (11 + ~·~ (1-r):f(reiO) II'
For equality to occur here it must occur in the preceding inequality,

thus g must be isometric in the Q-metric and preserve trajectories of
Q (z) dz 2• A study of this mapping near the point w = 1/ 4 then shows
it tobe the identity. From this the equality statement of Theorem 6.4
is immediate.
By a modification of this proof we can show
II'( re iO)I< 1-r

=(I+r)"
1(1+r) 2 f(reiO)Iv
r
where
1 +r 2
V=2----
(1-r)2 ·
We do not give further details of this here.
Corollary 6.3. Let I E S. Then
, 1 1 +r
II (z)l ~-;;- I-r ll(z)l, izl = r,
equality occurring only lor the lunctions I (z) = z (1 + ei" z)- 2 , cx real.
This result follows at once from Theorem 6.2 and Theorem 6.4 on
observing that fl is greater than or equal to one for all values of r in
question.
Corollary 6.4. Let I E S. Then
lf'(z)I~(I1 ~~a, lzl=r,

equality occurring only lor the lunctions I (z) = z (1 + ei" z)- 2, cx real.
This result follows from Corollary 6.3 and Theorem 6.2. The in-
equality evidently holds for lzl ~ r.
The results following Theorem 6.1 up to this point are contained
implicitly in more general results to be proved later but are given here
because of the familiarity of most of them and the simplicity of their

proofs. We have not given explicit references for those which are
classical.
Similar results can be obtained for bounded univalent functions and
for functions f(z) regular and univalent in a circular ring 1 < izl < R,
carrying izl = 1 into the circle lwl = 1 while satisfying 1/(z)i > 1 in the
ring. We will not give further details of this here.
6.3 Theorem 6.5. Let the domain D in the z-sphere contain the point
at infinity and be bounded by a finite number of boundary components
Cv C2 , ••• , Cn, n ~ 1. Let f E E(D) and under the mapping w = f(z) let
there correspond to C1 a continuum r.
Then the diameter of F attains its
maximum uniquely for the functions Eo (z) + c, () real, c an arbitrary
constant.
This result for general n is due to GRÖTZSCH [64].
The functions c0 (z) are for n ~ 2 those of Theorem 5.13; for n = 1
they are understood to be the corresponding elementary functions.
Suppose that a, barepointsOll r.
Let arg (b- a) == () mod. n, 0~ () <n
and let l})(w) be the inverse of c11 (z) defined in c11 (D). We now apply the
General Coefficient Theorem with ~ the w-sphere,
Q (w) dw2=- [w2-R2e2iOJ-ldw2'
L1 as s 11 (D) and an admissible function associated with L1 given by
g(w) = 2R lbal- 1 (/(l})(w))- a~b).

The quadratic differential has a single double pole P 1 at infinity.
oc<1 >= -1, a<1>= 2R lbal- 1 •
Inequality (4.7) then gives

~{-log [2R lbal- 1 ]} ~ 0
thus
2R ~ lb-al.
If equality occurs here equality condition (ii) of Theorem 4.1 implies

that g(w) provides the identity mapping. Thus we must have
f(z) = s11 (z) + -a+b

2-.
infinity and be bounded by a finite number of boundary components
Cv C2 , ••• , Cn, n ~ 2. Let f E E(D) and under the mapping w = f(z) let
there correspond to Cv C2 continua Fv F 2 • Then the distance between
a point of F 1 and a point of F 2 attains its greatest possible value uniquely
for the functions e2 (z) + c, c constant.
Diameter theorems 91
This result is due to GRÖTZSCH [64].

The function e2 (z) is of course that of Theorem 5.12. Suppose that
a is a point of Tv b a point of T 2 • Let C/J (w) be the inverse of e2 (z) defined
in e2 (D). We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with ~ the w-sphere,
LIas e2 (D) and an admissible function associated with LI given by
g (w) = r3 ei 0 (b- a)- 1 (! (C/J (w)) - a).

oc< 1>= - 1 , a< 1>= r3 ei 0 (b- a)- 1 •
Inequality (4. 7) gives

<;.>\{-log Craew (b- a)- 1 ]} ~ 0
thus
that is
I (z) = e2 (z) +a.
and contain the origin and the point at infinity. Let b be a further inferior
point of D. Let f E .E(D). Then if(b)- /(0)1 attains its maximum uniquely
for the functions e1 (z) + c, c constant.
The function e1 (z) is of course that of Theorem 5.11. The proof of
this result is not essentially different from that of Theorem 6.6.
Corollary 6.5. Let f E E. Then
if(rei 0 )-f(-reiB)I~2(r++), r>1, Oreal,
equality occurring only for f (z) = z + c + e2 i 0 / z, c constant.

This follows by applying Theorem 6.7 to the domain lz- rei0 > 1 1
with b = - 2 reiB.
infinity and be bounded by a finite number of boundary components
Cv C2 , • • • , Cn, n ~ 2. Let f E E(D) and under the mapping w = f(z)
let there correspond to Cv C2 continua Tv T 2 • Then the minimal distance
between rl and r2 is attained uniquely for the functions h2(z) + c, c constant.
The function h2 (z) is of coursethat of Theorem 5.15. Suppose that

a is a point of rl> b a point of r2, such that lbal is equal to the
distance between F 1 and F 2 • Let (jj (w) be the inverse of h 2 (z) defined in
h2 (D). We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with the w-sphere, m
Q(w)dw 2 = [w(w + r2eiB)J- 1 dw 2 ,
(with the notation of Theorem 5.15) L1 as h2 (D) and an adrnissible
function associated with LI given by

a<1>= 1 , a<1 >= - r2 ei0 (b- a)- 1 .

!R {log [- r 2 ei0 (b- a)-1]} ~ 0
thus
that is
/(z) = h2 (z) + a.
and contain the origin and the point at infinity. Let b be a further interior
point of D. Let I E .E(D). Then II (b)- f(O)i attains its minimum uniquely
for the functions h1 (z) + c, c constant.
The function h1 (z) is of coursethat of Theorem 5.14. The proof of
this result is not essentially different from that of Theorem 6.8.
Corollary 6.6. Let f E E. Then
I/(zz)-/(z
1
-z
I2)
;;;;;
1
1- ~, lz1l = lz2l = (!, (! > 1, Z1 =l= z2 • (6.2)
1 2
Equality can occur in (6.2) only for the functions f(z) = z + c + e2 i"'fz,
c constant, q; = 1/ 2 (arg z1 + arg z2).
This result and that of Corollary 6.7 are due to GoLUSIN [49], see
also [94].
From Theorem 6.9 we deduce at once that z + e2i"'fz is a function
in E for which I/ (z1) -I (z2) I attains its minimum. Thus
1/(zl)- t(z2) I ;;;;; 2 ( e-

. e1) lsin 1/ 2 (arg z 2 - arg z1 )1 . (6.3)
Regions of values results for functions in I: and I: (D) 93
On the other band

(6.4)
Dividing the respective sides of (6.3) by those of (6.4) we obtain the
desired inequality (6.2). The equality statement follows by the corres-
ponding condition for equality in (6.3) as derived from Theorem 6.9.
Corollary 6.7. Let I ES. Then
I'f(z )-f(z
1
z 1 ~z 2
2) I 1-r•
~ - -r .-ll(zl) l(z2) 1. lz1l = lz2l = r, 0 < r < I, Z1 =I= Z2 . (6.5)
Equality can occur in (6.5) only lor the lunctions I (z) =
z (I + a eio z + e2iO z2)-I,

with () = - 1 / 2 (arg z1 +arg z2) , - 2 ~ a ~ 2.
Indeed (f (z- 1))- 1 E 1:. Applying the result of Corollary 6.6 with
(! = Ijr we obtain inequality (6.5). Making the further observation that
(f(z- 1 ))- 1 does not assume the value zero for lzl > I we see that the
corresponding functions for which equality can occur in Corollary 6.6
have the form z + aei'~'+ e 2 i'~'jz,- 2 ~ a ~ 2. This leads immediately to
the equality statement in Corollary 6.7. The relation of this result to
Theorem 6.3 will be noted.
6.4 Theorem 6. 10. Let D be a domain in the z-sphere ol finite connecti-
vity containing the point at inlinity. Let I E .E(D) and have development
in the neighborhood ol the point at inlinity
l(z) = z+ a 0 + ~
z
+ higher powers of z- 1 •
Then the region of possible values ol a 1 is given by
la1- c1l ~ rl (6.6)
where
]"(
c1= /2 a1.o+a1,; ) , r1--1'(
/2 ai,o-ai,; )
and the lunction g0 (z) ol Theorem 5.8 has development in the neighborhood
ol the point at inlinity
g 0 (z) = z +~
z
+ higher powers of z- 1 .
The value
lf2( ai,o+ai, ;)+ lf2(ai,o-ai,i-) e2iO
is assumed only lor the lunctions g0 (z) + c, c constant.

Clearly we may confine our considerations to functions of the family
1:' (D). We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with 9\ the w-sphere,
Q(w)dw 2 = e- 2 Wdw 2 ,
()real, O;;;;;O<:n, LI the domain g6 (D). Let <P8 (w) be the inverse of
g0 (z) defined in g0 (D). Then the function
P(w) = f(!/> 0 (w))
is an admissible function associated with LI.
The quadratic differential has a single pole of order four at the point
at infinity. The corresponding coefficients are
oc = e- 2to , all) = ~ _ ~.o .
~ {e-2iO (~- ai,o)};;;;; 0. (6.7)
Since by Corollary 5.2
the locus of these points is a circle. Since for all these points
mal, Tt ~ m ~. 0 :;;;;:; <;]t al, 0
2
we must have r1 real and positive. Inserting now these formulae into
inequality (6.7) we find
that is
~~- '1.1;;;;; Y1.
The final statement in Theorem 6.10 follows at once from equality
condition (i) in Theorem 4.1.
It remains to prove that every value in the circular disc (6.6) is
assumed for some function in E (D). This follows by an argument first
employed by GRÖTZSCH [68]. Indeed we can find a parametric farnily
of domains D (t), 0 :;;;;:; t ;;;;; 1, such that
(i) D(O) = D,
(ii) D (1) is bounded by a finite number of points (equal in number
to the boundary components of D),
(iii) D (t1) C D (t2) for t1 < t 2 ,
(iv) D (t) varies continuously with t in the sense of domain con-
vergence.
This is easily seen if we take D given in a canonical form, say as a
circular slit domain. It isasimple consequence of the theory of compact
families that the coefficient ~.o for the domain D (t) with () fixed varies
continuously with t. Fort= 0 these values fill out the circumference of
the disc (6.6). Fort= 1 they all coincide with a point. On the other hand
E(D(t)) C E(D), 0;:;;:; t;;;;; 1.
Regions of values results for functions in I: and I: (D) 95
Thus as t varies from 0 to I the circle formed by the values av 0 (0;:;;;; () < n)
sweeps out the disc (6.6). Hence every value of a1 in this disc occurs for
some function in L:(D).
Corollary 6.8. Let I E E and have development in the neighborhood of
the point at inlinity
I (z) = z + a0 + ~
z
+ higher powers of z- 1 .
Then the region ol possible values ol a1 is given by
la1 1;:; ; 1 0
The value e2 i0 is assumed only lor the lunctions z + c + e2i 0 jz, c constant.
Indeed in this case g0 (z) = z + Ifz, g"' (z) = z-Ifzo Thus c1 = 0, r 1 = I.
T
Corollary 6o9o Let I E S and have development at the origin
l(z) = z + A2 z2 + A3 z3 + higher powers of z o (6oS)
Then the region ol possible values ol A~- A3 is
IA~-A 3 I;:;;;; 10
The value e2 i 0 , fJ real, is assumed by A~- A 3 only lor the lunctions
z(I + aei 0 z + e2i 0 z2 )-I,- 2;;:;; a;;:;; 2o
Indeed (/(z- 1))- 1 is in 1: and has development in the neighborhood
of the point at infinity
z - A 2+ A§-A3
z + h'1gh er powers of z- 1 0 (609)
The results then follow from Corollary 608.

Theorem 60110 Let I (z) be meromorphic and univalent in the domain
DR: izl > R with development in the neighborhood ol the point at inlinity
f(z) = z + a 0 + terms in z- 1 0
Further suppose that f (DR) does not contain the origino Then the region
ol possible values ol a 0 is given by
laol;:;;;; 2R o
The value 2Rei 0 , ()real, is assumed only lor the lunction

R2e2i0
s0 (z) = z + 2Rei 0 + -~z- o
We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with 'R the w-sphere,

Q(w)dw 2 = e-i 0 dw 2 fw,
()real, L1 the domain s0 (DR)o Let <P 0 (w) be the inverse function of s0 (z)
defined in s 0 (DR)o Then the function
P(w) =I (<Po (w))
is an admissible function associated with .do
The quadratic differential has a single pole of order three at the point
at infinity. The corresponding coefficients are

~ {e-iO (a 0 - 2Rei 6 )};;:::; 0
or
(6.10)
hence
Equality can occur in (6.1 0) only for the function s 0 (z) as follows from
equality condition (i) in Theorem 4.1. That the closed disc Ja 0 J ;;:::; 2R
is the precise region of possible values of a 0 follows by GRÖTZSCH's
argument.
There is a result similar to Theorem 6.11 for general domains of finite
connectivity but we do not go into this here.
Corollary 6.10. Let I E S and have the development (6.8) at the origin.
Then the region of possible values of A 2 is
The value -2eia, a real, is assumed only for the lunction z(1 + eiaz)- 2 •
Indeed for R equal to one the function (f(z- 1))- 1 is admissible in
Theorem 6.11. Since the latter function has the development (6.9) the
present results follow at once.
and contain the point at infinity. Let z1 be a finite inferior point of D.
Let Po be the function of Theorem 5.9 for the domain D- z1 and let Po (z)
have expansion in the neighborhood of the point at infinity
Pe(z) = z + a0 , 0 + terms in z- 1 •
Let
:rco (z) = Po (z- zl) + Z1- ao,o ·
Let I E I' (D). Then the region ol possible values ol I (z1 ) is given by
\I (zl) - c2\ ;;:::; r 2 (6.11)

where
The value
is assumed only for the function :rc0 (z).

Regions of values results for functions in I:(D) and E 97
We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with 'n the w-sphere,
Q(w)dw 2 = e-i 0 dw 2 j(w-n 0 (z1)),
()real, 0 ~ () < 2n, L1 the domain n 0 (D). Let W0 (w) be the inverse of
n 0 (z) defined in n 0 (D). Then the function
is an admissible function associated with L1.

The quadratic differential has a single pole of order three P 1 at the
point at infinity. The corresponding coefficients are
,x(l) = e-iO , a~ll = n 0 (z1 ) -I (z1) •

(6.12)
From Theorem 5.9 and Corollary 5.2 follows
(z )
n IJl = ei 0 12 cos !.__
201
n (z ) - ei 012 i sin !!_
2"1
n (z ) = c2- r2
ei 0•
Thus the locus of these points is a circle. Since for all these points
we must have r 2 real and positive. Inserting now these formulae into
that is
That this circular disc is the exact region of possible values of I (z1)
follows by GRÖTZSCH's argument. The final statement of Theorem 6.12
follows at once from equality condition (i) in Theorem 4.1.
Corollary 6.11. Let I E E'. Then the region of possible values ol
f(reiO), 0 < r < 1, () real, is given by
f(reiO) _ {I+ r)• E(2/ 1•(1 + r)- I 1)
I reiO r• K(2//'(1 +r)-1)
r 2 +1 (r+ 1) 2 E(2/1'(I+r)-1) (6.13)

;;;;-r~.-- r• K(2r'l'(!+rJ="0
Equality can occur in (6.13) only for the lunctions corresponding to those
given in Theorem 6.12.
The explicit values in this special case of Theorem 6.12 are due to
GOLUSIN [44].
Here E and K denote of course the standard complete elliptic integrals.
We first find the region of possible values of /(- r). Forthis case the
function :n:0 (z) is simply z + 1/z. To find the function :n:"(z) we must
use the construction of Theorem 5.9. First let
Z = z + 1/z + r + 1/r.
This maps JzJ > 1 conformally onto D1 which is the Z-plane slit recti-
linearly from r-1 (r- 1) 2 to r- 1 (r + 1) 2 with - r going into the origin.
We form a two-sheeted covering surface of D 1 branched at the origin
and the point at infinity and map it by
W=Z'f,
onto D 2 which is the W -plane slit rectilinearly from - r-'1, (r + 1) to

+ 1). The vertical slit mapping
- r-'f, (r-1) and from r-'f, (r- 1) to r-'/, (r
for D 2 is given by
w
U = J (W 2- ß) [(W 2 - r-1 (r-1) 2) (W 2 - r 1 (r + 1) 2)]-'i•dW
0
where the root is to be positive on the real axis near the origin and ß
(real and positive) is determined by the condition
,-'f•(r + 1)
f (W2- ß) [(W2 - r-1 (r- 1) 2) (W2- r-1 (r + 1) 2) ]-'l•dW = 0 .
,-'f, (r-1)
A standard reduction shows that
ß= (r+ 1)2 E(2/1'(1+r)-1)

r K(2/1'(1+r)-l)
The above mapping has expansion at infinity
u = w + ( ß- -r2+ 1)
r - w-l+ higher powers of w-l.
Finally let
V= U2 •
Then in the neighborhood of the point at infinity we have
V= Z r + 1) + termsinZ-1.
+ 2 ( ß--r- 2
Thus
r +
:n:n(-r) =-2 ( ß--r- -r---;-
2
1) 1
Regions of values results for functions in E(D) and E 99
while
1
n 0 (-r) =- r--.
r
In the notation of Theorem 6.12
C2=- ß
+I r2
r2=-r--ß.
Thus the region of possible values of f (- r) is given by
1/(-r) + ßl
r2
~-r--ß.
+I
To treat the values at /(reiB) we observe that if f(z) is in 1: then for ()

real so is f* (z) = - e-iB f(- eiB z) and f* (- r) = - e-iO f(reiB). Thus the
region of possible values of f (r ei 8 ) is given by
1- e-iB /(reiB)+ ßl ~!";-I -ß

which is equivalent to that given in (6.13). The equality statement is
immediate. One could readily give the extremal functions explicitly.
6.5 Next we wish to determine for a domain D containing the point
at infinity and for f E I(D) the region of values of f' (z1 ) for a fixed finite
point z1 in D. It proves to be more natural to determine the region of
values of log f' (z1 ) but in so doing we must specify the branch of log f' (z1 )
of which we are speaking. For this we employ the following considera-
tions.
Lemma 6.2. Let D be a domain of finite connectivity in the z-sphere
containing the point at infinity and let z1 be a finite inferior point of D. Let
f E I:(D). Any branch of log [(f(z)- f(z 1))/(z-z1)] is a single-valued
function in D punctured at z1 and the point at infinity. One branch admits
a continuous extension to the value zero at infinity and to one value of
log f' (z1) at z1 . Denoting the extended function by W (z, z1), W (zv z1) is a
regular function of z1 in D punctured at infinity and can be extended by
continuity to take the value zero at infinity. Thus there exists a single-
valued branch of log f' (z) in D which extends to take the value zero at
infinity.
The branches of log [(f (z) - f (z1 )) j (z- z1 )] are single-valued because
on each closed path in D punctured at z1 and infinity log [f (z) - f (z1 )]
and log (z- z1 ) change by the same multiple of 2n i. It is readily seen
that W (zv z1 ) varies continuously with z1 . Since it is locally regular and
uniquely defined at every point of D less the point at infinity, this
function is single-valued in that domain. In the neighborhood of
infinity it is equal to log f' (z1 ) where we use the branch of the logarithm
which vanishes at the point 1. This completes the proof.
7*
Definition 6.1. Let D be a domain of finite connectivity in the z-sphere

containing the point at infinity and let z1 be a finite interior point of D.
Let f E .E(D). In the present sequence we will always understand by
log I' (z1) the quantity W (zv z1 } and by arg f' (z1 ) the quantity 5 W (z1 , z1 ).
Lemma 6.3. Let D be a domain of finite connectivity in the z-sphere
containing the point at infinity and let z1 be a finite interior point of D.
Let f E .E(D). Let A. be a simple curve in D with continuously turning
tangent ioining z1 and oo and having limiting tangential directions at these
points. Let i' be the image of A. under the mapping w = f (z). Then
00 00
fdarg(w-f(z 1))+argf'(z1)=J darg(z-z1) (6.14)

/(z 1) z1
where the integral on the left is taken along 1, that on the right along A..
This lemma and the preceding are due to GRÖTZSCH [69].
Indeed ·
j'd log f(z)- f(z,)
co z~zl
= log f' (z)
1
the integral being taken along A.. Taking imaginary parts

/(z)- /(z,)
Jz,d arg ------;=·z-
00
'
=arg f (z1 )
1
or
~ ~
J d arg (f (z) - f (z1)) = arg I' (z1) + J d arg (z- z1 )

00 00
the individual integrals being meaningful since A. has limiting tangential

directions at z1 and oo. This gives at once the result of Lemma 6.3.
Lemma 6.4. Let Q(z) dz 2 be a quadratic differential on the z-sphere
with double poles at the point at infinity and a finite point z1 and elsewhere
regular. Let D be an admissible domain with respect to Q(z) dz 2 • Let
f E .E (D) and satisfy I (z1) = z1 . Then f is admissible with respect to D.
Let F be a corresponding admissible homotopy. Then
log f'(z1) = log I/' (z1 ) I + i (d (F, z1) + d (F, oo )) .
Here d (F, z1) and d (F~ oo) are the appropriate deformation degrees.
We employ the notation of Lemma 6.3 except that now both D and
its image under f are taken to lie in the z-sphere. On A. we take points
P' near z1 and P" near oo. W e consider the following sensed closed
curve A. First we take the portion 'i(P'~ P") of Xfrom f(P') to f(P")~
then y P" the curve F (P", t) 0 ~ t ;;;;, 1 [sensed from f (P") to P"] then
I I
the portion J.(P"~ P') of A. from P" toP', finally YP' the curve F(P'~ t)~
1 ~ t ~ 0 [sensed from P' to f (P')]. Clearly A is homotopic to zero on
the z-sphere with z1 and oo deleted. Thus
J d arg (z- z1) = 0.
A
Regions of values results for functions in E(D) and 2: 101
In the notation of Lemma 4.1

J darg(z-z1) = CJ(F, P')
"r
where we use at z1 the local uniformizing parameterz- z1 • Also
J d arg (z- z1) = (j (F, P")
Yp"
where we use at the point at infinity the local uniformizing parameter

1j(z-z1 ). Thus
J d arg (z- z1 ) + J d arg (z- z1 ) + (j (F, P') + b (F, P") = 0.

