CULTURE o IDEAS- It is comprised of man’s perception of
the physical, social, and cultural world.
CULTURE is a means through which people convey both their
unique characteristics and common attributes with others.
Culture exists anywhere humans exist, and no two cultures are
exactly the same.
KINDS OF CULTURE
 MATERIAL CULTURE- Refers to the concrete and
tangible things that man creates and uses. This kind of
culture is the area of anthropological study.
 NON-MATERIAL CULTURE- Refers to the non-
material things or intangible objects which the person
uses, follows, professes, or strives to conform. This kind
of culture is the area of sociological study.
NON-MATERIAL CULTURE
 BELIEF- These are man’s perception about the reality
of things and are shared ideas about how the
environment operates.
o TWO KINDS OF BELIEFS:
o SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEF- These are not
based on scientific evidences.
o SCIENTIFIC BELIEF- These are phenomena
and are based on experimentation and research
studies.
 KNOWLEDGE- It is a body of facts and beliefs that
people acquire and accumulate over time. It consists of
information about places, events, and people.
 NORMS- Cultural norms are the standards we live by.
They are the shared expectations and rules that guide
behavior of people within social groups. Cultural norms
are learned and reinforced from parents, friends,
teachers and others while growing up in a society.
o NORMS ARE OFTEN DIVIDED INTO
SEVEN TYPES:
o FORMAL NORMS (MORES)- The standards
of behavior considered the most important in
any society.
o INFORMAL NORMS (FOLKWAYS)-
Standards of behavior that are considered less
important but still influence how we behave.
o LAWS- Formalized social norms enacted by
people and are enforced formally by a special
political organization.
o VALUES- Abstract ideas of what are desirable,
correct, and good that most members of society
share.
o LANGUAGE- System of words and symbols
used to communicate with other people
o FASHIONS, FADS, CRAZES-
 FASHION-follows a special pattern of
behavior such that it spreads form the upper
level of society downward.
 FADS- are either verbal or non-verbal.
Examples are body piercing and tattooing.
 CRAZES- are sometimes called rages or
special epidemics. Examples are hair
coloring, manicuring and nail polish.
 SANCTIONS- Prescribed norms of conduct exposed
by society to an individual for him to conform to moral
standards and accept those that are favorable to a group
o TWO KINDS OF SANCTIONS:
o FORMAL SANCTIONS- Prescribed norms of
conduct that are written guide for individuals to
conform with.
o INFORMAL SANCTIONS- Prescribed norms
of conduct which are transmitted by word of
mouth from one person or group to another.
CULTURE AND SOCIETY
 Culture and society are intricately related. This is
because through culture, people and groups define
themselves, conform to society's shared values, and
contribute to society.
 A culture consists of the “objects” of a society, whereas
a society consists of the people who share a common
culture. The cultural bond may be ethnic or racial,
based on gender, or due to shared beliefs, values, and
activities. The term society can also have
a geographic meaning and refer to people who share a
common culture in a particular location.
TWO CATEGORIES OF CULTURE
 REAL CULTURE includes the values and norms that
are followed by a culture. It involves an adaptable value
system that is used mostly as a set of guidelines for
preferred behavior. Real culture can be observed in our
social life.
 IDEAL CULTURE includes the values and norms that
a culture claims to have. It involves an idealized,
uncompromising value system that dictates perfect
behavior. Using ideal culture as a standard, you are
either right or wrong. It is the goal of the society.
However, it can never be achieved fully because some
part of it remains out of practice.
CULTURAL EVOLUTION
 Cultural evolution simply denotes cultural development
and progression. Cultural evolution is an evolutionary
theory of social change. It follows from the definition of
culture as information capable of affecting individuals'
behavior that they acquire from other members of their
species through teaching, imitation and other forms of
social transmission.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
1. Culture is learned and acquired- Culture is not instinctive
nor a part of biological equipment of man. It is acquired
through the senses and experiences.
2. Culture is adaptive or dynamic- Culture is always
changing. New ideas, procedures, and techniques are added,
modified or discarded. People must be prepared and ready to
conform to these changes.
3. Culture is integration- By integration, it means that there is
a tendency for individuals to fully appreciate those elements in
culture that are best for them and these are very often
integrated in their personality and become a part of their
behavior.