JcP',P") }.(P",P')
Letting P' tend to zv P" tend to the point at infinity and combining the
result with equation (6.14) we have
completing the proof of Lemma 6.4.

and contain the point at infinity. Let z1 be a finite inferior point of D. Let
/ 8 (z) be the function of Theorem 5.3 for the domain D- z1 • Let I E L'(D).
Then the region ol possible values ol log f' (z1 ) is given by
(6.15)
where
c3 = 1/ 2 (log lo(O) +log f'" (O)),r3 = 1/ 2 (log f'" (0) -log 10(0)).
2 2
The value
(logl0(0) +log(" (0))- 1 / 2 (log/" (0)-log/0(0)) e2 i 8 ,
1/ 2
2 2
is assumed only lor the lunctions f 8 (z- z 1 ) + c, c constant.
We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with ~ the w-sphere,
Q(w) dw2= e-2iBdz2jz2'
0 real, L1 the domain I 8 (D-z 1). Let l/J 0 (w) be the inverse of l 0 (z) defined
in lo (D- z1 ). Then the function
lJI(w) = f (W0 (w) + z1) -I (z1)
The quadratic differential has two double poles: P 1 at the origin
and P 2 at the point at infinity. The corresponding coefficients are
oc(I) = e-2iO , a(1) = 1~ (0)/f' (z1) ,
cx(2) = e-2iO , a(2) = 1.

Inequality (4.7) then gives (using Lemma 6.4)
~ {e-2iO (log f~ (0) -log f' (z1))};;;; 0. (6.16)
From the construction in Theorem 5.3 follows
log I~ (0) = eiO cos e log~~ (0) - eiB i sin elogt'" (0)
2
~ logf~ (0);;;; <R log/~ (0) :;:;; ~log/'_:,_ (0)

2
<R {e-zie (c3 -logf'(z1))};;;; r 3
that is
That this circular disc is the exact region of possible values of logf'(z1 )
follows by GRöTzscH's argument. The final statement in Theorem 6.13
follows at once from equality condition (ii) in Theorem 4.1.
Corollary 6.12. Let f E X:. Then the region of possible values of
logf'(rei 0 ), r > 1, e real, is given by
r•
llogf'(rei 0 )1 :;:;; log r•-I . (6.17)
The value
r•
-e2irxlog~~
r 2- l
is assumed only for the functions

(z- rei0) (1- ei8jrz)• 2irx + c
ac: real, c constant, the branch of (1 - ei0Jrz)• 2irJ. being that taking the value 1
at the point at infinity.
The explicit values in this special case of Theorem 6.13 are due to
GRUNSKY [79].
We firstfind the region of possible values of logf'(-r). Forthis case
the function f0 (z + r) is simply
z + 1/z + r + 1/r ,
thus
log / 0(0) = log (1 - r- 2 ) •
Also
rz"+r"z
f"2 (z + r) = ~--
rz+l
Regions of values results for functions in I:(D) and I: 103
so
' r•
log/_"__ (0) =log r•- 1 .
2
Hence in the notation of Theorem 6.13
r•
r 3 = log --- .
r2
-1
Thus the region of possible values of log f' (-r) is given by

r•
Jlog f' (-r) I ~ log -;;•~! .
To tre~.t the general case we obse:ve that if f (z) is in l: then for (} real
so is f(z) = - e-iB f (- ei 0 z) and f' (- r) = f' (rei 0 ). Thus the region of
possible values of 1ogf'(rei0 ) is the closed disc given by inequality (6.17).
The statement concerning equality follows from the corresponding
statement in Theorem 6.13 and the construction of Theorem 5.3.
Corollary 6.13. The function fe (z) of Theorem 5.3isuniquely determined
by its mapping properfies given in the enunciation of that theorem.
This follows directly from the equality statement of Theorem 6.13.
and contain the origin and the point at infinity. Let b be a further inferior
point of D. Then foreachreal ß, 0 ~ (} < n, there exists a unique function
a0 (z) in 1:'0 (D) mapping D conformally onto a domain bounded by slits
on trajectories of the quadratic differential e- 2 i0 [w(w-a 0 (b))]- 1 dw 2 •
This result is due to GRöTzscH [71].
It is proved in the same way as Theorem 5.11 except that the
mapping (j) for the domain i5 is replaced by the mapping fo of Theorem 5.3.
Note that this proof requires the uniqueness result of Corollary 6.13.
Theorem 6.14 also has analogues like Theorem 5.12 and Theorem 5.15
which we do not go into here.
6.6 Lemma 6.5. Let D be a domain of finite connectivity in the z-sphere
containing the origin and the point at infinity. Let f E l:0 (D). Then any
branch of log (f (z)fz) can be extended to a single-valued regular function in D.
This is immediate since, on every closed path in D- {0, =}, logf(z)
and logz change by the samemultiple of 2:n: i.
Definition 6.2. Let D be a domain of finite connectivity in the z-sphere
containing the origin and the point at infinity. Let z1 be a finite inferior
point of D distinct from the origin. In the present sequence we will always
understand by log (f (z1 )jz1) the value at z1 ofthat branch of log (f (z)jz) which
tends to zero at infinity and by arg(f(z1 )/z1) the imaginary part of this
quantity.
with a double pole at infinity, simple poles at the origin and Zv where z1 is
finite and distinct lrom the origin, and elsewhere regular. Let D be an
admissible domain with respect to Q(z) dz 2 containing the origin and z1 •
Let I E E 0 (D). Then z1 1 (z)/1 (z1) is admissible with respect to D. Let F be a
corresponding admissible homotopy. Then
log (/(z1 )/z1 ) =log ll(z1)/z1 1+ i d(F, =).
Let J. be a simple curve in D with continuously turning tangent
joining z1 and oo, not meeting the origin, and having a limiting tangential
direction at infinity. Let I be the image of }. under the mapping
w = z1 1 (z)/f (z1). Let P be a point on J. near infinity, P* its image under
the above mapping. We consider the following sensed closed curve A.
First we take the portion fP of I from z1 to P*, then yp the curve
F(P, t), 0 ~ t ~ 1 (sensed from P* toP), then the portion J.'z, of J. from P
to z1 • Clearly Ais homotopic to zero on the z-sphere with the origin and
the point at infinity deleted. Thus
J dargz = 0.
A
In the notation of Lemma 4.1
J dargz = b(F, P)
'Yp
where we use at infinity the local uniformizing parameter 1/z. Thus
J dargz + J dargz + b(F, P) = 0.

Tp ;.'p
Letting P tend to the point at infinity we have

J dargz- J dargz + d(F,P) = 0
:r ;.
thus
Zt
d(F,P) = J darg(f(z)fz) = arg(/(z1 )/z1 ) .
00
From this the result of Lemma 6.6 follows at once.

Theorem 6.15. Let the domain D in the z-sphere be ollinite connectivity
and contain the origin and the point at infinity. Let b be a further interior
point ol D. Let I E 1:0 (D). Then the region of possible values of log (I (b)fb)
is given by
(6.18)
where
c4 = 1/ 2 (log (a 0(b)Jb) +log (a-"- (b)fb)), r 4 = 1/ 2 (log (a-"- (b)fb) -log (a 0 (b)fb)) .
2 2
The value
1/ 2 (log(a0 (b)jb) + log(a__,._ (b)fb)) - 1/ 2 (log(a,. (b)/b) -log(a0 (b)fb)) e2iB,
2 2
Regions of values results for functions in I:(D) andl: 105
() real, 0 ~ 0 < n, is assumed only for the function a0 (z) which is the
function of Theorem 6.14 for the domain D.
We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with !R the w-sphere,
Q(w) dw 2 = e- 2i 0 [w(w- a 0 (b))]- 1 dw 2 ,
0 real, 0 ~ 0 < n, L1 the domain a0 (D). Let C/J0 (w) be the inverse of Go (z)
defined in Go (D). Then the function
P(w) = G0 (b) f(C/J 0 (w))/f(b)
The quadratic differential has a singledouble pole P 1 at the point at
infinity. The corresponding coefficients are
a<Il = e-2io , a<Il = a0 (b)ff (b) .
Inequality (4.7) then becomes
!R {e- 2i0 log (Go (b)jf (b))} ~ 0
or
?\ {e-2iO [log (a 0 (b)jb) -log (f(b)jb) ]} ~ 0. (6.19)
From the construction of Theorem 6.14 follows
log(Gd(b)jb) = ei 0 cos () log(G0 (b)jb)- ei 0 i sin () log(a,. (b)jb)
2
?\log (G0 (b)jb) ~ !R log (G 0 (b)jb) ~ ?\ log (a_>:_ (b)jb)

2
!R{e-2iO(c4-log(/(b)/b))} ~ r4
that is
Jlog (f (b)jb) - c4 1 ~ r4 .
That this circular disc is the exact region of possible values of log(/ (b)jb)
follows at once from equality condition (iii) in Theorem 4.1.
Theorem 6.15 can also be proved by reducing it to Theorem 6.13
which was GRöTzscH's procedure.
and contain the origin and the point at infinity. Then for each real 0,
0 ~ () < 2 n, there exists a unique function t0 (z) univalent and mero-
morphic in D, satisfying the conditions t0 (0) = 0, t~ (0) = 1, t0 ( =) = oc
and mapping D conformally onto a domain bounded by slits on trajectories
of the quadratic differential e-i 0 dw 2jw 3 •
This result is an immediate consequence of Theorem 5.9.

Theorem 6.17. Let the domain D in the z-sphere be offinite connectivity
and contain the point at infinity. Let z1 be a finite interior point of D.
Let t 0 be the function of Theorem 6.16 for the domain D- Z1• Let f(z) be
meromorphic and univalent in D with f(oo) = =· Then the region of
possible values of f" (z1 )/f' (z1 ) is given by
[/" (z1)//' (z1) - c5 [ ~ r5 (6.20)
where
c6 = 1 / 2 (t0' (0) + t',; (0)) , r5 = 1 / 2 (t': (0)- t0' (0)).
The value
1/ 2 (t~ (0) + t',; (0))- 1/ 2 (t',; (0)- t0' (0)) ei0 ,
e
() real, 0 ~ < 2n, is assumed only for the functions a to(z) + b, a, b
constant.
This result and that of the following corollary are due to GoLu-
SIN [ 44, 47].
We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with 0\ the w-sphere
Q(w) dw 2 = e-i 8 dw 2jw 3 ,
()real, 0;;;;: 0 < 2n, LI the domain t8 (D-z 1). Let W8 (w) be the inverse
of t 0 (z) defined in t8 (D- z1 ). Then the function
P(w) = [f(W 0 (w) +z1)-/(z1 )]//'(z1 )
is an admissible function associated with LI.
The quadratic differential has a single pole P 1 of order three at the
origin. The corresponding coefficients are
oc(O= e-io, ab0 = 1/ 2 [t~'(O)- (/"(z1)//'(zl))].
9\ {e-w 1/ 2 [t 0' (O)- (!" (z1)/f' (z1 ))J} ~ o. (6.21)
From Theorem 6.16 follows
t'o' (0) = eiO 12 cos ~ tO' (0) - ei 612 i sin ~ t',; (0)
= Cs- rseiO
0\ tij' (0) ~ 0\ t'r/ (0) ~ 9\ t',; (0)
we must have r5 real and positive. Inserting now these formulae into
0\ {e-i 0 [c 5 - f"(z 1)/f'(z1)]} ~ r5
that is
Regions of values results for functions in 5 107
That this circular disc is the exact region of possible values of f" (z1 ) I f' (z1)
follows at once from equality condition (i) in Theorem 4.1.
Corollary 6.14. Let f(z) be meromorphic and univalent for izi > 1
with f(oo) = oo. Then the region of possible values of f"(reiO)If'(reiO),
0 < r < 1, ()real, is given by
I
reiO r: (re::)
f(re)
+ ~- 2
r-1
r+ 1 E(2r>1 +r)- 1 )
r-1 K( 2 ri'(I+r)- 1)
I
< 2 _1'"_±~__ 2 r+1 E(2/ 1'(1+r)-1 )

= r 2 -1 r-1 K( 2 /t'( 1 + r)- 1 ) •
Equality can occur here only for the functions corresponding to those given
in Theorem 6.17.
The formula given by GOLUSIN [47] differs from the present one
to the extent that a Gauss transformation has been applied in the
complete elliptic integrals.
This corollary is derived from Theorem 6.17 in the same wa y that
Corollary 6.11 is derived from Theorem 6.12.
6.7 There are results corresponding to the preceding for functions
regular and univalent in a domain not containing the point at infinity.
We confine ourselves here to giving several examples for the family 5.
Lemma 6.7. Let D be a simply-connected domain in the z-sphere
containing the origin but not the point at infinity. Let f be regular and
univalent in D with f (0) = 0. Then any branch of log (f (z) Iz) can be
extended to a single-valued regular function in D.
Definition 6.3. Let D be a simply-connected domain in the z-sphere
containing the origin but not the point at infinity. Let z1 be an interior point
of D distinct from the origin. Let f be regular and univalent in D with
f(O) = 0, f' (0) = 1. In the present sequence we will always understand by
log (f (z1)lz1 ) the value at z1 of that branch of log (f (z)jz) which tends to zero
at the origin and by arg (f (z1) / z1 ) the imaginary part of this quantity.
Lemma 6.8. Let Q(z) dz 2 be a quadratic differential an the z-sphere
with a double pole at the origin, simple poles at infinity and b, b finite and
distinct from the origin, and elsewhere regular. Let D be an admissible
domain with respect to Q (z) dz 2 containing b but not the point at infinity.
Let f be regular and univalent in D with f (0) = 0, f' (0) = 1. Then
b f(z)/f(b) is an admissible function associated with D. Let F be a cor-
responding admissible homotopy. Then
log(f(b)fb) =log if(b)Jbl- i d(F, 0).
The proofs of these results differ Iittle from those in § 6.6.
Theorem 6.18. Given a real, 0 ~ oc < n and r, 0 < r < 1, there is a
unique function u"" (z) in S mapping the unit circle E: lzl < 1 onto an
admissible domain with respect to the quadratic differential

e- 2 iCJ.dw 2
Q(w) dw 2 = w"(w-uCJ. (r )) .
Let f ES. Then the region of possible values of log [f(rei 0 )frei0 ], () real,
is given by
Jlog [f(rei 0 )freiO] + log(l- r2)J ~log \~; . (6.22)
The value
log
1
- - - e2 '" log--
. 1 +r
l-r2 I-r
is assumed by log [f (r ei 0 ) fr ei 0 ] only for the function
This result is due to GRUNSKY [79]. A similar result for more general
domains was later proved by GRÖTZSCH [72].
Firstset f{z) = z(l + z)- 2 and let D = f(E). Let $(w) be the inverse
of f defined in D. Let b = r (1 + r)- 2 • The function
qw) = f w(wd~b)'/,
b
maps the w-plane slit along the semi-infinite segments w < 0 and w > b
onto a vertical half-strip. Here (w- b)'f, is the root with negative
imaginary part for 0 < w < b and
1 b'/,- (b- w)'/,
'(w) = -,
1 log ,1 ,1
ib ' b '+(b-w)'
1 1 1
= - ,1
- logw + -,-1 log -4 b + powers of w.
ib ' ib '
Here (b- w)'f, is the root positive for 0 < w < b, b'f, and log 41b are
positive, logw is the principal branch and the expansion is valid near
W=Ü.
Let also
Then
1 1 ( 1-r )" 1 1
'*(w) = ib'/, logw + ib'/, 1 r + + ib'f, log 4b
+ powers ofw
with determinations given as above, the expansion being valid near
w = 0. We set
CCJ.(w) = ei« (cosoc C(w)- isinoc C*(w))
Regions of values results for functions in S 109
and take wa (w) as the composition of (;IX (w) with the inverse of the
(many-valued) continuation of C(w). Then w/Z(w) maps D onto a domain
Da. admissible with respect to the quadratic differential
e- •irx. dw 2
Q"'(w) dw 2 = --=-~~
w2 (w- b) ·
Wehave near w = 0 the expansion
1 1 1 eiiZ sin oc ( 1 r )"

Ca.(w) = ib'/, log w + ib'/, log -.v;-- b'f, log 1 ~r + powers of w
thus
W~ (0) = exp (- i eirt. sin IX log ( 11~rr n.
n
The function u/Z (z) of Theorem 6.18 is then given by
UIZ (z) = exp (i eict. siniX log ( 11 ~rr Wrt.(f(z)) ,
Take now any /ES. The function bf(tP(w))fl(r) is an admissible

function associated with Drt.. The quadratic differential Qrt. (w) dw 2 has
a singledouble pole P 1 at the origin and the corresponding coefficients are
a;(l> = - e- 2irxjb, a(I) = b-1 f (r) exp (- i eirt. sin cdog ( 11 ~rr )") •
':R {- b-le-2iiZ log [b-1 I (r) exp (- i eirt. sin IX log ( 11 ~rr n]} ~ 0
which reduces to
. [ log -r•
<;)\ { e-2t!Z 1
1 -log (f (r) fr) ]} ~ log 11+
~rr
so that
1 +r
!log (f (r)fr) + log (1 - r 2 ) I ~ log 1~r .
That this circular disc is the exact region of possible values of log (f (r)fr)
follows by GRÖTZSCH's argument.
Now for any real 8, defining
I* (z) = e-iB f (eiB z)
we obtain a function in S suchthat
l*(r)jr = f(reiO)jreiO
thus the exact region of possible values of log [f(reiB)jreiBJ is given by the
closed disc defined by inequality (6.22). From equality condition (iii) in
Theorem 4.1 follows that the value
-log (1 - r 2) - e2 i" log 1 :.;

1
is assumed by log [I (r ei 8 ) jr ei8 ] only for 1 (z) the function ei8 ucx (e-iO z).
In the same way follows the uniqueness of the mapping ucx(z).
Lemma 6.9. Let D be a simply-connected domain in the z-sphere
containing the origin but not the point at infinity. Let I be regular and
univalent in D with f (0) = 0. Then any branch of log [z f' (z)/f (z)] can be
extended to a single-valued regular function in D.
containing the origin but not the point at infinity. Let z1 be an inferior
point of D distinct from the origin. Let f be regular and univalent in D
with f (0) = 0, f' (0) = 1. In the present sequence we will always understand
by log [zd' (z1 )/f (z1) J the value at z1 of that branch of log [z f' (z)/1 (z)] which
tends to zero at the origin.
with a double pole at the finite point b which is distinct from the origin,
simple poles at the origin and infinity and elsewhere regular. Let D be an
admissible domain with respect to Q(z) dz 2 containing the origin but not the
point at infinity. Let f be regular and univalent in D with f (0) = 0, f' (0) = 1.
Then b f(z)ff(b) is an admissible function associated with D. Let F be a
log(bf'(b)ff(b)) =log lbf'(b)ff(b)i + id(F, b).
Theorem 6.19. Given IX real, 0 ~IX< n, and r, 0 < r < 1, there is
a unique function vcx (z) in 5 mapping the unit circle E onto an admissible
domain with respect to the quadratic differential
e-•icx dw"
Q(w) d w2 = -----c-~-,
w(w-vcx(r)) 2 •
Let fE 5. Then the region of possible values of log[rei 8 j'(rei 0 )ff(rei0 )],
() real, is given by
/log [reiO f' (rei 0 )ff(rei0 )]/ ~log 1 :; •
1 (6.23)
The value
-e2'•cx 1og I+r
I-r
is assumed by log [r ei 8 f' (r ei8 ) j f (r ei 8 )] only for the function

eiOvcx(e-iOz).
The results of this theorem are due to GRUNSKY [79]. They are
proved similarly to those of Theorem 6.18 or can be derived from them.
Theorem 6.18 and Theorem 6.19 include in particular the results of
Theorem 6.2, Corollary 6.1, Corollary 6.2, Corollary 6.3 and Corollary6.4.
6.8 Lemma 6.11. Let D be a simply-connected domain in the z-sphere
containing the origin but not the point at infinity. Let f be regular and
univalent in D with f (0) = 0. Then any branch of log f' (z) can be extended
to a single-valued regular function in D.

containing the origin but not the point at infinity. Let z1 be an interior
point of D distinct from the origin. Let f be regular and univalent in D
with f(O) = 0, I' (0) = 1. In the present sequence we will always understand
by log/' (z1 ) the value at z1 ofthat branch of logf' (z) which tends to zero at
the origin and by arg/' (z1 ) the imaginary part of this quantity.
with double poles at the origin and the finite point z1 which is distinct from
the origin, a simple pole at infinity and elsewhere regular. Let D be an
admissible domain with respect to Q (z) dz 2 not containing the point at
infinity. Let f be regular and univalent in D with f(O) = 0, f' (0) = 1.
Then z1 f(z)jf(z 1 ) is an admissible function associated with D. Let F be a
log I' (z1 ) = log [/' (z1 ) [ + i [d (F, z1 ) - d (F, 0)] .
The result of Lemma 6.12 follows at once from Lemma 6.8 and
Lemma 6.10.
Theorem 6.20. Given rx real, 0 :;;;; cc < :n: and r, 0 < r < 1, there exists
a function 11. (z) in S mapping the unit circle E: [z[ < 1 onto an admissible
domain with respect to the quadratic differential
Q(w) dw2= e-2irL Jc(r) (2w-J.(r)) dw2

w 2 (w-J.(r)) 2
For 0 < r :;;;; 2-'/, there is a unique such function lrJ; (z) for each rx, 0 ~ cc < 'lf.
Forz-'/,< r< 1 there is a unique S11Ch f1tnction lrJ; (z) for with 0 :;;;; < : ' Q( Q(
n 3n 3n n 3n .
4 < rx < 4 , - 4- < rx < n b11t for rx = 4 , - 4- there are respectwe
continuo11s one-parameter families m 1 (z, t), m 2 (z, t), 0 ~ t ~ 1 of such
functions which have the properlies
lim lrJ; (z) = m 1 (z, 0)

7t
(X-74-
lim lrJ;(z)=m1 (z,1)
lim la (z) = m2 (z, 0)

3n
(1.->--4--
argm~(r,t)o:=-[n+log 1 -=:r.]' O~t~l

r•
argm~ (r, t) """n +log 1 -r• , 0 ~ t ~ 1.
Let f ES. Then the region of passible values of logf' (rei 0 ), () real,
is the convex regian L (r) defined by the inequalities
~ {e-2ilx log f' (r eiO)} ~ ~ {e- 2 i~ log l~ (r)} (6.24)

, :n: n 3n
for 0 ;:;;; IX < n, 0 < r ;:;;; 2- f, and by these far 0 ;:;;; IX < 4 ,4 < IX< - 4- ,
3n
4 < IX < n and the additional inequalities
r•
IS log/' (reiO) I :;;; n + log 1-r• (6.25)
when 2-'f,< r < 1. Equality can accur in (6.24) and (6.25) anly for the
respective functians
e-ioz~(eiOz), e-i9m1 (eiOz, t), e-iOm 2 (eiOz, t).
W e have jar 0 < IX < :7l ij 0 < r < 2-'/,, 0 < IX < : 1:j 2-'/, :;;; r < 1
e+a 1-re-i'l'
log 2i log--+
l~(r)=
e-a 2log-
1--r 2
(6.26)
+e-i(q;+"'>{Iog(I-e. e-[[a[[•]+2arg I+a)-n
I+e e+a• 1-a
where each lagarithm and the argument an the right hand side have principal
values and cp, 1p, e are Parameters depending continuously an IX and
satisfying the relatians
(1- r2)2e2i(q;+ !p) = - (r- eei'P) (r- ei'~'fe) (r- ei'1')2

with a the square raat of
(r- e ei'P)j(r- eirp le)
with negative imaginary part.
Similar formulas can be given for logm~ (r, t), logm; (r, t) but arenot
needed for the explicit determination of the domain L (r).
The results of Theorem 6.20 are substantially due to GRAD [165,
Ch. XV].
We consider first of all the quadratic differential
Qo (w )d w 2 = 4 w2(w-1) d 2
(w-2) 2 w
The mapping w = 2r-1 (1 + r) 2 z(1 + z)- 2 carries E into a domain D 0
admissible with respect to Q0 (w) dw 2• The mapping
C= 2 J
1
(w-1)'/,
w (w~-2)dw
where (w- 1)'1• is to have its positive determination on the segment

1 < w < 2 carries the upper half w-plane into a domain bounded as
follows. As w goes from I to 2, ( goes from the origin to the point at

infinity along the negative real axis. As w goes from 2 to the point at
infinity along the positive real axis, C goes from the point at infinity to
n- ni along the line 6( = - :n; in the sense of 9\C increasing. As w goes
from the point at infinity to the origin along the negative real axis,
C goes from the point n- ni to the point at infinity along the line
9\C = n in the sense of SC increasing. As w goes from the origin to I,
Cgoes from the point at infinity to the origin along the positive imaginary
ax1s.
Consider now the quadratic differential
Q ( )d 2= 4 (w-l) dw'
e-•i<>.
a; w w w'(w-2)'
The trajectory of Q""(w) dw 2 which has a limiting end point at the point
at infinity must either have a limiting end point at I or tend to 0 or 2 in
the opposite sense (Theorem 3.6). Thus if the former possibility does not
occur we can slit the w-sphere along an arc on the closure of this trajectory
to obtain a domain Da which is the image of E under the mapping
w = na (z) where n"" (z) is regular and univalent for jzJ < 1 with n"" (0) = 0,
n"(r) = 2. We see that this trajectory can have a limiting end point at 1
only if cx is equal to ~ or 3n .
4 If in this case 0 < r <::; z-'/, we can still
perform the preceding construction and define n" (z) as before. If r > 2-'/,
as cx tends to ~ from below na (z) tends to a function q1 (z, 0) which
maps E onto the w-sphere slit from the point at infinity to 1 along the
half-infinite segment 9\w = I, 6 w < 0 and along an arc cx 0 on the closure
of the trajectory of Q!'__ (w) dw 2 with limiting end point at 1 on which
4
9\w > 1. Also q1 (0, 0) = 0, q1 (r, 0) = 2. Similarly
lim na(z) = qdz, 1)

"
e<-+4+
where the mapping w = q1 (z, 1) carries E onto the w-sphere slit from the
point at infinity to 1 along the half-infinite segment 9\w = 1, 8'w < 0
and along an arc oc1 on the closure of the trajectory of Q!'_ (w) dw 2 with
4
limiting end point at 1 on which 9\w < 1. Also q1 (0, I) = 0, q1 (r, 1) = 2.
It is readily seen that cx0 and oc1 are interchanged by reflection in the
line 9\w = 1. From these functions we obtain a continuous one-para-
meter family of functions by following the mapping w = q1 (z, 0) by
translation of each point in q1 (E, 0)- {0, 2} along a trajectory of
Q" (w) dw 2 by a given distance in the metric JQ" (w)J'f, JdwJ. When this
4 4
distance reaches the length of oc 0 or oc1 in this metric we obtain the
function q1 (z, 1). We call these functions q1 (z, t) where t may be taken to
vary linearly with the distance. These functions are regular and univalent
in lzl < 1 with q1 (0, t) = 0, q1 (r, t) = 2. In an analogous manner we
obtain a continuous one-parameter family of functions q2 (z, t) associated
with the value IX = 3n such that
4
lim na (z) = q2 (z, 0) ,

3n
IX-+~-
. , n 3n h
N ow for all IX cons1dered when 0 < r < 2- 1' or for IX =!= 4, 4 w en
2-'/, ~ r < I the quadratic differential
induced on lzl < 1 by Qa (w) dw 2 is positive, has double poles at 0 and r,

a simple zero at a point eei"' in lzl < 1 and a double boundary zero at
a point ei"' on lzl = 1 (Lemma 3.3). The parameters (!, q;, 1p vary
continuously with IX for 0 ~ IX< n when 0 < r < <J-'/, and for 0 ~ IX < :
when 2---'/,~ r < 1. In the following work we will suppose our values
confined to these ranges. The above quadratic differential must then
have the form
K eiß ( z-ge irp) ( z-ei'Pfn)
~
(
z-e
i1p )2 dz2
z 2 (z-r) 2 (z-lfr) 2
with K positive, ßreal. Because it is positive on lzl = 1 we find
Since
dw
- -
dz
Iz~O
l.mw
=1 -
z
Z-7 0
we find
Because rp, "P vary continuously with IX and for IX = 0, q; = 0, 1p = 0

wehave
((!+V!
-IX =--2-.
Since
--
dw I . w-2
=1I m - -
dz z=r z->r z-r
we find
e2i(rp +'I') = _j~_~eei'~') (r-ei'~'fe) (r-ei'l')•
(I-r•)• (6.27)
Moreover
where, on the segment 0 < w < I, (w- 1)'/ is taken as i Jw- IJ'i on its
2 2,
image [(z-eei'~') (z-ei'~'/e}-1 ]'/, is taken as the continuous extension

of that root which for ac equal to zero is positive on the segment 0 < z < e
(the value of e for ac equal to zero is the smaller root of the equation
e(I + e)- 2 = 1 / 2 r(l + r)- 2). We set now
t= [(z-eei'~') (z-ei'~'/e)-1]'1 2
the root being chosen as above and derrote by a the quantity

[(r-eei'~') (r-ei'~'/e)-1]'/2
where the root is the continuous extension of that root which for ac
equal to zero has negative imaginary part (it is then pure imaginary).
It is readily seenunder the prescribed conditions on ac that a 2 cannot be
positive so that a will always have negative imaginary part. We derrote
by r the quantity
[(r e2eirp_ e) (reirp_ e)-1]'/2
where the root is the continuous extension of that root which for ac
equal to zero has negative imaginary part (it is then pure imaginary).
Making these substitutions the right hand side of equation (6.28) becomes
2 i e-i"' r (I-e·)·
(eirp_ er)(rei'P-e)
I ,. [(eirp _ e ei"')
(1 2 -1)
,.+
(e ei"' _ e•ei'P)]
(t'-e") (t 2 -a2 ) (1 2 - T 2 ) d t. (6.29)
0
On the other hand from equation (6.27) follow
a = iei('P +'Pl - e. (l-r. 2 )

(r-e'"') (e''~'-er) '
. e (l-r 2 )
i =- t (rei'P-e) (1-rei'P) .
Expressing (6.29) in partial fractions we have
!{
0
2ie-i<rp+lp)
t•-I -
_ 2ie
t•-e• +
~
t 2 -a2 +e
-i('P+'I'l 2r l
t•-r• J d t ·
Thus from equation (6.28) we have on integrating

1-(1-w)'/2 • 1-i(l-w)'/2
log ,1 + tlog •1 = (6 30)
I+(I-w) 2 I+i(l-w) 2 •
e-t . I-t . a-t . . -'- l r-t

log---e-•('P+'I'l log--+ tlog --+te-•('1' '"' log--
e+t I+t a+t r+t
8*
where on the left hand side for 0 < w < 1 we start with the positive root
of (1 - w)'l• and the principal value of the logarithms and on the right
hand side t, a, T have the determinations given above and the logarithms
are defined by taking the principal values when cx is equal to zero for z
on the segment 0 < z < (! and extending continuously. This can be done
for all Q( in 0 ~IX< 7t when 0 < r < 2-'/, and for 0 ~IX< ~ when
2-'/,~ r < 1.
The left hand side of equation (6.30) has at w = 0 the expansion
logw + 2 (log 1/ 2 + ~ )+ terms in w-1

and at w = 2 the expansion
ilog(2-w) + 2i (log 1/ 2 + ~) + terms in (2- w)-1 •
The right hand side of equation (6.30) has at z = 0 the expansion
I-12"
logz +log-.-- e-i('l'+'l' log--+
l I-12 a-e
i log--
412 e• 'I' I + 12 a + !?
+ i e-i('l'+'l'l log r-e + terms in z-1

r+e
and at z = r the expansion
. . [ 12(I-12")ei'~' J 12-a
2 log (r- z) + t log - 4 (12"ei'l'-12r) (ei'~'-er) + log 12 + a
-ei('l'+'l'llog I-a +ie-i('l'+'l'llog r-a +termsin(r-z)-1

I+a r+a ·
Thus
logn'(O)=log·I-~-e-i('l'+'i'liog I- 12 +ilog a-e
a. 412 e• 'I' I + 12 a+ e
+ i e-i('l'+ 'l'l log r-e -2 (log 1 / + ~-)
r+e 2 4 '
, [ 12(I-e")ei'l'
log na. (r) = log - -4 (12 2 ei'l'--)
J
-(;;p--) - 2
. log-+
12-a
-12 r e -er 12 a
+ie-i('l'+'l'llog I-a·+e-i('l'+'l'llog r-12

I+a r+12
-2(1og 1/ 2 + ~).
N ow we define
Evidently la E S and
' [ e(.I-e•)ei"' ) 1-e• ·. e-a
log lrx (r) = log - 4 (e•ei'l'-=(}-r}(ei'P-er) -log 4eei'l' - z log e + a
z"log--
- a-e + ze- - - z e. - 1·< "' + 1JI >Io g
. 1·<m+"')log -1-a y y
T-e
--
a+e 1 +a T+e
1-e
+ e-i('P + 'I') log--+ T-a
e-i(<JJ+'I') log--
1 +e T+a
. a-e . e-a 1-re-i'l'
= - z log~+a (! - z log-+ e a + 2 log 1-r2
+ i e-i('l'+'l') (log 1-a -log T-(!)
1+a T+f.!
1
+ e-i('l'+'l') (log -e_ +log T-!!.__).
1+e T+a
This is readily seen to be equal to the quantity obtained by GRAD (in

a different notation)
e+a 1-re-i'l'
log l~(r) = 2 i log--+
e-a 2log - --.-
1 -r
+ e-i('l'+ 'I') {log [ 1-e . _g-lai• J + 2 arg 1 + a}- n

1 + e e + jaj• 1-a
where now each logarithm and the argument on the right hand side have
principal values.
Similarly we define (when 2-'/,< r < 1)
m1 (z, t) = q1 (z, t)fq{ (0, t)

m2 (z, t) = q2 (z, t)fq~ (0, t) .
From the construction it follows at once that argm{ (r, t) is constant as t

varies and so is argm~ (r, t). Evidently
argm~ (r, t) = lim arg l~ (r)

"'
!X-+4~
so that to find the value of the former we will determine this limit.
If we had "P = ± n for 0 < oc < : this would by (6.27) imply
y2e-2i<p_ (e + e-1) re-i "'+ 2- 2r + r2= 0
from which follows sin cp = 0 and thus e-i"' = 1. Since -oc = 1 / 2 ( cp + 1p)
this is impossible. From the form of the domain q1 (E, 0) it follows that
:n
as oc tends to 4 from below cp and "P approach limits cp*, "P* with
1p* > cp*. We can thus write
where 15 is positive. At the same time e tends to the value 1. Inserting

these values in equation (6.27) (which holds also in the limit) we find that
15 = 1- )
cos-1 (-,-
2 ;,r
where the determination satisfies 0 < 15 < : . We now determine the

asymptotic behaviour of a to insert in the formula (6.26). We may set
e= 1- s where s is positive and tends to zero as a approaches4.
:n;
We find at once that

2- 2s
a-1-1-rei'P+ 0(2)
s.
Since a is the root with negative imaginary part we have
a= 1- 1 _;e-i'~' +0(s 2) .
Further from the construction of the function na (z) follows that
a = : + O(s'l,)
thus
e-i('P+'I'l= i + O(s'l•).
Substituting these expressions into formula (6.26) and letting s tend to
zero we find
r•
li~ argl~(r) =-n-log 1 -r•
<X---+--
4
so that
r•
arg m~ (r, 0) = - n -log -1- -•
- r2
Let now f E S. Let (/> a (w) be the inverse of the function na (z) defined
in na (E). We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with <;]\ the w-sphere,
the quadratic differential Qa (w) dw 2, the domain n"' (E) admissible with
respect to Q" (w) dw 2 and the admissible function
g (w) = 2/((/Jcx (w))// (r)
associated with n" (E). The quadratic differential has two double poles:
P 1 at w = 0 and P 2 at w = 2. The corresponding coefficients are
oc<1>=- e- 2 ia, a<1>= f(r) n~(0)/2
oc<2>= e- 2 i"', a< 2>= f(r) n~ (r)/2 f' (r) .

m{- e- 2 irt.log [f (r) n~ (0)/2] + e- 2 i"log [f (r) n~ (r)/2 I' (r)]} ;;;; 0
or
~ {e- 2i"' log f' (r)} ~ ~ { e-2iiX log l~ (r)} .
This holds for all cx, 0 ~ IX < n, when 0 < r ~ 2-'/, and for oc distinct
:rt 3:rt .,
from 4 and - 4- when 2- '< r < 1. In the cases excluded here we have
similarly
~ {- i log/' (r)} ~ ~ {- i logm~ (r, t)}, 0~t ~ 1,
~ {i logf' (r)} ~~ {i logm 2 (r, t)}, O~t~1
which are equivalent to (6.25).