4. Culture is shared and transmitted - To continuously
preserve culture, it is best to share to other people or to transmit
it to the next generation, or else it will die a natural death.
Culture is transmitted through language.
5. Culture is based on symbols- Symbols means something
that stands for something else. They only have meaning when
people in a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art
are all symbols. Language is the most important symbolic
component of culture.
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
6. Culture is cumulative- Certain features of culture have been
retained today and they are modified and innovated to make
them new and updated. Thus, man’s modification and
innovation are learned from already existing culture in the past.
7. Culture is ideational- Culture is an ideal pattern of behavior
which the members are expected to follow. Thus, the members
of society see society from the standpoint of culture.
8. Culture gratifies human needs- Culture continues to exist
if it satisfies human needs biologically and psychologically. An
individual is likely to follow and observe cultural techniques
that satisfy his needs.
9. Culture is social- Culture is a group product developed by
many individuals interacting in a group. The habits and
knowledge of the members in a group are shared by other
members.
ADAPTATION OF CULTURE
1. PARALLELISM- May take place in two or more
different places. Ex. The domestication of dogs, and
other animals may have semblance in other places.
2. DIFFUSION- This refers to behavioral patterns that
pass back and forth from one culture to another. Ex.
Food eating practices, marriage and wedding
ceremonies, burials rituals, feast celebrations.
3. CONVERGENCE- When two or more cultures are
fused or merged into one culture making it different
from original culture
4. FISSION- When people break away from their
original culture and start developing a different culture
of their own.
5. ACCULTURATION - Individuals incorporate the
behavioral patterns of other culture into their own
either voluntary or by force. Voluntary acculturation
occurs through imitation, borrowing, or personal
contact with other people.
6. ASSIMILATION- When the culture of a larger
society is adopted by a smaller society, that smaller
society assumes some of the culture of the larger or
host-society.
7. ACCOMODATION- When the larger society and
smaller society are able to respect and tolerate each
other’s culture even if there is already a prolonged
contact of each other’s culture.
CIVILIZATION- Any complex society characterized by
urban development, social stratification, symbolic
communication forms (typically, writing systems).
FACTORS THAT AFFECT AND INFLUENCE THE
RISE OF CIVILIZATION
1. ECONOMIC SYSTEM- is an organized way in
which a country allocates resources and distributes
goods and services across the whole nation or a given
geographic area.
2. POLITICAL SYSTEM- the set of formal legal
institutions that constitute a “government” or a “state.”
3. RELIGION- the belief in and worship of a
superhuman controlling power, especially a personal
God or gods.
4. LEGAL SYSTEM- refers to a procedure or process
for interpreting and enforcing the law.
5. EDUCATION- A discipline that is concerned with
methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-
like environments as opposed to various non-formal
and informal means of socialization.
STEREOTYPES- was first used by journalist Walter
Lippmann in 1922 to describe judgement made about others
on basis of their ethnic group membership.
• In social psychology, is any thought widely adopted about
specific types of individuals or certain ways of behaving
intended to represent the entire group of those individuals or
behaviors as a whole.
• Generalized because one assumes that the stereotype is true
for each individual person in the category.
• Create a barrier that leads to prejudice making one assume
they know a person just based on a stereotype.
• Derives from the Greek words (stereos), "firm, solid" and
(typos), impression, hence "solid impression on one or more
idea/theory."
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
STEREOTYPING
ADVANTAGES- Stereotypes can be useful if you are in a new
situation and need to make a quick judgment and fast decisions.
For example, if you have never been around a member of
royalty before, you might stereotype them as being formal and
reserved, which will help you to respond to them in a respectful
manner to follow their behavior.
- Stereotyping can be seen as simplifying our
surroundings so they are easier to understand. Stereotypes
enable you to categorize people into groups, which allows you
to form expectations about people and situations making life
more predictable and easier to understand.
DISADVANTAGES- The downside of using a stereotype to
make a judgment about someone is that it might be completely
misguided and incorrect, causing you to act differently towards
the person which can offend them.