For all values of r, 0 < r < 1, these inequalities define a convex
domain L (r) and every boundary value is actually taken for some
function in 5. Thus by GRÖTZSCH's argument this is the exact region of
possible values of log/' (r). When 0 < r < 2-'/, the equations (6.26)
determine this region explicitly. I t is an elementary matter [165, Ch. XV]
to verify that the region L (r) is in any case symmetric in the real axis
and the ordinate at log l~r• . Thus even when 2-'/,~ r< 1 the equations
(6.26) tagether with the inequalities (6.25) determine the region explicitly.
Now if f E S, for any real 8, so is
and
f~ (r) = f' (reiO) .
Thus the region of possible values of log f' (r ei&), () real, is in any case
given by L (r). The equality statements of Theorem 6.20 follow in the
usual way from Theorem 4.1.
Finally we observe that the uniqueness of the mapping la (z) follows
from equality condition (iii) of Theorem 4.1.
Corollary 6.15. For f ES, () real,
Jargf' (reiB)J ~ 4sin-1 r, 0< Y ~ 2-'/,
r•
~ n +log 1 _r 2 , 2-'/,< r < 1 .
In the first case equality occurs only for the functions l" (z) and la"' (z),
4 -4
in the second case only for the functions m1 (z, t), m 2 (z, t), 0 ~ t ~ 1.
This sharp form of the rotation theorem is due to GoLUSIN [42]
without the complete analysis of the equality possibilities.
The bound for 0 < r ~ 2-'/, follows most easily from the explicit
determination of the functions l" (z), la", (z) which can be done in
4 -4-
an elementary manner. The bound for 2-'/,< r < 1 follows from inequa-
lity (6.25). The equality statements follow as in Theorem 6.20.
The preceding method is readily modified to obtain the region of

possible values of the quantity
).log/' (reiO)- (I- A.) log [f(reiO)jrei 8 ]
for any real number )., 0 < r < I, ()real, f E S the determinations being
those given by Definition 6.3 and Definition 6.5. Partial results in this
problern have been obtained by LEBEDEV [I33]. Further, without
essentially greater difficulty, we can solve problems corresponding to
those of §§ 6.7, 6.8 for the class of normalized bounded regularunivalent
functions in the unit circle.
6.9 We will now give TEICHMÜLLER's coefficient results which still
are the most penetrating general results in the coefficient problems for
functions in the families S and L: [187].
Theorem 6.21. Let the quadratic differential Q (w) dw 2 be regular on
the w-sphere apart from a pole ol ordern + 4 at the point at infinity (n ~-I)
at u;hich it has the expansion
Q(w) dw 2 = (a:wn+ decreasing powers of w) dw 2 •
Let D be an admissible domain with respect to the quadratic differential
Q(w) dw 2 which is the image ol lzl >I under a mapping w = /* (z) where
I* E L: and f* has expansion at the point at infinity
Let I E L: and have expansion at the point at inlinity
I (z) = z + c0 + : + · · · + ;: + · · ·
1
where
c3 = a3 , i= 0, I, ... , n.
Then
m{a:cn+l} ~ ~ {a:an+l}
equaü"ty occurring only lor I (z) == I* (z).
Let f/> (w) be the inverse of the function f* (z) defined on D. We apply
the General Coefficient Theorem with ~ the w-sphere, the quadratic
differential Q(w) dw 2 and the admissible domain D. The function
l(if>(w)) has expansion at the point at infinity
w + Cn+l-an+l
wn+l + h1gher
.
powers of w-1 .
It is readily verified that this function satisfies the conditions of De-

finition 4.4 thus is an admissible function associated with D. The
quadratic differential has a single pole P 1 of order n + 4 at the point at
infinity. The corresponding coefficients are
a;(l) = lX ' a~l+l = Cn+l- an+l .
TEICHMÜLLER's coefficient results 121

~ {o:(c",_l- an+l)} ~ 0
or
~ {o:cn+I} ~ 9\ {o:a"+l}.
The equality statement follows from equality condition (i) in Theorem 4.1.
Theorem 6.22. Let the quadratic differential Q(w) d w2 be regular on the
w-sphere apart from a pole of order n + 1 at the origin (n ;;;; 2) at which
it has the expansion
Q(w) dw 2 = ( w~+l + higher powers of w-1) d w2
and a possible simple pole at the point at infinity. Let D be an admissible

domain with respect to the quadratic differential Q (w) dw 2 not containing the
point at infinity which is the image of iz I < 1 under a mapping w = f* (z)
where f* E S and f* has expansion at the origin
/*(z) = z + a2 z2 + · · · + akzk+ · · ·.
Let f E S and have expansion at the origin
where
Then
~ {o:c,;} ;;;; 9\ {o:an}
equality occurring only for f (z) == f* (z).

Let (_/) (w) be the inverse of the function f* (z) defined on D. We
apply the General Coefficient Theorem with ~ the w-sphere, the
quadratic differential Q(w) dw 2 and the admissible domain D. The
function f ((_[) (w)) has expansion at the origin
w + (c"- a") wn + higher powers of w .
It is readily verified that this function satisfies the conditions of De-
finition 4.4 thus is an admissible function associated with D. The
quadratic differential has a single pole P 1 of order n + 1 at the origin.
o:<1l = o:, a~1_l_ 2 = an- Cn.
~ {o:(an- c")} ~ 0
or
~ {o:an} ~ 9\ {o:c"} .
The equality statement follows from equality condition (i) in Theorem4.1.
122 VII. Applications of the General Coefficient Theorem
The bound given in Corollary 6.10 for the coefficient of z2 for a

function in S is easily derived from Theorem 6.22 but beyond this
bounds for the coefficients of functions in S have not been obtained
from the TEICHMÜLLER result. However a suitable improvement of this
result provides a very powerful means of attacking this problem.
Chapter Seven
Applications of the General Coefficient Theorem.

Families of Univalent Functions
7.1 The present formulation of the General Coefficient Theorem
makes it very natural to apply this result to families of univalent
functions. One quite general application is the following.
Theorem 7.1. Let~ be a finite oriented Riemann surface, Q(w) dw 2
a positive quadratic differential defined on 9\. Let Q(w) dw 2 be regular
apart from double poles Pv P 2 , ••• , P" r;:;:; 1, and simple poles Q1 , Q2 , •• • ,Q,
( where the latter set may be void). Let 9\ be the inner closure of circle
domains <rv \r 2 , ••• , <rr associated respectively with Pv P 2 , ••• , Pr. Let
fixed local uniformizing parameters be assigned at Pv P 2 , ••• , Pr the
respective developments of Q (w) dw 2 being
rx
Q (w) dw 2= ( W' + · · · ) dw 2
at P 1• Let F1 (z), j = 1, ... , r, be functions such that F 1 maps the unit
circle E: lzl < 1 conformally onto <r1 with F 1 (0) = P;. Let f 1 (z), j = 1, .. ., r
be functions such that
(a) /; maps E conformally into ~
(b) /; (0) = P;
(c) /;(E)nfk(E)=O, f=t=k, j,k=1, ... ,r
(d) Qd/;(E), k=l, ... ,s, f=1, ... ,r.
Then
r r
lllfJ (0) l-aU) ~ IJ IFJ (0) l-aU> (7.1)
i =1 i~l
the derivatives being calculated in terms of the assigned local unijormizing

Parameters. Equality occurs in (7.1) only for /;(z) the functions F;(eiß;z),
ß; real, f = 1, ... , r.
We apply the General Coefficient Theorem with ~ and Q(w) dw2 as
given and ~. <r 2 , ••• , <r. as the admissible family of domains with
respect to Q(w) dw 2. Let cf>;(w) be the inverse of F;(z) defined on
<r1, j = 1, ... , r. It is immediate that the functions /; (cf>; (w)), j = 1, ... , r,
Results on the inner radius for non-overlapping domains 123
satisfy the conditions of Definition 4.4 since the domains CF; 1 are simply-
connected andin virtue of hypotheses (a), (b), (c), (d). Thus they form
an admissible family of functions associated with the admissible family
of domains. The coefficients oc<iJ for the quadratic differential Q(w) dw 2
are all real and negative by Theorem 3.4. The quadratic differential has
double poles Pv P 2 , ••• , Pr, the corresponding coefficients being
ocU> = ocU>, aU> = FJ (0)//J (0) , j = 1, ... , r.
~tt oc<5> log [Fj (0)/ff (0)]};;;; 0. (7.2)
From this inequality (7.1) follows immediately. The equality statement

is readily derived from the fact that equality can occur in inequality (7.2)
only if every trajectory of Q(w) dw 2 in CF;5 is mapped by /; (<P; (w)) into
another such.
The existence of a quadratic differential Q(w) d w2 and functions F;
corresponding to given points P 1, j = 1, ... , r and Qk, k = 1, ... , s and
negative real values ocU>, j = 1, ... , r can be derived from a general
principle [114].
Theorem 7.1 can be extended also to cases where ring domains may
be present in the trajectory structure. In such cases one must include
in the admissible family functions mapping such domains into sn and
impose homotopy conditions on the mappings by these functions. For
such results in several explicit cases see [37].
Many special cases of Theorem 7.1 are found in the literature [54, 132,
147, 172, 173]. More particularly we have [141]
Corollary 7 .1. Let g (z), h (z) be meromorphic and univalent in the unit
circle E: lzl < 1 with g(E) nh(E) = 0. Let lz1 1, lz 2 1< 1 and let g(z1 ), h(z 2)
be finite. Then
Equality can occur only for the functions
1/ 2 (g(z1 ) - h (z 2)) [( 1 + eie I(1 - eie t~;,~z)J +

t~z:1z) 1/ 2 (g (z1 ) + h (z2))
1/ 2 (h(z 2) - g(z1)) [( 1 + eirp t~~·z) I(1- eirp t~~·z )] + 1/ 2 (g(z1) + h(z2))

(), fP real.
This result follows by applying Theorem 7.1 with 9\ the w-sphere

d 2 (h (z 2 )-g(z1)) 2 dw 2
Q(w) w =- (w-g(z1 )) 2 (w-h(z 2)) 2
z+z 1
/1 (z) = g ( I+z,z
)
I2 (z) h ( z + z, )
1 + z,z
=
1+z
F1 (z) = 1/ 2 (g(z1 ) -h(z 2)) 1_z + 1 / 2 (g(z1) + h(z2))
1+z
F 2 (z) = 1/ 2 (h(z 2 ) - g(z1 )) 1_z + 1 / 2 (g(z1 ) + h(z2 )).
For regular functions we have more generally the result given by
KoLBINA [125, 126].
Corollary 7.2. Let av a 2 be given distinct finite values, IX, ß given
distinct positive numbers, / 1 (z), f 2 (z) functions regular and univalent in
the unit circle E : lzl < 1 satisfying the conditions
/ 1 (0) = a1 , j = 1, 2
/1(E) nf2 (E) = 0.
Then
4<X+/J "'ßP
l/1 (0) I" l/2 (O)IP :;;; Ia _ ~a+ß
I ''•-ß'/,
:'/,+ ß'/,
\2"'' ·l'· la1- a2l" +P. (7.3)
Here the result is obtained by applying Theorem 7.1 with 9\ the

w-sphere and Q (w) dw 2 the quadratic differential
where the sign is + or- according as IX> ßor oc < ß. To get the explicit
bound (7.3) it is necessary to determine directly the quantities IF! (0) I,
IF2 (0) I which appear in Theorem 7.1 [1 02]. One can also give the only
functions for which equality can occur in inequality (7 .3). It is a trivial
matter to extend this result to apply to derivatives at points other than
the origin. A similar inequality was given by KoLBINA for sets of three
functions meromorphic and univalent in the unit circle. This can be
treated analogously [102]. Also one can obtain in this way a result of
KUFAREV and FALES [129].
7.2 Analogously to Corollary 7.1 we obtain at once
Corollary 7.3. Let f (z) be regular and univalent in E : lz\::;. 1 with
I (0) = 0, f' (0) = a. Let g (z) be meromorphic and univalent in E : lzl > 1
with expansion at the point at injinity
g (z) = bz + b0 + terms in z-1.

Non-overlapping domains 125
Let I (E) 1\ g (E) = 0. Then

lafbl ~ 1
with equality occurring only lor lunctions
l(z) = fleiOz, g(z) = p-lei'Pz
fl positive, 0, rp real.
This result is valid also without the assumption of univalence as
follows by the principle of subordination. This calls to mind at once the
dass of BIEBERBACH-EILENBERG functions [16, 32, 160].
Definition 7.1. Let C denote the class ol lunctions f(z) regular lor lzl < 1
and sttch that 1(0) = 0, l(zi) l(z 2 ) =t= 1, lz1l, lz2l <I.
Corollary 7.4. Let I E C, then
II' (O) I ~ 1
equality occurring only lor
l(z) = eioz
() real.
For I univalent this follows by applying Corollary 7.3 to the functions
l(z), (/(z-1))-1 defined respectively for lzl < 1, lzl > 1. For general I the
result follows by the principle of subordination.
Many other results for the BIEBERBACH-EILENBERG functions can be
obtained by the method of the extremal metric [103, 108] particularly
with the additional assumption of univalence but in general for their
proofs it is necessary to use the method of symmetrization rather than
the General Coefficient Theorem. A dass of functions closely related
to C but simpler in this respect was recently introduced by SHAH [174 J.
. Definition 7.2. Let K denote the class ol lunctions l(z) regular lor lzl < 1
and suchthat 1(0) = 0, l(z1 ) l(z 2 ) =t=- 1, lz11, lz2l <I.
Corollary 7.5. Let I EK, then
II' (O) I ~ 1
equality occurring only lor
l(z) = eiOz
() real.
For I univalent this follows by applying Corollary 7.3 to the functions
l(z),- (f(-z 1 ))-1 defined respectively for lzl < 1, lzl > 1. For general
I tbe result follows by the principle of subordination.
Many other deeper and more complicated results follow for the
family K from the General Coefficient Theorem but we confine ourselves
here to giving a rather simple application of the method of the extremal
metric which does not strictly come under the General Coefficient
Theorem.
Theorem 7.2. Let I EK, 0 < r < 1, ()real. Then
ll(rei 6)1 ~ r(1- r 2)-'f,
equality occurring only lor the lunctions

. z(t-r•)'f,
l(z) = e"" 1-rze-ro
rp real.
Consider the quadratic differential
dw'
Q(w) dw 2 = - w(w-s)(w+s 1)
where s is positive. Its trajectory through the points ± i is a circle with

centre s, radius (s2 + I)''·· The function in K
z(l-r2)'/,
l.(z) = l-rz
for r = s(s 2 + I)'l•, s = r(I- r 2)-''• maps lzl < 1 conformally onto the
domain bounded by the above circle with
Ir (r) = r (I - r2 )-'1•.
Let us derrote the unit circle lzl < I slit rectilinearly from 0 to r by D,
the module of D for the dass of curves separating its boundary components
by m. Let F be the homotopy dass of rectifiable JORDAN curves on the
w-sphere separating 0 and s from -s-1 and oo and containing such curves
symmetric with respect to the real w-axis. Clearly the module of r is
2m and the metric k IQ(w) I''• ldwl is the extremal metric for suitable
positive k.
Suppose now that I E K and univalent with II (r eiiJ) I ~ r (I - r2 )-'f,.
Then for a suitable real oc the domains eirt. l(ei9D) and-eirt.(/(eiiJ D))-1 are
non-overlapping and in the module problems for each for the class of
curves separating the boundary components the metric k IQ(w)l''•ldwl
is admissible. Since each of these domains has module m it follows from
Lemma 2.2 that this is possible only if
eia. I (eiiJ z) =Ir (z) .
Then
ll(reiiJ)I = r(I-r2)-'f,.
From this the statements of Theorem 7.2 follow for univalent functions.
For general functions in K they follow by the principle of subordination.
7.3 The selection of special RIEMANN surfaces and quadratic dif-
ferentials in the General Coefficient Theorem gives rise to whole new
dasses of problems for univalent functions. Some of these problems are
very natural intuitively and admit explicit solutions of considerable
interest. We give here the solution of just one such problem.
Theorem 7.3. Let us denote by Ql'(w) dw 2 the quadratic differential
(w-ft)dw 2
w•
--------------------------------------------~---------
New classes of problems 127

=============================================-~~~~~----~----_
where f-l > 0. Let T" be the trajectory of Q"(w) dw 2 which runs from w = f-l
~~ there exists a function f" E E such that
back to that point. Then for f-l ;;:;;
the mapping w = !" (z) carries izl > 1 onto a domain bounded by T~' and
a possible slit on the real axis to the right of f-l· For f-l > ~ there exists
n
a function /"E E suchthat the mapping w = /p(z) carries izl > 1 onto a
domain bounded by a closed trajectory of Qfl (w) dw 2 which separates T 11
from the origin. Let f EI: besuchthat it maps izl > I onto a domain whose
complement contains a domain with inner conform radius with respect to
the origin at least r (0 < r < I). Let f (z) have expansion at the point at
infinity
z + a0 + terms in z-1 •
Then the region of possible values of a 0 is given by
laol ~ Pr
where
(7.4)
64
for r :S.::
- - n .e-. and
(7.5)
with
16
f-l = n• k" E2 (k) , r = 4ft exp {- 2 - n K' (k)/K (k) + n 2/2 K (k) E (k)}
for r > ~4
n e2
• The value PreiO is attained by a0 only for the function
eio f11 (e-iO z) where f-l = ! e r in the first case,

2 f-l and rare related as above
in the second case and () is real.
Consider in the w-plane slit along the positive real axis the mapping
w = Jw- 1 (w- fl,)'f, dw

I'
where the determination of the root is assigned by it being positive on

top of the positive real axis to the right of ft· This mapping carries the
w-plane slit as above onto the domain bounded by the following half-
infinite segments: Sw = 0, 9\w > 0; ~w = 0, Sw < 0; 9\w = - 2nf1,'1•,
Sw < 0; Sw = 0, ~w <- 2np,'f, where ft'J, is the positive root. The
explicit form of the mapping is
, . , p,'f,_i (w-fl)'J,
w = 2 (w- p,) /,_ z f-l f, log- -,--- .------,1,
p,/'+z(w-fl)"
the roots being as above and the principal determination of the logarithm
being chosen at ft on top of the positive real axis.
Next we take
C= J z-'l•(z-1) dz (7.6)
1
in izi > 1 slit along the positive real axis, the root being positive for z
on top of the positive real axis. This mapping is given explicitly by
C= 2z''•+ 2z-'!,_ 4
the roots being as above. The respective images of the point z = 1 are
C= 0 and C= - 8. If
on setting
w + np''· = C+ 4
the induced mapping from izi > 1 into the w-plane will provide just the
mapping ftt of Theorem 7.3. Its expansion at the point at infinity is
ftt(z) = z + (2- p,) + terms in z-1 •
The expansion of the mapping w about the origin is given by
w = i p,''•logw- i ,i'· log 4 p, + 2 i p,'f, + terms in w. (7.7)
Thus the circle izi < 1 is mapped conformally onto the domain bounded
by T"' and containing the origin so that z = 0 goes into w = 0 by the
mapping induced by setting
i p,''•logz = w .
We denote the function so obtained by g"' (z). Then the logarithm of the
inner conform radius r of the above domain with respect to the origin
is given by
log 4 p,-2
that is
r = 4 p, e- 2 •
For p, > ~~ we use instead of (7.6) the mapping
C= f z-'1•(1 + (J. + J.-1)z + z2 )''•dz

1
in izi > 1 slit along the positive real axis where Ä. > 1 and the roots are
positive for z on top öf the positive real axis to the right of J.. Making
the substitutions Z = z''•, W = 1 / 2 (Z + Z-1) we obtain
_ _!_ / ( 1-k2W2)'/,
C- k I-ws dW
1
where the mapping is defined for 6 W ;;;:;; 0, the root is positive for W
real and greater than k-1 and
v.''·
k= HA.
New classes of problems 129
Then when
setting
the induced mapping from [z[ > 1 into the w-plane will provide just the
mapping I" of Theorem 7.3. Its expansion at the point at infinity is
I" (z) = z + (4k- 2 - 2 - /-l) + terms in z-1 •

The mapping w agairr has the expansion at the origin given by (7.7).
Thus the unit circle [z[ < 1 is mapped conformally onto the domain
complementary to the image of [z[ > 1 under fP- so that z = 0 goes into
w = 0 by setting
w = i p!i•log z- i ! (K' (k) - E' (k)) .
Wederrote the function so obtained by g" (z). Then the logarithm of the
inner conform radius r of the above domain with respect to the origin
is given by
log 4 fl- 2- 4k-1 fl-'f, (K' (k)- E' (k))
that is
r = 4 fl exp {- 2- TC (K' (k)- E' (k))/E (k)}
= 4 fl exp {- 2- TC K' (k)jK (k) + TC 2j2K (k) E (k)}

the latter by LEGENDRE's relation.
Let now I EI with expansion at the point at infinity
f(z) = z + a0 + terms in z- 1 .
For E: [z[ < 1:__, E: [z[ > I let tP" (w), P" (w) be the inverses of Iw .§_ß
defined on I" (E), g1, (E). Further suppose that the complement of I (E)
contains a domain with inner conform radius at least r with respect to the
origin where r and fl are related as above in the respective cases. Then
there will exist a function g (z) mapping E conformally into this domain
and satisfying g (0) = 0, g' (0) = r. For given real (}, 0 ~ (} < TC, we apply
the General Coefficient Theorem with ?\ the w-sphere, the quadratic
differential
w-p,eie
Q (w) dw 2 = e-io --------;;)2~ dw 2 ,
the admissible family of domains eiO I" (E), ei0gß (E) and the admissible
family of functions f(eiOij)ß(e-iOw)), g(eie P"(e-iOw)).
130 VIII. Symmetrization. Multivalent Functions
The quadratic differential has a triple pole P 1 at the point at infinity

and a double pole P 2 at the origin. The corresponding coefficients are
or
that is
That the value PreiO can be attained only for the function ei 0 II' (e-i 0 z)
follows from equality condition (i) in Theorem 4.1. That the circular
disc is the exact region of possible values of a 0 follows by GRöTzscH's
argument.
Chapter Eight
Symmetrization. Multivalent Functions

8.1 The General Coefficient Theorem is somewhat restricted in its
applications by the requirement it imposes on the functions of the
admissible family {/} of carrying poles of the quadratic differential
interior to the domains of the admissible family {A} into themselves.
As we have seen, when 9Z is the sphere in some cases this can be arranged
by auxiliary conformal transformations of the whole sphere. In other
cases where this is not possible the same effect can be obtained by the
method of symmetrization. This method also permits the extension
of many results for univalent functions to the case fo multivalent
functions. Of course one cannot use the General Coefficient Theorem
directly in these situations but TEICHMÜLLER's principle again provides
an associated quadratic differential.
The type of symmetrization in which we are interested here is circular
symmetrization [149, 150, 151] although other types, notably STEINER
symmetrization, can also be applied in dealing with certain problems
in the Theory of Functions. Circular symmetrization can be applied
to a number of different configurations and we give now its precise
interpretation in the various cases.
Definition 8.1. Let D be a simply-connected domain in the w-sphere,
Pa point and A a ray with end point at P. Then the domain D* associated
with D by the circular symmetrization determined by P and A is a simply-
connected domain characterized by the fact that its intersection with the circle
Definitions 131
of centre P and radius R consists of that circle if the latter lies in D and
otherwise consists of an open arc meeting A., symmetric with respect to A. and
subtending at P an angle equal to the angular Lebesgue measure of the
intersection ofthat circle with D.
It is immediately verified that with this definition D* is actually
a simply-connected domain.
Lemma 8.1. In the notation of Definition 8.1 the domains D and D*
have equal area (which may of course be infinite).
Definition 8.2. Let D be a doubly-connected domain in the w-sphere,
P a point and A. a ray with end point at P. Let K 1 and K 2 be the com-
plementary continua of D, both of which we assume to be non-degenerate.
Let the respective intersections of K 1 and K 2 with the circle of centre P and
radius R have angular Lebesgue measures l 1 (R) and l 2 (R). Let R, ([> be the
polar coordinates with pole P and initial ray A.. Let K:
be the set
- 1 /211 (R) ~ ([> ~ 1 /2l1 (R)
for those values of R for which the circle Iw- PI = R meets K 1 plus either
of the origin and the point at infinity which is in K 1 . Let be the set K;
n - 1 / 2 l 2 (R) ~ ([> ~ n + 1 / 2 12 (R)
for those values of R for which the circle Iw- PI = R meets K 2 plus either
of the origin and the point at infinity which is in K 2• Then the complement
of Ki V Ki is a doubly-connected domain D* which is called the circular
symmetrization of D determined by P and A.
The verification that D* is a doubly-connected domain is immediate.
The domain D* evidently depends on the order of choice of K 1 and K 2
but interchanging them simply results in reflection of this domain in the
point P.
Definition 8.3. Let Q be a quadrangle in the w-sphere lying exterior
to the circle Iw- PI = R 0 and with a pair of opposite sides lying on this
circle. Let Q' be the reflection of Q in this circle and let D be the union of
Q, Q' and the open arcs corresponding to the pair of opposite sides indicated.
This domain is seen at once to be doubly-connected. Let A. be a ray with end
point at P. Let D* be the domain associated with D under the circular
symmetrization determined by PandA.. Let Q* be the quadrangle determined
by the portion of D* exterior to Iw- PI = R 0 , a pair of opposite sides being
given by the two open arcs of intersection of D* with this circle. Then Q*
is called the circular symmetrization of Q determined by P and A..
Definition 8.4. Let K be an open set in three dimensional Euclidean
space. Let H be a half-plane and A the line giving its edge. Then the set K*
associated with K by the circular symmetrization determined by A and H
is defined to be an open set characterized by the fact that its intersection
with a circle with centre on A in a plane perpendicular to A consists of
that circle if the latter lies in K and otherwise consists of an open arc
9*
meeting H and symmetric with respect to it and of length equal to the total
measure of the intersection ofthat circle with D.
It is easily verified that the set K* is open. For our purposes the
interest of symmetrization in three dimensions comes in through an
important result on the area of the surfaces bounding K and K* when
these surfaces are sufficiently smooth.
Theorem 8.1. Let H be a half-plane in three dimensional Euclidean
space, A the line giving its edge. Let there be given a system of cylindrical
Coordinates (r, (), z) in terms of which H is given by () = 0, A by r = 0.
Let K be an open set in this space whose boundary S is homeomorphic to a
sphere and consists of a finite number of pieces, bounded by simple regular
closed curves and each of which is either
(a) in a plane z = constant,
(b) on a surface of revolution z = z (r) where z (r) has a continuous
derivative with respect to r,
(c) representable by an equation
() = () (r, z)
where the function () (r, z) possesses continuous first partial derivatives
with respect to r and z.
Then S has area. lf K* denotes the set associated with K by the circular
symmetrization determined by A and H then its boundary surface S* has an
area not greater than that of S.
Evidently the pieces of S lying in planes z = constant and on surfaces
of revolution z = z (r) give rise to similar pieces of S* of not larger area.
Thus it is enough to prove the given result for the remairring boundary
pieces. The set of values of r', z' for which the circle r = r', z = z' meets
these pieces of S is a domain which breaks into a finite nurober of sub-
domains Uv ... , U n such that for (r', z') in U k this circle meets S a t
points whose () coordinates are respectively
these being continuous functions of r, z on U k· Here we suppose that the

open arc given by () 1 < () < () 2 lies interior to K. Thus the area of the
part of S in question is
For (r, z) in Uk the corresponding portians of the boundary of K* are

given by () = ()*, () = - ()* where
8*= 1 /2 (()2m- ()2m

k k
-1 + '' '+ 82- ()1) •
Relation to DIRICHLET integrals and modules 133
Thus the corresponding area for S* is given by
k
n
~ 2 u !! [ + ((-ar
1(}(}*)" + (----a;-
r2 ()(}*)•)]'/, dr dz.
k
Now
This completes the proof of Theorem 8.1.

8.2 From the preceding result on area can be derived a useful result
on certain DIRICHLET integrals by using a device due to TIMOSHENKO [149].
Theorem 8.2. Let D be a domain in the w-plane (w = u + iv) bounded
by a simple closed regular curve. Let f(u, v) be a function defined and
continuous on l5 satisfying the conditions
(a) f(u, v) > 0, (u, v) ED
(b) f(u, v) = 0, (u, v) EJJ- D
(c) the set K defined in three dimensional Euclidean space with Co-
ordinates (u, v, z) by
(u,v)ED, O<z<f(u,v)
satisfies the conditions of Theorem 8.1.
Let D* denote the domain in the w-plane associated with D by the
circular symmetrization determined by the point (0, 0) and the ray u > 0,
v = 0. Let K* denote the set in three dimensional space associated with K
by the circular symmetrization determined by the Zine u = 0, v = 0 and the
half-plane u > 0, v = 0. Then there exists a function f* (u, v) defined and
continuous on D* and satisfying the conditions
(a*) f* (u, v) > 0, (u, v) E D*
(b*) f* (u, v) = 0, (u, v) ED*- D*
(c*) K* is the set determined by
(u, v) E D*, 0 < z < f* (u, v) .
Let Iw fv exist and be bounded and continuous in D apart from a finite

number ol regular arcs and curves. Then the Dirichlet integrals
exist and satisfy the inequality
JJ (!'; + f~)
D
du dv ~ JJ ((1!) 2 +
D*
u:) 2) du dv. (8.1)
That there exists I* satisfying conditions (a*), (b*), (c*) is almost

immediate from Definition 8.4. That the DIRICHLET integrals exist follows
directly from our hypotheses. It remains only to prove the inequality
(8.1). For any positive constant e the functions el and e/* are in the
samerelationship as I and 1*. Any domain on which I is constant gives
rise to a set of equal area on which f* is constant and of course D and D*
have equal areas. Thus by Theorem 8.1
JJ [1 + e2 (/'; + r;)]''· du dv ~ JJ [1 + e2 ((1!) 2 +

D D*
u:) )]''•du dv.
2
Under the given conditions on Iw I., f!, 1: we have

~f(1+ ~ {f~+/~)+0(e4)) dudv~
~[ ( 1 + ~· ((1!) 2 + u:) 2) + 0 (e4 )) du dv
or
1 /2 e2 JJ (!'; + nl du dv + 0
D
(e 4) ~ 1/2 e2
~
JJ ((1!) 2 + u:) 2) du dv +0 (e4) •
Dividing by 1/ 2 e2 and letting e tend to zero we obtain the inequality (8.1).

To exploit Theorem 8.2 we make use of a well known connection
between the module of a doubly-connected domain and a DIRICHLET
integral for a hormonic measure associated with the domain.
Lemma 8.2. Let D be a doubly-connected domain in the w-plane
(w = u + iv) with non-degenerate boundary continua. Let w(u, v) be the
karmanie measure ol one boundary component relative to D. Let D(w)
denote the Dirichlet integral ol w over D. Then the module ol D (lor the
class ol curves separating its boundary components) is equal to 1/D(w).
Since both the module and the DIRICHLET integral are conformally
invariant we may suppose D to be the circular ring r 1 < Iw! < r 2 , the
distinguished boundary component being the curve Iw! = r 2 (0 < r1 < r 2).
In this case
w = log (iwl/r1)/log (r2/r1 ) •
Direct calculation gives
D (w) = 2n/log h/r1 )
i. e. the reciprocal of the module in question.
Relation to DIRICHLET integrals and modules 135
Theorem 8.3. Let D be a doubly-connected domain in the w-sphere

(with non-degenerate boundary continua), P a point and }. a ray with
end point at P. Let D* be the circular symmetrization of D determined by P
and Je. Let M, M* be the modules of D, D* in each case for the class of
curves separating the boundary components. Then
M;;o;;M*.
Herewe may suppose that D lies in the finite w-plane and is bounded
by analytic curves C1 and C2 , C1 interior to C 2 • The result in the general
case follows by an easy limiting process. The bounded continuum
enclosed by C1 will play the role of K 1 in Definition 8.2.
Let w (u, v) be the harmonic measure of C1 with respect to D, w* (u, v)
the harmonic measure of the corresponding boundary component of D*
with respect to that domain. Let LI be the domain enclosed by C2•
On .J we define the function f(u, v) by .
f(u, v) = w (u, v), (u, v) E])
f(u, v) = 1, (u, v) E LI-D.
This function evidently satisfies the conditions of Theorem 8.2. Let L1*
be the circular symmetrization of LI determined by P and ?.. Let f* (u, v)
be the function defined on .J* by symmetrization as in Theorem 8.2.
By that result
ff (!! + t;) du dv;;::; ff ((1!) 2 + u:) 2) du dv.
~ ~·
On the one band
ff (!!+/;)du dv = JJ (w! + w;) du dv = 1/M.
~ D
On the other band the function f* has the respective boundary values
0 and 1 on the boundary components of D* thus making use of the
DIRICHLET principle
f J ((1!) 2 + (/:) 2) du dv;;::; f f ((w!)2+ (w:) 2) du dv = 1/M*.
J* D*
Combining these inequalities gives the result of Theorem 8.3.

Corollary 8.1. Let Q be a quadrangle in the w-sphere lying exterior
to the circle Jw - PJ = R0 and with a pair of opposite sides lying on this
circle. Let Q* be the circular symmetrization of Q determined by P and
a ray ), with end point at P. Let m, m* be the modules of Q, Q* each for
the class of curves joining the distinguished pair of sides on Jw- PJ = R 0 •
Then
m;;o;;m*.
Indeed let D and D* be the doubly-connected domains associated
with Q and Q* as in Definition 8.3 and let M and M* be their modules,
in each case for the dass of curves separating the boundary components.
Then
m =2M
m*= 2M*
M~M*
from which the result of Corollary 8.1 is immediate.

8.3 The form of the proof of Theorem 8.3 offers little possibility
of determining directly when equality may occur in the inequality there.
Nevertheless this question is of considerable interest, particularly for
obtaining uniqueness results in some of the problems to be treated in
this chapter. We deal with this question now, supposing that the point
and ray determining the symmetrization are the origin and the positive
real axis although, of course, similar results hold in any case.
Theorem 8.4. Let D be a doubly-connected domain in the w-sphere
with ( non-degenerate) boundary components C1 and C 2 . Let D be the
image ol the circular ring
(8.2)
(0 < r 1 < r 2) by the meromorphic (possiby regular) univalent function
w = I (z). We will suppose that under this mapping the circle [z[ = r1
corresponds to C1 • Let D* be the circular symmetrization ol D determined
by the origin and the positive real axis with boundary components C;' and c;
corresponding respectively to C 1 and C2• Let M (D') denote the module ol
any doubly-connected domain D' for the class ol curves separating the
boundary components. Suppose that
M(D) = M(D*).
Then D* is the image ol the circular ring (8.2) under a mapping by a
meromorphic univalent lunction w = f* (z) where we suppose that under
this mapping the circle [z[ = r 1 corresponds to Ci. M oreover
I* (z) = eirx I (eiß z)
oc, ß real.
In particular equality of the modules occurs only if D* is obtained
from D by a (rigid) rotation about the point w = 0.
Let F(r) be the image of [z[ = runderthemapping w = f(z) (r1 < r<r2).
I t will be an analytic JORDAN curve dividing D into two doubly-connected
domains D1 and D 2 where we suppose the formertobe contiguous to C1 •
Applying circular symmetrization to these domains with an evident
order of choice of the complementary continua in each case we obtain
domains D;' and D;. We recognize at once that D;' v D; differs from D*
only by a JoRDAN curve] lying in D* and separating Dr from D~ as
well as Ci from q.
Now
M(D) = M(D 1 ) + M(D 2) , M(D 1 ) ~ M(Di), M(D 2) ~ M(D;).
Uniqueness results for modules 137
Thus by Theorem 2.6 J must be the image F* (r) of lzl = r under the
mapping w = f* (z). Also
M(D1 ) = M(Di), M(D 2) = M (Di).
Hence we may assume in our proofthat f(z), f*(z) are each regular for
r1 ~ lzl ;;:; r2 since this condition could be obtained by restricting ourselves
to a subdomain of D bounded by F(r'), F(r") with r 1 < r' < r" < r2•
Also we assume without loss of generality that C1 is interior to C2 and
that the complementary continuum of D which contains C1 plays the
role of K 1 in Definition 8.2.
Let M (r) and m (r) denote the maximum and minimum of I/ (z) I for
lzl = r, r 1 ;;:; r;;:; r 2 • Therc will be at most one value of r in this interval
for which M (r) = m (r) unless f (z) has the form f (z) ~ }.z, A constant,
in which case the result of Theorem 8.4 is evident. We may thus assume
111 (r) > m (r) for r 1 ~ r ~ r 2 • In addition M (r) is a strictly increasing
function of r. The maximum and minimum of II* (z) I for lzl = r are
clearly again M (r) and m (r). The former is attaincd only at points where
f* (z) is real and positive. We will suppose f* so normalized that this
occurs only forzreal and positive.
We consider now the loci of points r ei'P at which I/ (r ei'P) I = M (r).
Forthis we set
u (r eilfl) = log I/ (r eiq') I .
By further restricting our initial circular ring if necessary we may

suppose that f (z) does not vanish in r 1 ;;:; lz\ ~ r 2 and then u is a regular
harmonic function on this set. At a point where \f(rei'P)\ = M(r) u has
a maximum as a function of q; for r fixed, thus :; = 0. This means
~orp
0~9\ logf(rei'P) = 0
or
that is, if z = rei'~',

S f zf' (z) \ - 0
l f(z) J- ·
The points at which this equation holds evidently make up a finite
nurober of analytic arcs possibly having common end points at the zeros
of the derivative of zf' (z)/f (z). Thus possibly further restricting our
initial circular ring we may assume that the loci at whose points we have
I/ (r ei'~') \ = M (r) are a finite nurober of analytic arcs expressible as
q; = q;i (r) , i = 1, ... , k
where q;i (r) is an analytic function of r for r 1 ~ r ~ r 2•
I38 VIII. Symmetrization. Multivalent Functions
au
Now on the curve cp = cp; (r) we have --a;p = 0 thus
du au + a u dq.>;
dr =a, ~dr
dlogM(r)
dr
Also on the same curve
d ou IJ'u o2 u dq.>;
0 = Tr8(p = ararp + oq.>' ~'
d2 u o•u o2 u drp; d 2 log M (r)
Tr• = or 2 + or orp ---a:;- = dr 2
Since u is harmonic
Combining this equation with those preceding
a•u ( drp; )' a•u drp;

a q.>' ---a:;- = - ar aq; ar
ou 2 d 2 log M (r)
= ---aY2 - d r•
I o2 u I ou d 2 log M (r)
--------~-
r• arp 2 r ar dr2
= __ a•u _ _!_ dlogM(r) d 2 1ogM (r)
r• orp• r dr dr 2
Thus we have
( :·rp~ )9' = ~;(r) { ( ::i r+ :. } =- ~ :r( dl~~o;}r) ), i = 1, ... ' k. (8.3)
Under our assumption that f (z) is not of the form .Ä.z the right hand
side of (8.3) can vanish only for isolated values of r thus we may assume
it non-zero for r 1 :;:;; r ~ r 2 •
Setting analogously to the above
u*(rei~) =log 1/*(rei~)l
we obtain a regular harmonic function for which there holds corresponding

to (8.3)
( o'u*) _I_= _ _!_~ ( dlog M (r) ) (8.4)
orp 2 Q?=Ü r• r dr dlogr .
Since the right hand sides of (8.3), (8.4) are non zero for r1 :;:;; r :;:;; r 2
we have
Let now L1 (r), L1 * (r) be the domains respectively enclosed by F (r),

F* (r). Then for any function g (R) of R for which the integrals exist
f f g(R) dR dW = f f g (R) dR dlfJ.
Ll (r) Ll*(r)
R
From this we deduce, setting G (R) = J g (t) dt
0
JG(R)dW= fG(R)dlfJ.
F(r) F*(r)
Now by a transformation of FRAWITZ [ISS] we reduce these integrals

to integralstakenon the circle lzl = r, r 1 ~ r ~ r 2 • Indeed on this circle
otP r oR
alfJ = aq;- a er= R"ar acp.
Thus setting
f.S(t)=!G(t) dt
0 t
and supposing G (and hence g) such that this integral exists we have
r f :r ®(ll(rei'~')l) dcp = r J 0°r ®(ll*(rei'~')l) d cp

[z[ ~ r fzf ~ r
or alternatively
_ddr J ® (II (rei'~') I) dcp = :r J ® (II* (rei'~') I) d cp . (8.5)

[z[ ~r fzf ~r
Now suppose that g (R) """0 for R ;;:;;: M (r1 ), which is certainly compatible
with our earlier assumptions. Then
f ® (II (r1 ei'~')l) d cp = f ® (II* (r1 ei'~')l) d cp = 0

[z[ ~ r1 [z[ ~ r1
and from (8.S) follows

f ® (II (rei'~')l) d cp = f ® (II* (r ei'~') I) d cp (8.6)
fzf~r fzf~r
for r1 ~ r ~ r 2 •
Derrote now by e(f, r, a), e(f*, r, a) the sets of values cp, 0 ~ cp < 2n,
at which respectively ll(rei'~') I ~ a, II* (rei'~') I ~ a, a > 0. Further derrote
the (LEBESGUE) measure of e(f, r, a), e(f*, r, a) respectively by W(f,r,a),
lfJ(f*, r, a). From (8.6) it follows immediately that
lfJ(f, r, a)""" W(l*, r, a) (8.7)
W(f, r, M(r)) = W(f*, r, M(r)) = 2n.

Now u(rei'~') is for fixed r, r1 ~ r ~ r 2, a real analytic function of fP·

Thus for f{J sufficiently near the fixed value fPo
u(rei'~')-u(rei'~'o) =
n~l
j; -~~
-
(~n~) _ (f{J-f{Jo)n.
rp 'P- 'Po
Setting lf(rei'~')l = a, lf(rei'~'o)l = a 0 we have
(8.8)
Taking in particular f!Jo to be one of f{J; (r), i = 1, ... , k we have

a 0 = M (r), ( aau)
rp 'P ~ 'Po
'Po
2
0° CfJ~) 'P
< 0 thus for fP sufficiently near
= 0, (
~
to f!Jo we may invert the series in (8.8) to obtain
f{J- fPo = 2'/, M (r)-'f, (- ( ~~~) 'P ~ 'P,) - 1; 2 (M (r) - a)'f, P ( (M (r) - a)'lz) ,
r,r
f{J> f!Jo
f[Jo- fP = 2'/, M(r)-'f, (- ( ~~~ )'~' ~ 1• (M(r)- a)'i•P(-(M(r)- a)'l•),
f{J< f!Jo
where P derrotes a power series with P (0) = 1. Combining these results
for f!Jo = cp; (r), i = 1, ... , k we find for r1 < r :;:;; r 2 , a less than M (r) but
sufficiently near M (r)
f/J(f, r, a) = 2n- 2'i•M(r)-'f,(

i
i (-(a•~)
=1 a cp 'P ~ <pi(r)
)-- 1
;•) (M(r)-a)'f,
$((M (r)- a)'i•)

where sp derrotes a power series with $ (0) = 1. U nder the same conditions
wehave
( (~
f/J(f*,r,a) =2n-2'i•M(r)-'f,- a•u* ) q;~o )-1; (M(r)-a)'f,
2
$* ((M (r) - a)'l•)

where $* derrotes a power series with $* (0) = 1. By (8.7) these series
representations must be identical. In particular
i~ ( - ( ~:; )q;~q;i(r)r/ 2 = (- ( a;;,* )<p~Or1/ 2 • (8.9)
On the other hand by (8.3) and (8.4)
-(~~~)tp~tp;(r):;:;;-c;;:t=o' i= 1, .. . ,k.
Thus there can be at most one term on the left hand side of (8.9),
i. e., k = 1, and the equality in (8.9) is possible only if d~1}r) = 0 for the
values of r in question. This means that the various maximum values
of J/(z)j for jzj = r, r 1 :;;;; r:;;;; r 2 occur for z on a radial segment. Thus for
a suitable real constant ß the maximum modulus of fdz) = f(eißz),
jzj = r, r1 ~ r ~ r 2 , occurs for z on the positive real axis.
Let
u1 (z) = log l/1 (z) I .
Then setting
U (z) = u 1 (z) - u* (z)
we have
U = o au = 0
, acp
holding for rp = 0, r 1 :;;;; r:;;;; r 2 . The first equality is a consequence of the
fad that
for q; = 0. The second equality is true since
holds at the maximum point q; = 0. Since U is a regular harmonic

function it is identically zero. Thus
for some real rx, completing the proof of Theorem 8.4.

Corollary 8.2. Let Q be a quadrangle in the w-sphere lying exterior
to the circle JwJ = R 0 and with a pair of opposite sides lying on this circle.
Let Q* be the circular symmetrization of Q determined by the origin and the
positive real axis. Let m, m* be the modules of Q, Q* each for the class of
curves foining the distinguished pair of opposite sides on Jwl = R 0 • Suppose
that
m=m*.
Then Q, Q* are the images under mappings by respective meromorphic

univalent functions 1p (z), 1p* (z) of a reetangle in the z-plane, the same
sides of the reetangle going into the corresponding sides of the quadrangles.
Moreover
a real.
In particular equality of the modules occurs only if Q* is obtained
from Q by a rotation about the point w = 0.
Indeed if D, D* are the doubly-connected domains associated with
Q, Q* as in Definition 8.3 and f(z), f* (z) are the functions for D, D* as
in Theorem 8.4, since m = m*, we have
M(D) = M(D*)
and thus by Theorem 8.4

f* (z) = eir~o f (eiß z)
oc,ß real. The correspondence of the boundary arcs of Q and Q* on

Jwl = R 0 then implies
8.4 For our applications we need certain limiting forms of the results
of § 8.3.
Theorem 8.5. Let G be a simply-connected domain in the w-plane of
hyperbolic type containing the origin. Let c (t) denote the level lines of the
Green' s function of G with pole at the point w = 0 continuously para-
metrized in terms of the positive real parameter t in such a way that c (t)
shrinks down to the origin as t tends to zero. Let D (t) be the doubly-connected
domain bounded by c (t) and the boundary B of G. Let D* (t) be the doubly-
connected domain obtained from D (t) by the circular symmetrization
determined by the origin and the positive real axis, the complementary
continuum of D (t) containing c (t) being taken first in the order of choice of
Definition 8.2. Let D* (t) have boundary components c* (t) and B* cor-
responding to c (t) and B respectively. Let G* be the simply-connected
domain bottnded by B* and containing the origin. lf G* is not obtained
from G by a rotation about the point w = 0, there exists a positive constant k
such that for t sufficiently small, 0 < t ~ t0 ,
M(D(t)) + k ~ M(D*(t))
k being independent of the values of t in question.
Let LI (t) be the doubly-connected domain bounded by c (t 0) and c (t)
where t 0 is a fixed positive value and 0 < t < t 0 • Let LI* (t) be the doubly-
connected domain bounded by c* (t 0) and c* (t). I t is clearly the domain
obtained from LI (t) under the given circular symmetrization. By
Theorem 8.4
M (D (t0 )) < M (D* (t0 ))
and by Theorem 8.3
M (LI (t)) ~ M (LI* (t)) .
Evidently
M(D(t)) = M(D(t 0)) + M(LI (t))
while by Theorem 2.6
M(D*(t));;:;; M(D*(t 0)) + M(LI*(t)).
Thus setting
k = M(D*(t0))-M(D(t0))
we have
M(D*(t)) ~M(D(t)) +k
for 0 < t ~ t0 •
We require also a similar extension of Corollary 8.2.

Theorem 8.6. Let ] be a simply-connected domain in the w-sphere for
which the origin determines exactly two boundary elements. Let the com-
plement of ] be the union of two continua K 1 and K 2 which have only the
01'igin in common. For 0 < p:;;; R 0 (R 0 > 0) let each circle jwj = p meet]
in just two open arcs. Let K~ and K: be obtained from K 1 and K 2 as in
Definition 8.2. The complement of Kt V K~ is a simply-connected domain
]* such that for 0 < p ;':;:; R0 each circle jwj = p meets ]* in fust two open
arcs. Let ], ]* be the respective images of the strip S : 0 < t < 1 in the
w-plane (w = s + i t) under mappings by the meromorphic univalent
functions q; (w), q;* (w) with the two boundary points of the strip at the
point at infinity corresponding to the two boundary points of the domain
at the point w = 0 in each case. U nder these mappings let the boundary
elements of ], ]* corresponding to the line t = 0 lie in Kv K; respectively.
We denote the images of the lines \J w = t and the segments ~w = s,
0 < Sw < 1 under g;(w) by c(t) and y(s) and under g;*(w) by c* (t) and
y* (s). W e assume that the open arcs y (s) and y* (s) tend to circular shape
as s tends to ± =· Let the circle jwj = p cut off in its exterior from J and
]* respectively the quadrangles Q (p) and Q* (p), a pair of opposite sides in
each case being given by the open arcs of intersection with the domain. Let
the modules of these quadrang/es be m ( Q (p)) and m (Q* (p)) in each case
for the class of curves joining the pair of opposite sides an Jw/ = p. Then,
ij ]* is not obtained from J by a rotation about the point w = 0, there
exists a constant k (k > 0) such that for p sufficiently small, 0 < p :;;; p0 ,
m(Q(p)) + l~m 2 (Q(p)):;;; m(Q*(p)),
k being independent of the values of p in question.
We need the following auxiliary result.
Lemma 8.3. Let Q (sv s 2) denote the reetangle cut off in the strip
S: 0 < t < 1 by the lines ~w = - s 1 , ~w = s 2, where s1 > 0, s 2 > 0,
w = s + it, and let m(Q(s1 , s 2)) be its module for the class of curves foining
its vertical sides. Let r be a continuum lying in S which is not a slit an
a line Sw = t, 0 < t < 1. For s1 , s 2 large enough that Q(sv s 2 ) contains I'
let the domain Q' (sv s2 ) be obtained from Q (sv s2) by removing F. Let
m(Q'(s1 , s 2 )) be its module for the class of curves lying in Q'(sv s 2 ) and
joining its boundary arcs an ~w =-Sv ~w = s2 • Then there exists a
constant q, q > 0, suchthat for s1 , s 2 sufficiently Zarge
m (Q' (sv s2)) + qm2 ( Q' (sv s 2)) :;;; m (Q (sv s 2))
with q independent of the values of s1 , s 2 but depending an the continuum r.

r
Indeed let s<10 ) ' s<20 ) be large enough that is contained in Q (s<o) s< 0l)
1 ' 2 .
Derrote Q' (s~ ), s~ l) by Q0. It is readily vcrified that
0 0
m(Q'(si0l, s~0 l)) < m(Q(si0l, s~0 )))

so that there exists a function eo (s, t) of integrable square over Q~ such

that
f !!o idwl ~ siO) + S~O)
c
for every locally rectifiable curve c lying in Q0and joining its boundary
arcs on ~w = - sf>, ~w = s~0> and such that
ff !,1~ d S d t < siO) + S~O) •
Q~
Now in the domain Q' (sv s 2) with si > sJ0>, i = 1, 2, we take the function
e(s, t) defined by
e(s, t) = e0 (s, t), (s, t) E Q0
e(s, t) = 1 (s, t) E Q' (sv s 2) - Qij.
Then
f e ldwl
c
~ sl + s2
for every locally rectifiable curve c lying in Q' (sv s 2 ) and joining its
boundary arcs on ~w =-Sv ~w = s2 • Thus
(s1+ s 2) 2 m (Q' (sl> s2)) ~ s1+ s 2- q
where
q = si0l + s~0 >- JJ (!~ d s d t .
Q'o
Since m (Q (sl> s 2)) = (s1 + s 2)-1 we have

m (Q' (sv s 2)) ~ m (Q (sl> s2) ) - qm2 ( Q (sv s 2))
from which the statement of Lemma 8.3 follows at once.
Consider now the curves c (t) and the domain bounded by c (t1), c (t2)
and w = 0 where 0 < t1 < t 2 < 1. Symmetrizing it in the same manner
as we did] we obtain a domain bounded by corresponding curves c' (t1),
c' (t 2) and w = 0. The curves c' (t) so obtained sweep out ]* for 0 < t < 1.
If the curve c' (t) were to coincide with c* (t) for 0 < t < 1 we would
verify by the same method as in the proof of Theorem 8.4 that ]* was
obtained from J by a rotation about the point w = 0.
Suppose then that a curve c' (t0) coincided with a curve c* (-r0 ), t 0 =!= 't0 ;
suppose for definiteness t0 > -r0 • Then for p small enough c (t0) divides
Q(P) into quadrangles QdP) and Q2 (p) where Q1 (p) meets curves c (t)
with t < t0 , Q2 (p) meets curves c (t) with t > t0 • Similarly c* (-r0) divides
Q* (p) into quadrangles Qt (p) and Q~ (p). In each case the quadrangle
is to have a distinguished pair of opposite sides on Iw! = p and the
module used below refers to the dass of curves joining this pair of sides.
Evidently Q* (p), Qi (p) are the quadrangles obtained by symmetrizing
Q (p), Q1 (P) according to Definition 8.3. In particular by Corollary 8.1
m(Q(p)) ~ m(Q*(p)) (8.10)
m(Qtfp)) ~ m(Qt(p)). (8.11)
Let 'lfJ(w), "P*(w) be the functions respectively inverse to q;(w),

rp* (w). Evidently the mapping w = 'lfJ (w) carries Q (p) onto a sub-
domain of S bounded by sides along the lines t = 0 and t = 1 together
with curves joining these lines which for p sufficiently smalllie arbitrarily
close to segments on ~w =-Sv 9\w = s 2 for suitable positive values
of s1 , s 2 [by our hypothesis on the curves y(s)]. The line t = t 0 divides
Q(sv s2) [in the notation of Lemma 8.3] into rectangles Q1 (sv s 2 ), Q2 (s1 , s2)
corresponding to Q1 (p), Q2 (p). We verify at once that
Similarly using the line t = To we get corresponding to Q* (p), Qf (p)

rectangles Q (sf, s:), Qi (sf, sri) satisfying
m (Qt(p)) = m (Qi (sf, sm + 0 ((si + s:)- 2) = s* T+o s*

1 2
+ 0 ((st + s:)- 2)
1
m(Q*(p)) = m(Q(si, s:)) + o((sf + s:)- 2 ) = s*+s*
1 2
+ o((si + s;:'}- 2).
From inequalities (8.1 0), (8.11) follows
_+to
sl Sz
~---/+•
sl
* + o((sl+
s2
s2)-2) + o((sf+ sri)-2)
or
Thus
m(Q(p)) ~ : 0 m(Q*(p))
0
+ o((sf + s:)- 2).
Since m(Q(p)), m(Q*(p)) tend to zero as p tends to zero this is much
stronger than the statement of Theorem 8.6.
Suppose, on the other hand, there is a curve c' (t0) not coinciding
with any curve c*(r). Let c(t0 ) divide Q(p) into quadrangles Q1 (p),
Q2 (p) as before. Then c' (t 0 ) divides Q* (p) into corresponding symme-
trized quadrangles Qi (p), Qri (p). Let r
be a continuum Oll c' (to) not
lying on a curve c* ('r), 0 < T < 1. For p small enough Twilllie in Q* (p).
Let then Q' (p) be the domain obtained from Q* (P) by deleting the
continuum r.
Let m(Q'(P)) be the module of this domain for the dass
of curves lying in it and joining its two boundary arcs on /w/ = p.
Let Q(sv s 2 ), Q(si, sri) be rectangles corresponding to Q(p), Q*(p) as
before. Let Q1 (sv s 2 ), Q2 (s 1 , s 2) be the rectangles corresponding to
Q1 (p), Q2 (P) into which Q(sv s2) is divided by the line t = t 0 • F or p small
enough "P* (F) willlie in Q(s{, s:). Let Q' (si, sri) be the domain obtained
from Q(sf, s~) by deleting 1p*(T) and let m(Q'(si, stl) be the module of
this domain for the dass of curves lying in it and joining its boundary
segments Oll 9\w = - s~, mw = s:, We verify directly (in our usual
notation for the various modules)
m(Q'(p)) ;s m(Q{(P)) + m(Qi(p))
m(Qi(P)) ;s m(Qt(p))
m(Q: (p)) ;s m(Q 2 (P))
m(Q1 (P)) = m(Q1 (sv s2)) + o((s1+ s 2)- 2)
m(Q 2 (P)) = + o ((s1 + s 2)- 2 )
m(Q 2 (sv s 2))
m (Q (p)) = m (Q (sv s2)) + o ((s1 + s 2)- 2 )
= m(Qt(P)) + m(Q 2 (P)) + o((s1 + s2)- 2)
m(Q' (p)) = m(Q'(s{, sri)) + o((si + si)- 2)
while by Lemma 8.3 for a suitable positive q and sj', si !arge enough
m(Q'(sj', si)) + qm2 (Q'(s{, si));;;; m(Q(sj', si)).
Since finally
m(Q*(p)) = m(Q(s{, s:J) + o((si' + s~)- 2 )
and m(Q(sv s2)) = (s1 + s 2)-1 , m(Q(sf, s~)) = (st + s;:J- 1 we
deduce the
existence of a constant k (k > 0, independent of p) suchthat
m(Q(p)) + km 2 (Q(p)) ~ m(Q*(p))
for p in a sufficiently small range, 0 < p ~ p0 • This completes the proof
of Theorem 8.6.
8.5 The results we have given on symmetrization have dealt so far
with domains in the ordinary sense, i. e., schlicht domains. However
they extend almost immediately to certain classes of RIEMANN domains.
We begirr by defining the classes with which we will be concerned.
Definition 8.5. Let SB1 denote the class of simply-connected Riemann
domains lying above the w-sphere and covering neither the origin nor the
point at infinity.
Definition 8.6. Let SB 2 denote the class of doubly-connected Riemann
domains each of which is obtained from a domain of class ~1 of hyperbolic
type by removing a continuum.
Definition 8.7. Let .fj1 denote the class of simply-connected Riemann
domains lying above the w-sphere and such that the total angular measure of
open arcs in the surface lying above a circle JzvJ = R (R an arbitrary
positive number) never exceeds 2n.
Evidently such a surface either covers simply the w-sphere or the
w-sphere punctured in one point or is of hyperbolic type.
Definition 8.8. Let .f) 2 denote the class of doubly-connected Riemann
domains each of which is obtained from a domain of class .f)1 of hyperbolic
type by removing a continuum.
Extension to RIEMANN domains 147
Definition 8.9. Let Q denote the class of quadrangles which have as

associated domain a simply-connected Riemann domain, for which a pair
of opposite sides are simple arcs lying above a circle Jw\ = R 0 and such
that the doubly-connected (Riemann) domain obtained by the process of
Definition 8.3 ( P the origin) belongs to class SB 2 or class ~ 2 •
Lemma 8.4. Definition 8.1 extends to domains of classes SB1 and ~1
( where P is to be the origin, A the positive real axis).
Here instead of the circle Jw\ = R lying in the domain we must
understand the domain covering the circle simply. For a surface of
dass ~1 this never occurs, thus the symmetrized surface is swept out by
open arcs (whose length may be infinite). In speaking of the length of
arcs lying above Jw\ = R we must, of course, understand that the
covering is counted with proper multiplicity. For a surface of dass ~1
the symmetrized domain is schlicht.
Definition 8.10. Let D be a doubly-connected domain of class SB 2 or .f> 2
obtained by removing a continuum K 1 from a Riemann domain 0\ of
respective class SB1 or .f>1 . Let the domain 0\* be obtained by symmetrizing 9\
with respect to the origin and the positive real axis. Let K'f be the continuum
an 9\* given by the arcs
on the circles or open arcs sweeping out 9\* lying above those circles Jw\ = R
above which lies a point of K1 where l1 (R) is the total angular Lebesgtte
measure of points of K 1 lying above Jw\ = R. Removing Kf from 0\* we
obtain a doubly-connected (Riemann) domain D* which will be called the
circular symmetrization of D (with respect to the origin and the positive
real axis).
Lemma 8.5. Definition 8.3 extends to quadrangles of class Q by
replacing the symmetrization of Definition 8.2 by that of Definition 8.10
for the doubly-connected domain obtained by the reflection process.
Theorem 8.7. For circular symmetrization with respect to the origin
and the positive real axis Theorem 8.3 and Theorem 8.4 remain valid for
doubly-connected domains of classes SB 2 and f> 2 . Corollary 8.1 and Corol-
lary 8.2 remain valid for quadrangles of class Q. Theorem 8.5 remains
valid for domains of class ~1 which are of hyperbolic type and cover ( simply)
a neighborhood of the origin.
We notice first that Theorem 8.1 extends in a natural way to surfaces
with self-intersections. Using the corresponding extension of Theorem8.2
we obtain the result of Theorem 8.3 for doubly-connected domains in the
classes ~ 2 and f> 2 and so Corollary 8.1 for quadrangles in Q. The uni-
valence of the functions f (z), f* (z) is not used essentially in the proof of
Theorem 8.4 thus this proof extends to the present circumstances for
domains in SB 2 and f> 2 • Corollary 8.2 then follows for quadrangles in Q.
In Theorem 8.5 we must now understand that the pole of the GREEN's
10*
function is at the point covering the origin. lts proof is then as before.
lt should be noted that in some of these results the symmetrized doubly-
connected domain might be degenerate, i. e., have infinite module.
Corollary 8.3. Let ] be a simply-connected Riemann domain which
satisfies all conditions of Theorem 8.6 except that instead of being schlicht it
belongs to class ß1 . Let every quadrangle Q(p) constructed from it as in
that theorem belang to class .Q. Then with a suitable interpretation of the
symmetrization of J the conclusion of Theorem 8.6 obtains.
The symmetrization of J is to be taken as generalizing that of
Theorem 8.6 in the same way as Definition 8.10 generalizes Definition 8.2.
8.6 A natural generalization of the concept of univalent function
is that of a function multivalent of a given order, say p (an integer).
This means that the function, defined in some domain, there assumes
no value more than p times (counted with proper multiplicity). In
treating certain classes of multivalent functions by the methods of the
extremal metric and symmetrization it is not more difficult to deal
with more general classes defined as follows.
Definition 8.11. Let us denote by F P' p a positive integer, the class of
functions regular in the unit circle, J zj < 1, which have power series expansion
about z = 0 of the form
f(z) = zP+ aP+lzP+l+ aP+ 2 zP+ 2 + · · ·
and which are circumferentially mean p-valent. By the latter term we mean
that if the mapping w = I (z) carries JzJ < 1 onto a Riemann domain 'R lying
over the w-plane the total angular measure of open arcs on ?\ lying over the
circle JwJ = R, alt R > 0, is at most 2n p.
Lemma8.6. If /EFP then (f(z))'lp is in F 1 where we choose the root
whose expansion about z = 0 is
z+ ~ ap+1 z2 + [ ~ aP+ 2 + 1
2p ( ~ -1) a! +I] z2+ · · ·. (8.12)
Since f (z) cannot vanish in jz[ < 1 except at the point z = 0 any
brauch of (/(z))''Pwill be regular in [z[ < 1. The remaining conditions for
membership in F 1 are automatically satisfied by this function. The
expansion (8.12) is verified directly.
Theorem 8.8. For f E F 1 the image of the unit circle E: [zj < 1 under
the mapping w = I (z) covers the circle [w[ < 1/ 4 • It leaves uneavered a point
with JwJ = 1/ 4 only if f(z) = z(1 + ei"'z)- 2, cc real.
Consider the quadratic differential
dw 2
Q(w) dw2=- w•(4w +I)
and the function /(z)=z(l-z)- 2 • Let R(r), 0<r<1, denote the

circular ring
r < [z[ < 1.
Multivalent functions 149
Let I EF 1 and suppose that I (E), the RIEMANN image of E under f, does
not cover the point w = be-üx, (J ~ 1 / 4. Let D(r) be the RIEMANN image
of R (r) und er the mapping w = -410 I (z). Evidently R (r) E ß 2 • Let D*(r)
be the circular symmetrization of D (r) as in Definition S.I 0. Then
2~ IQ (w)J'i,JdwJ is an admissible metric in the moduleproblern in D* (r)
for the dass of curves separating its boundary components. For a
function s (r) tending to zero with r, D* (r) will be contained in
/(R (r(I- e (r)))) andin the latter domain 21n IQ(w)J'i, JdwJ is the extrem-
al metric for the analogaus module problem. If the symmetrization of
I(E) (Lemma 8.4) does not coincide with /(E) we have [where M(D')
again derrotes the module of a doubly-connected domain D' for the dass
of curves separating its boundary components]
M(D*(r)) + k1 ~ M(/(R(r(I-s(r)))))
for r sufficiently small and a constant k 11 k1 > 0, independent of r
(Lemma 2.2). If the symmetrization of I (E) is not obtained from I (E)
by rotation about the point w = 0 we have
M (D (r)) + k2 ~ M (D* (r))
(Theorem 8.5, Theorem 8.7) for r sufficiently small and a constant k2 ,
k2 > 0, independent of r. Thus if either fo the preceding eventualities
fails we have
1 1
-2 -log-
n r
+k= M(D(r)) + k
• I 1
~ M(f(R(r(l- s(r))))) = Zn log r(l-s(;j}
for r sufficiently small and k positive and independent of r. This is

evidently impossible, thus l(z) must be a slit mapping z(l + ei"'z)- 2 •
The preceding result is due to HAYMAN [83, 84]. A similar result
is true for wider classes of functions, notably areally mean I-valent
functions [I79, 38, 113].
Corollary 8.4. For I EF P the image ol the unit circle E: Jzl < I under
the mapping w = l(z) covers each point in the circle !wl < (1/ 4 )P p times. It
does not cover a point with Iw I =( 1/ 4 )P p times only il I (z) = zP (I + ei"' z)- 2 P,
<X real.
This result follows at once from Theorem 8.8 and Lemma 8.6.
Theorem 8.9. Let f EF 1 . Then
(I ~r)• ~ 1/(z)i ~ -(1-~-rj• , izl = r, 0 < r <I

equality occurring on each side only lor I (z) = z (1 + ei"' z)- 2 , oc real,
respectively lor z = re-ia. and z = - re-i"'.
This result is due to HAYMAN [83, 84].

W e consider the quadratic differential
dw 2
Q (w) dw2= ws(d-w)
where d = - r(1 + r)- 2 and the function /(z) = z(1- z)- 2• Consider
also the quadratic differential in lzl < 1
Q' (Z) d Z2 = - dz•
z 2 (z+r) (z+r- 1 )
The trajectories of the latter are JoRDAN curves enclosing the origin,
separating it from the point z = - r and the circumference lzl = 1.
Let them be parametrized continuously by t, 0 < t < 1, so that as t tends
to zero the corresponding trajectory T (t) shrinks down to the origin.
Let E .. denote lzl < 1 slit along the segment - 1 < z ~ - r and let R (t)
be the doubly-connected domain bounded by T (t) and the boundary
of E,,. Let f EF 1, denote I (r ei 9 ) = c, suppose Iei ~ ldl and let D (t) be the
RIEMANN image of R (t) under the mapping w = \ ~ I I (z). Let D* (t)
be the circular symmetrization of D (t) (evidently D (t) E .f; 2). Camparisan
of the modules of D(t), D* (t) and /(R(t)) as in the proof of Theorem 8.8
then proves the left hand inequality in Theorem 8.9 tagether with the
corresponding equality statement.
To prove the right hand inequality we consider the quadratic
differential
dz 2
Q(w) dw2 = ws (d-w)
where d = r(1- r)- 2 and the function f (z) = z (1- z)- 2 • We consider
also in lzl < 1 the quadratic differential
Q" ( ) d z 2 = z• (z-r)dz•(z-r- 1 )
z
The trajectories of the latterare open arcs running from the point z = 0
back to that point and separating the point z = r from the circumference
lzl = 1 in addition to the segment- 1 < z < 0. I ts orthogonal trajectories
are JoRDAN curves enclosing the origin separating it from the point z = r
and the circumference lzl = 1. Let the orthogonal trajectories be para-
metrized continuously by t, 0 < t < 1, so that as t tends to zero the
corresponding orthogonal trajectory N (t) shrinks down to the origin.
Let E~ denote lzl < 1 slit along the segment- 1 < z ~ r. The intersection
of this domain with the exterior of N (t) then gives a quadrangle S (t)
for which a pair of opposite sides are given by the halves of N (t) symmetric
in the real axis.
Let IEFv denote l(rei9 ) = c, suppose Iei ~ ldl and let Q(t) be the
quadranglewhich is the image of eio S(t) under the mapping w =I: Il(z).
Let m (Q(t)) be the module of Q(t) for the dass of curves joining its pair
of opposite sides on J:JI(ei 9 N(t)). Fortsmall enough the cirde C(t)
centre the origin endosing JfJ I (ei& N (t)) but tonehing it will have lying
above it in Q (t) just two open arcs and the portion of Q(t) covering the
exterior of C (t) will give a quadrangle Q' (t) with a pair of opposite sides
given by these arcs and which satisfies Q' (t) E .Q. Let m (Q' (t)) be the
module of this quadrangle for the dass of curves joining its sides over
C (t). Let Q* (t) be the circular symmetrization of Q(t) as in Lemma 8.5
and let m (Q* (t)) be its module for the dass of curves joining its pair of
opposite sides on C (t). Let Q(t) be the image of S (t) under the mapping
w = /(z) and let m(Q (t)) be its module for the dass of curves joining its
pair of opposite sides on /(N(t)). Let ]* be the symmetrization of
f (eiO E;) in the sense of Corollary 8.3.
For a suitable positive constant K the metric K IQ(w) 1'/,ldwl is the
extremal metric for the module problem defining m (Q(t)). If ]* does
not coincide with /(E;) we deduce from Lemma 2.1 that fort sufficiently
small there exists a constant kl> k1 > 0, independentoft suchthat
m(Q*(t)) + k1 m2 (Q*(t));;;; m(Q(t))
If ]* is not obtained from I (eio E;) by a rotation about the point w = 0
by Corollary 8.3 there exists a constant k 2 , k 2 > 0, independent of t
such that for t sufficiently small
m(Q'(t)) + k m (Q'(t));;;; m(Q*(t)).
2 2
In any case evidently

m(Q(t)) ;o:; m(Q'(t));;;; m(Q*(t)).
Thus if either of the preceding eventualities fails we have
m(Q(t)) + km 2 (Q(t));;;; m(Q(t))
for t sufficiently small and k positive and independent of t. However
this is impossible since Q (t), Q(t) are conformally equivalent. Thus if
il(rei&)l ;;;;; r(1- r)- 2 equality must hold and I must be a slit mapping
z(l + ei"'z)- 2 • This completes the proof of Theorem 8.9.
Corollary 8.5. Let I EF p· Then
rP rP
(i +r)•P ;;;; ll(z)i ;o:; (l-r)•P , izl = r, 0 < r < 1,
equality occurring on each side only lor I (z) = zP (1 + ei"' z)- 2P, cx real.
This result follows at once from Theorem 8.9 and Lemma 8.6.
Theorem 8.1 0. Let f EF 1 . Then lor () real
!f'(r ei&)l ;o:; g~rl~ I(I-r)•:(reiB) I" (8.13)

where 0 < r < 1 and

1 +r'
Ii = 2 (1 + r) 2 •
Equality occurs in (8.13) only for the functions f (z) =~z (1 + ei"' z)- 2, rx real.
We consider the quadratic differential
Q(w) dw2= (w-lJ.)dw'

w2 (w-d) 2
where d = - r(1- r)- 2 on the w-sphere. This quadratic differential has

two special trajectories. The first T 1 lies along the positive real axis
between the point w = 1 / 4 and the point at infinity. The second T 2 runs
from the point w = 1 / 4 backtothat point and separates the origin from the
point w = d and the point at infinity. Tagether with their end points
these trajectories divide the w-sphere into two circle domains: <f1 con-
taining the origin and <f 2 containing w = d. All trajectories of Q(w) dw 2
in <r1 are JORDAN curves separa ting the origin from the points w = 1j 4,
w = d and the point at infinity and having a fixed length
in the metric IQ(w)l''• ldwl. Let these trajectories be parametrized

continuously by t, 0 < t < 1, so that as t tends to zero the corresponding
trajectory T 1 (t) shrinks down to the origin. All trajectories of Q (w) dw 2
in \r 2 are JoRDAN curves separating the point w = d from the origin,
w = 1 / 4 and the point at infinity and having a fixed length
a 2 = nr-1 (1- r) (1 + r)
in the metric IQ(w)l''•ldwl. Let these trajectories be parametrized
continuously by t, 0 < t < 1, so that as t tends to zero the corresponding
trajectory T 2 (t) shrinks down to w = d. Let R 1 (t), R 2 (t) be the respective
doubly-connected domains obtained by deleting T 1 (t), T 2 (t) and its
interior from <f1 , <f 2 • Let M 1 (t), M 2 (t) be the modules of Rdt), R 2 (t) in
each case for the dass of curves separating the boundary components.
Let fcz) = z (1 + z)- 2 and let fP (w) be its inverse defined in (E) i
(E the unit circle). Let f E F 1 not be one of the slit mappings z(1 +ei"'z)-2.
Let R~ (t), R~ (t) be the RIEMANN images of R 1 (t), R 2 (t) under the mapping
by -r(1-r)- 2 (f(reie))- 1 f(-eioiJ(w)), M~(t), M~(t) their modules for
the classes of curves separating the boundary components. We see that
R~ (t) E ß 2, R;(t) E ß 2 (also S8 2). Let Ri(t) be the circular symmetrization
of R~ (t), let R: (t) be the domain obtained by rotating the circular
symmetrization of R;(t) through 180° about the origin, let Mi(t), M:(t)
be their respective modules for the classes of curves separating their
boundary components. Evidently Ri (t), R: (t) are schlicht and do not
overlap. We readily verify

JJ IQ(w)l dudv = a~ M 1 (t) + a~ M 2 (t)
R 1 (t) UR,(t)
M~ (t) = M 1 (t) , M: (t) = M 2 (t)

Mt (t) ~ M~ (t) , M: (t) ~ M;(t).
Further there exists a constant k > 0 independent of t such that for t
sufficiently small
JJ IQ(w)l dudv ~ af M!(t) + a~M!(t) + k.

R~ (I) UR~ (t)
Finally
JJ IQ(w)ldudv~ JJ IQ(w)ldudv-
Rt (t) U Rt (t) R, (t) UR, (t)
I 2 I r
2";tallog f(rei6)(I-r)• -2";ta21og
I I 2 lr(I-r)f'(rei6)
(1 +r)f(rei6)
I+ o(1).
Combining this inequality with the above equalities and inequalities we
find
I 2 If(rei6) r(I-r)2 I+ 2n
I lr(I-r)t'(rei6) I
2
2"n allog a2log (I +r)f(rei6) < 0
or
(1 + r)21og Ir (reill) ( (:~~.) -·~ < 2 (1 + r 2) log lt(rei9) ( (I_:_r)") -·~.
From this the inequality (8.13) follows at once. It is evident that in
(8.13) equality holds for the slit mappings (at appropriate points). This
completes the proof of Theorem 8.10.
By a suitable modification of this proof we can show that for I in F 1
as for functions in S that
1/'(re i9)1 ~I (I +r)"f(rei6)

~ (I+r)a r
I•
where 0 < r < 1, (J real and
I +r•
V= 2 (I-r)" •
We will not pursue this line further here.
Corollary 8.6. Let I EF-». Then for (J real
IJ! -r)"l~-' I/ (r ei9)1_P_ +1

p-1
II' (re•o) I ~ p ____!__±_~:_3
(I-r) r
where 0 < r < 1 and

I +r"
f1- = 2 (I +r) 2 •
Equality occurs here only for the lunctions l(z) = zP(l + e•"'z)-2P, rx real.
This result follows from Theorem 8.10 and Lemma 8.6.
Corollary 8.7. Let I EFp. Then lorereal and 0 < r < 1
1/' (reiO)I:;:;;
·
p(l +~L
r(I-r)
ll(reiO)I .
Equality occurs only lor the lunctions I (z) = zv (1 + ei"' z)- 2 P, IX real.
This result is due to HAYMAN [83, 84]. It follows from Corollary 8.5,
Corollary 8.6 and the fact that p, is greater than 1.
Corollary 8.8. Let I E F p· Then lor e real and 0 < r < 1
II ' (re'.0 ) I :;:;; prP-I (1 +

r)
r(l-r) 2 P+ 1 •
Equality occurs only lor the lunctions I (z) = zP (1 + ei"' z)- 2 P, IX real.
This result follows from Corollary 8.5 and Corollary 8.7.
The attempt to extend Theorem 6.3 to functions in F 11 in the same
way that Theorem 8.10 extends Theorem 6.4 fails. This is not surprising
since no generallower bound for I/' (z) I can be found for functions in F 11
(other than zero).
By methods similar to the preceding one can obtain similar results
for bounded functions in F 11 and also further results on the possibility of
omitted values. However we content ourselves with the preceding
examples.
8. 7 Theorem 8.11. Let the lunction f (z) be regular lor lzl > 1 apart
lrom a simple pole at the point at inlinity where it has the expansion
l(z) = z +~+
z · · ·.
This lunction is then univalent in a sufficiently restricted neighborhood N
ol the point at infinity. Let I have the further property that il Cis a Jordan
curve in N separating the point at infinity from the circumference lzl = 1
then the image under the mapping w = f(z) of the doubly-connected domain
bounded by C and lzl = 1 has area not greater than the area of the domain
enclosed by I(C). Then
equality occurring only for the lunctions z + e2 i"'jz, oc real.

While this result does not come directly under the General Coefficient
Theorem, the proof of that theorem as given in §§ 4.4, 4.5, 4.6 when
applied to the special quadratic differential e- 2 i"' dw 2 shows at once that
9\ {e- 2 i"'a1 };;;; 1 (compare Theorem 6.10) with equality occurring only for
the slit functions z + e2 i"'fz. From this the result of Theorem 8.11 follows
immediately.
Corollary 8.9. Let I EF 11 and have expansion about the origin
f(z) = zP+ a p+l zP+l+ ap+2 zP+ 2+ · · · • (8.14)
Then
equality occurring only for the functions zP (1 + eia z)- 2P, IX real.
This result is due to SPENCER [179].
If f EF 1 and has expansion about the origin
f(z) = z + a2 z2 + a 3 z3 + ··· (8.15)

the function (! (z- 2))-'f, is defined for [z[ > 1, satisfies the conditions of
Theorem 8.11 and has expansion at the point at infinity
lj• a•
z--z-+ ....
Thus we have
with equality occurring only when f (z) is one of the functions z (1 + ei<>- z)- 2 ,
IX real. The result of Corollary 8.9 for general p then follows from
Lemma8.6.
8.8 Theorem 8.12. Let 0 < ri < 1, i = 1, 2. Then for 0 ~ t ~ 1 there
exists a function ft (z) E S depending continuously an the Parameter t and
such that the mapping w = ft (z) carries the unit circle [z[ < 1 onto an
admissible domain with respect to the quadratic differential
(w~~)w-c ) dw 2 , 0
Qt(w) dw 2 = w •( w- ~ t < t0
--::~----:-c-:--~c-
w• (w-b) (w-c)
d w2 , t -- t0
(w-a)
w"(w-b) (w-c) dw2' fo< t;;;; 1
where t0 is a certain value with 0 < t0 < 1 and
b = b(t) = ft(-rl)
c = c(t) = ft(r2)
a = a (t) > c , 0 ~ t < t0
a=a(t)<b, t 0 <t~1.
Consider the unit circle [z[ < 1 and the points - rv 0, r 2 , 1, -1 on

its diameter along the real axis. Let its upper semicircle be mapped
conformally on the upper half Z-plane with these points going into the
points Z1 , Z 2 , Z 3 , Z 4 , Z 5 (in ascending order of magnitude on the real
axis). Consider the function
z
C= K f [(Z- Z*) 2 /{(Z -Z1) (Z -Z2) 2 (Z- Z 3) (Z -Z4) (Z- Z 5 )}]'f, dZ
z,
where the root is chosen to have positive imaginary part between zl and
Z 2 on the real axis, K is purely imaginary with negative imaginary part
andZ* isareal value in the intervalZ4 ~ Z* ~ Z 5 (the proper cancellation
156 VIII. Symmetrization. Multivalent Fundions
being understood in the extreme cases). This function maps the upper
half Z-plane on a domain bounded by rectilinear segments of the following
nature. Let Av A 2, A 3 , A 4 , A *, A 0 be the images of Z 1 , Z 2, Z 3 , Z 4 , Z*, Zs.
Then A 1 A 2 isahalf-infinite horizontal segment with A 2 at the point at
infinity and ~C increasing as we go from A1 to A 2; A 2A3 is a half-
infinite horizontal segment, the value of SC on it being larger than on
A 1 A 2 and ~C decreasing as we go from A 2 to A 3 ; A 3 A 4 is a vertical
segment, SC decreasing as we go from A3 to A 4 ; A 4 A * is a horizontal
segment .~C increasing as we go from A4 to A *; A * A 5 is a horizontal
segment, ~C decreasing as we go from A * to A 5 ; AsA 1 is a vertical
segment, SC decreasing as we go from As to A1 . Exceptionally A * may
coincide with A4 or As when Z* coincides with Z 4 or Zs and the corres-
ponding segment reduce to a point.
Now let the domain bounded by the segments A 1 A 2, A 2A3 , A 3 A 4 ,
A 4 A 5 , AsA 1 (i. e. the domain obtained from the preceding by deleting
the slit penetrating to A *) be mapped conformally on the upper half
w-plane with A1 , A 2, A 3 , A 4 , A *, As going into Wv w2, w 3 , W4 , w*, Ws
where W2= 0 and W4 or Ws is the point at infinity according as snc is
smaller at A 4 or As (these points coinciding at infinity when A4 and As
coincide). Reflecting across the segments -1 < z < 1 and Wsw 1 w4 of
the real axis in the z- and w-planes we obtain a conformal mapping of
lzl < 1 onto the w-plane minus a forked slit. This mapping will be
assumed normalized so that ~; = 1 atz= 0. Then we denote w1 and
w 3 respectively by band c and whichever of w 4 or w 5 is not the point at
infinity by a (provided these points do not coincide).
We may take the parameter t, 0 ~ t ~ 1, in (1,1) continuous cor-
respondence with Z* so that t = 0 for Z*= Z 4 , t = 1 for Z*= Zs and
denote the corresponding function by / 1 (z). It is clear that this function
varies continuously with t in the usual sense of convergence. Evidently
also a, b, c vary continuously with t on the w-sphere. Also we see that
A 4 and As can coincide for just one value of t which we derrote by t0,
0 < t 0 < 1. Now / 0 (z) = z(1 + z)- 2 , / 1 (z) = z(1- z)- 2 so that a > c for
t = 0 thus for 0 ~ t < t 0 and a < b for t = 1 thus for t 0 < t ~ 1. If we
extend Cas a (non-single-valued) function of w to the whole w-plane by
reflection in the various segments w1 w 2 , w 2 w3 , w3 w4 , w 4 w 5 , Wsw 1 we see
at once that dC 2 is a quadratic differential on the w-sphere with simple
poles at b and c, a double pole at w = 0 and, when t =f= t 0 , a simple pole
at the point at infinity and a simple zero at a, being otherwise regular
and non-zero. Moreover this quadratic differential has the open recti-
linear segment from 0 to b as a trajectory. It thus coincides up to a
positive factor with the quadratic differential Q1 (w) dw 2 of our enuncia-
tion. The image of lzl < 1 under the mapping w = ft (z) is for t =f= t0
obtained by slitting the w-sphere along the trajectory of Qt (w) dw 2 from
a to the point at infinity on the real axis and along arcs of trajectories
joining a respectively to w* and w*, for t = t 0 by slitting the w-sphere
along the trajectory of Q1 (w) dw 2 through the point at infinity from w*
to w*o Thus in any case this domain is an admissible domain with
respect to Q1 (w) dw 2 This completes the proof of Theorem 8oi2o
o
809 Theorem 8oi3o Let 0 < r; < I, i = I, 2, and let I EF 1 o Then there
exists a value t, 0 ~ t ~ I, suchthat
llt(-rl)l = 11(-rl)l 0
Forthis value ol t
ll(r2)1 ~ ilt (r2)1
equality occurring only lor l(z) == l 1 (z)o
It is clear from Theorem 809 and Theorem 8.12 that given I EF 1
there exists a value t, 0 ~ t ;o;: I suchthat
From this point on in the proof we will understand t to have such a

valueo Let the w-sphere be slit for t =F t 0 along the closures of those
trajectories of Q1 (w) dw 2 which have limiting end points at a, for t = t 0
along the closure of the trajectory of Q1 (w) dw 2 through the point at
infinity and in any case along the segment b ~ w ;o;: Co The orthogonal
trajectories of Q1 (w) dw 2 in a suitable neighborhood of the point w = 0
are JoRDAN curves enclosing that point. Let the orthogonal trajectorieg
sweeping out such a neighborhood of w = 0 be parametrized continuously
by s, 0 < s < 1, so that as s tends to zero the corresponding orthogonal
trajectory N (s) shrinkg down to the origino The intersection of the
exterior of N (s) with the w-sphere slit ag above then determines two
quadrangleg each having a pair of oppogite gides on N(s)o We denote
these quadrangles by R1 (s), R 2 (s) so that R 1 (s) has the point c on itg
boundaryo Let M 1 (s), M 2 (s) be the respective modules of these
quadrangleg each for the dass of curves joining the pair of sides on N (s)o
Now let I EF1 and guppose that with / 1 as above ll(r2)1 ~ l/1 (r2 )1 but
that l(z) ig not identical with l 1 (z)o Let W1 (w) be the inverse of / 1 (z)
defined in / 1 (E) and let R~ (s), R~(s) be the RIEMANN imageg of R 1 (s), R 2 (s)
under the mapping by f(t:/J 1 (w))o Let M~(s), M~(s) be the modules of
these quadrangles corresponding to M 1 ( s), M 2 ( s) 0 Let C (s) be the circle
centre the origin enclosing f(t:/J 1 (N(s))) but tauehing ito For s small
enough there will be above C (s) in each of R{ (s), R~ (s) just two open
arcg and the portions of R{ (s), R; (s) covering the exterior of C (s) will
provide quadrangleg R~' (s), R;' (s) each with a pair of opposite sides given
by these two open arcso Let M~' (s), M;' (s) be the modules of R~' (s),
R;' (s) each for the dass of curves joining the pair of opposite sides over
C (s)o Evidently R'/ (s) EQ, i = I, 20 Let R: (s) be the circular
gymmetrization of R~' (s)o Let R: (s) be the quadrangle obtained from
the circular symmetrization of R~' (s) by rotation through 180° about the
origin. Evidently the domains of Ri (s), (s) are schlicht and non- R:
overlapping. Let Mi (s), M; (s) be the modules of Ri (s), R: (s) each
for the class of curves joining the pair of opposite sides on C (s).
The quadrangle R1 (s) is swept out by trajectory arcs of Qt (w) dw 2
all having the same length ~(a1 > 0) in the metric IQt(w)l'l•ldwl.
Similarly R 2 (s) is swept out by trajectory arcs of Qt (w) dw 2 all having
the same length a 2 (a 2 > 0) in this metric. Evidently av a 2 depend on s.
Then
JJ IQt(w)ldudv=aiM1 (s)+a;M 2(s).
R,(s) U R 2 (s)
Clearly
M~ (s) = M 1 (s) , M~ (s) = M 2 (s)
M~' (s) ;;:;; M~ (s) , M;' (s) ;:::; M 2 (s) .
On the other hand, since lft(-r1 )\ = l/(-r1)j and l/t(r2)1 :;o;; l/(r2)1 while
I (z)is not identical with I t (z), by Lemma 2.1 and Corollary 8.3 there
exists a constant k, k > 0, independent of s, suchthat
JJ IQt (w) I du dv ;;:;; ai M~' (s) + a~ k (M~' (s)) 2
R~(s) UR~ (s)
+ a~ M~' (s) + a~ k (M~' (s) )2 + o (I) .
Since however
ff IQt(w)l du dv;;:;; JJ IQt(w)l du dv + o(l).
R, (s) U R,(s) R~ (s)U R; (s)
the previous inequalities are inconsistent which means that we must have
ll(r2)1 :;o;; lft(r2)j
with equality only for I (z) ~ lt (z). This completes the proof of Theo-
rem 8.13.
Corollary 8.1 0. There is a unique function I t (z), 0 :;o;; t :;o;; 1, for which
lt (-r1) has a given value in the interval
rl < <- rl
(1-rl)" = W = (! +rl)•.
Corollary 8.11. Let 0 < r 1 :;o;; r 2 < 1 and let f E F 1 • Then
1/(-rl)l + l/(r2)1 :;o;; (I~·r,)' + (I ~1;J2 ·

If r 1 < r 2 equality occurs only for the function z(l- z)- 2 • If r1 = r 2
equality occurs only for the lunctions z (I ± z)- 2 •
Let lt(z) besuchthat lft(-r1 )1 = l/(-r1)1. Then
\1(-rl)\ + \f(r2)\ :;o;; \ft(-rl)\ + lft(r2)\
equality occurring only if /(z) ~ ft(z). Let ft(z) have power series
expansion at the origin
ft(z) = z + a 2 z2 + a3 z3 + · · ·.
Evidently the coefficients in this expansion are real thus an :;::; n. N ow
llt(-ri)I + lfthll = r2 + a2r~ + · · ·

+ r 1 - a 2 ri + · · ·
llt(-ri)I + l/t(r2JI ~ r2 + 2r~ + 3r~ + · · ·

+ r1 - 2ri + 3r~ + · · ·
r2 rl
~ (1-r 2 ) 2 + (1 +rJ'"
If r1 < r 2 equality can occur here only if an= n, all n, i.e., f(z) =z(l-z)- 2 •
If r1 = r 2 equality can occur here only if an= n, n odd, i. e.,
/(z) = z(1 ± z)- 2.
Corollary 8.12. Let I EF 1 , 0 < r1 ~ r 2 < 1, fJ real. Then
11(-rieiO)I + l/(r2eiO)I ~ (1_:_•r.)• + (1~'YJ2·

I f r1 < r2 equality occurs only for the lunction z (1 - e-io z)- 2 • I I r 1 = r 2
equality occurs only for the functions z (1 ± e-io z)- 2 •
Corollary 8.13. Let I EF 1 , 0 < r < 1. Then, lor lz1 1 = r
2r(1+r 2 )
1/(-zl)l + 1/(zl)l :;=:; 0-r•p-
equality being attained only for the functions z (1 ± e-io z)- 2 with fJ =arg z1 •
This result, in the special case of univalent functions and without thc
uniquencss statement, is due to GoLUSIN [48].
Corollary 8.14. Let I EF 1 and have expansion at the origin given by
(8.15). Then
Equality is attained for the functions z(1 + eiocz)- 2 , a real.

Indeed Jet z = reio, 0 < r < 1, 0 real. Then by Corollary 8.13
2r (1 +r 2)
11(-z) + l(z)l ~ 1/(-z)l + ll(z)l;:;; {l=r•)• ·

Thus
or
0\(aae2iO) ~ 3.
Proper choice of 0 gives Iaal ~ 3.
Corollary 8.15. Let f EF v and have expansion at the origin given
by (8.14). Then
I a~+ • + 2lp ( ~- 1) a~ + II ;:; 3.

Equality is attained for the functions zP (1 + eirx z)- 211, a real.
160 Bibliography
The inequality follows from Lemma 8.6 and Corollary 8.14. The
equality statement is immediate.
Corollary 8.16. Let f E F,P and have expansion at the origin given
by (8.14). Then
Equality is attained for the functions zP (1 + ei"' z)- 2P, oc real. For p > 1
it is attained only for these functions.
By Corollary 8.9 and Corollary 8.15 we have
(8.16)
or
By the equality statement in Corollary 8.9 equality can occur in (8.16)

only for the functions zP (1 + ei"' z)- 2P when p > I.
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Author Index
The indications are limited to specific reference to the publications of an author
Ahlfors, L. V. 8, 9, 14, 24, 35, 55, 84 Kolbina, L. I. 124
Alexander, J. W. 4 Komatu, Y. 7, 85
Kufarev, P. P. 124
Basilevitch, I. E. 10 Kung Sun 88
Bergmann, S. 9
Bermant, A. 8 Landau, E. 4
Besicovitch, A. S. 17 Landsberg, G. 36
Beurling, A. 8, 9, 12, 14, 24, 84 Lavrentiev, M. A. 10, 123
Bieberbach, L. 2, 3, 7, 125 Lebedev, N. A. 120
Biernacki, M. 10, 12 Littlewood, J. E. 3, 4
Bochner, S. 9 Löwner, K. 3, 4, 5, 6, 87
Bohr, H. 7
Brödel, W. 85 Marty, F. 10
Montel, P. 12
Courant, R. 7, 8, 10 Morse, Marston 32, 36
Dieudonne, J. 4 Nehari, Z. 123

Douglas, J. 10 N evanlima, R. 4
Eilenberg, S. 125 Ozawa, M. 85
Faber, G. 3, 7, 12 Paley, R. E. A. C. 4
Fales, A. E. 124 Fesch!, E. 6
Fekete, M. 5 Pick, G. 2, 4
Foos, Sister Barbara Ann. 123 Pirl, U. 123
Plemelj, J. 2
Garabedian, P. R. 11, 149 P6lya, G. 12, 130
Golusin, G. M. 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 92, 98, Posse!, R. de 77
106, 107, 119, 123, 159 Prawitz, H. 5, 139
Grad, A. 11, 112, 119
Gronwall, T. H. 2, 4 Rengel, E. 8, 71
Gross, W. 7, 27 Rinow, W. 55
Grötzsch, H. 5, 7, 8, 9, 23, 49, 71, 73, Robinson, R. M. 7, 87
77, 78, 84, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, Rogosinski, W. 4, 125
100, 101, 103, 105, 108 Royden, H. L. 71, 149
Grunsky, H. 5, 9, 10, 102, 108, 110
Schaeffer, A. C. 6, 7, 11, 35, 42
Hadamard, J. 10 Schiffer, M. 5, 10, 11
Hayman, W. K. 12, 13, 149, 150, 154 Shah Tao-Shing 123, 125
Hensel, K. 36 Shiffman, M. 54
Hersch, J. 27 Spencer, D. C. 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 35, 36, 37,
Hilbert, D. 77 38, 42, 48, 149, 155
Hopf, H. 55 Springer, G. II
Hurwitz, A. 2, 8 Study, E. 4
Szasz, 0. 4
Jenkins, James A. 5, 6, 9, 13, 25, 32, 35, Szegö, G. 3, 5, 9, 12, 130
36, 37, 38, 47, 48, 85, 92, 123, 124,
125, 149 Teichmüller, 0. 8, 17, 24, 25, 28, 35, 36,
Julia, G. 10 48, 54, 55, 56, 57, 120
Timoshenko, S. 133
Kerekjart6, B. von 85
Koebe, P. 1, 2, 72, 84 Wolontis, V. 12
Subject Index
admissible family of domains 49 Grötzsch's argument 94
admissible family of functions 50 Grötzsch's Iemmas 22, 23
admissible homotopy 49
admissible metric 14, 25 H 27
A -normalization 14
area theorem 2 inner closure 36
Basic Structure Theorem 37 L-normalization 14

Eieherbach conjecture 3 locally rectifiable curve 13
Bieberbach-Eilenberg functions 125 Löwner's method 6
c 27 method of contour integration 9

circle domain 37 method of the extremal metric 7
circular symmetrization module 14, 25
of doubly-connected domains 131 moduleproblern 13
of open sets in three dimensions 131
of quadrangles 131 i orthogonal trajectory 27
of Riemann domains 147, 148
of simply-connected domains 130 positive quadratic differential 36
circumferentially mean p-valent func- Prawitz's method 5
tions 148 property (P 8 ) 81
class SB, of domains 146 p-valent 12
class SB, of domains 146
class ß1 of domains 14 7 Q-metric 52
dass ß 2 of domains 14 7 quadrangle 16
class K of functions 125 quadratic differential 27, 35
dass 0 of quadrangles 147
conformal invariance of modules 15 reduced module 24
conformally invariant metric 13 ring domain 37
convex functions 4 rotation theorem 3, 6, 119
critical point of quadratic differential 27
S I
deformation degree 50 schlicht 1
distortion theorem 2 l:(D), l:'(D), .l:0 (D), 1:, 1:'
starlike functions 4
end domain 36
strip domain 37
Extended Theorem 70
extremallength 14
Teichmüller's coefficient results 120
extremal metric 14, 25
Teichmüller's principle 48
finite critical point of quadratic diffe- Three Pole Theorem 47
rential 27 trajectory 27
F-set 36
functions f, ISS , uniqueness of extremal metric 15
! univalence 1
General Coefficient Theorem 51
geodesie 54 variational method 10

Univalent Functions and Conformal Mapping

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Univalent Functions and Conformal Mapping

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ERGEBNISSE DER MATHEMATIK

UND IHRER GRENZGEBIETE

SPRINGER-VERLAG BERLIN HEIDELBERG GMBH

SPRINGER-VERLAG BERLIN HEIDELBERG GMBH

ISBN 978-3-662-34177-3 ISBN 978-3-662-34447-7 (eBook)

BRÜHLSCHE UNIVERSITÄTSDRUCKEREI GIESSEN

Notre Dame, June 1957 ]AMES A. ]ENKINS

He conjectured that the value of x is actually 1 / 4 . He also proved

21k-l 1 -(~~::tn~ ll(z)l;;;; {C~:::r- ;k 1l

He studied in that work also various other problems. In 1916 he stated

VI. II I ES and has the power series expansion at the origin

equality occurring only lor the lunctions z (1 + ei"' z)- 2 , ()(real.

BIEBERBACH also obtained qualitative results on the region of possible

IAnl < e n , n = 1, 2, ....

While there have been any nurober of alternate proofs, modifications

equality occurring only lor the lunctions z(1 + eirxz)- 2 , rx real.

f(z) = z + A 3 z3 + A 5 z 5+ · · · + A 2n+I zZn+l+ • • · (1.3)

there exists a constant K independent of I and n such that

1.5 LöWNER's method applies basically to the family of functions

equality occurring only lor the lunctions z(l + ei"'z)- 2 , oc real.

Various other interesting results have been obtained by LöWNER's

conformal invariants (called extremallengths or modules) as the solutions

Following GRUNSKY the method of contour integration has been used

However the variational method first becarne a consistent tool for

this inequality being best possible.

pansion (1.1) there held [an[ ~ n:l .

conjecture goes let it be noted that GoLUSIN [55] had considerably

related tothat of FABER [84]. As an extension HAYMAN [85] obtained

Modules and Extremal Lengths

Definition 2.2. A curve on a Riemann surface ~ is called locally

is defined and such that Ae(~) and

arenot simultaneously 0 or oo. Then we designate the quantity

If PA is not void we have

this metric is called an extremal metric.

2.2 We give now some of the most basic properties of modules.

e' (z') = e(q; (z')) I9?' (z') I

J e(z) ldzl =Je' (z') ldz'l (2.1)

LQ' (F') == g.l. b. J e' Idz' I

are not simultaneously 0 or oo is not void. Thus a module m (F') is

We observe first of all that although there is no measure defined on ~

Moreover 1/ 2(rh*(z) + e2*(z)) ldzl is an admissible metric with

f f (_e1(~)_ + ~!_(:)_)• dx dy + f f (-e~ (z)- e~ (:)_)• dx dy = m (F)

Since (! E V(R), by FumNr's Theorem we can integrate f edy with

respect to x over (0, l) and obtain

ring C in the z-plane defined by

Then F has module m (F) equal to -21n log ~.

Since e E L 2 (C) as before we can integrate f e d q; with respect to r over

rnetric (2 n [z/)-1 fdz[. This is uniquely deterrnined up to sets of rneasure

Then F' has module m (F') equal to 2 njlog 2.

Hence 2 nflog~is the minimal value of Ae(C) for

= 2 nflog 2. The extremal metric in Cis given by (Jz[log~)-l

0 < x < a, 0 < y < b

for almost all xin (/, g). Then

ff ridxdy ~ a (2c-b) + 2 (d-c) (g-f).

Inserting this in inequality (2.3) we have the result of the lemma.

r1 < [z[ < r 2 (0 < r 1 < r 2)

for almost alt r in (/, g). Then

J J flr dr d f{! ~ (Zc2- _ll_

Indeed writing (2.9) as

and integrating with respect to r over (/, g), writing (2.8) as

Inserting this in inequality (2.4) we have the result of the lemma.

J0 J (!2 r d r d rp ~ -21n log -r

r1 < lzl < r 2 (0 < r1 < r 2 )

Moreover 1/ 2(rh(z) + e2(z)) ldzl is an admissible metric with