- Stereotyping can create problems in many social
situations like the workplace, at school or in the local
community. For example, in the workplace if a female boss
were to manage a group of men. The female might feel that she
has to prove that she is capable to do the job because of the
negative stereotyping that suggests that women are less
capable, and the men might in turn assume that she is bossy
and incompetent, this then creating negativity for her in the
company.
5 TYPES OF STEREOTYPES
1. RACIAL PROFILING- One of the more common
stereotype examples is stereotypes surrounding race. For
example, saying that all Blacks are good at sports is a
stereotype, because it's grouping the race together to indicate
that everyone of that race is a good athlete.
2. GENDER PROFILING- There are also some common
stereotypes of men and women. Example: Men are the
"backbone”. Women aren't as smart as a man.
3. CULTURES STEREOTYPE- Stereotypes also exist about
cultures a country as a whole. Example: All Arabs and
Muslims are terrorists. All Blacks outside of the United States
are poor.
4. GROUPS OF INDIVIDUALS- A different type of
stereotype also involves grouping of individuals. Skaters,
Goths, Gangsters, and Preps are a few examples. Most of this
stereotyping is taking place in schools. Example: All blonds are
unintelligent. All teenagers are rebels.
5. SEXUAL STEREOTYPES- Sexual stereotypes, on the
other hand, suggest that any feminine man is gay, and any
masculine woman is a lesbian. Those who believe gay
stereotypes may also believe that homosexuality is immoral,
wrong and an abomination.
PREJUDICE- refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or
hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation
(Rothenberg, 1992) can have very serious effects, for it can
lead to discrimination and hate crimes
•is feeling hatred for or expressing suspicion toward people
who belong to a group, race, religion, or sexual orientation
•unjustified reluctance, unfriendly feelings towards someone or
something wrong
TYPES OF PREJUDICE
 RACISM – belief that a particular race is superior or
inferior to another, that a person’s social and moral
traits are predetermined by his or her inborn biological
characteristics.
 SEXISM – prejudice based on sex. Ex. Men are
superior sex than women
 CLASSISM – prejudice based on social class.
 HOMOPHOBIA – dislike against homosexual people
 NATIONALISM – prejudice based on nationality.
 RELIGIOUS PREJUDICE – prejudice based on
religion or religious beliefs.
 AGEISM – prejudice based on sex.
 XENOPHOBIA – having fear on unfamiliar.
PREJUDICE as a Barrier
Our cultures are immensely divers, creative and rich
with unique approaches to problem solving, yet they also form
the basis for power-based, adversarial, cross-cultural conflicts,
leading to stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination
“Prejudice is the gateway to hurtful and intentional racism,
homophobia and inferiority and superiority complex.”
Prejudice creates a barrier between the persons who
were prejudiced and the perpetrators. A person who
experiences prejudice is denied a chance to explain who they
are and to share their story. While the impact of prejudice to
perpetrators is that it limits the persons potential to experience
others culture.
CONSEQUENCES o BEHAVIORAL/OPERANT
 Creation of stigma CONDITIONING (SKINNER)
 Health consequences  Occurs when a response to a stimulus
is reinforced
 Crime and Domestic violence
 Social protests How does behaviorism applies to education?- Using
 Displaced persons behaviorist theory in the classroom can be rewarding for both
 Genocide students and teachers. Behavioral change occurs for a reason;
students work for things that bring them positive feelings, and
WAYS TO REDUCE PREJUDICE for approval from people they admire. They change behaviors
to satisfy the desires they have learned to value. They generally
 Empathy – try to become more empathetic to
avoid behaviors they associate with unpleasantness and
members of other groups. develop habitual behaviors from those that are repeated often
 Laws and Regulations – passing laws and regulations .(Parkay & Hass, 2000).
that require fair and equal treatment for all groups of
people. Critiques of BEHAVIORISM
 Awareness – gaining public support and awareness for  It does not account for all kinds of learning, since it
disregards the activities of the mind
anti-prejudice social norms.
 It does not explain some learning-such as the
 Open minded – making people aware of the recognition of new language patterns by young
inconsistencies in their own beliefs. children
 Interaction – increased contact with the members of  Research shows that animals adapt their reinforced
other social groups patterns to new information

CONCLUSION COGNITIVISM
We depend upon our ability to place people, ideas, and  study of the mind and how it obtains, processes, and
objects into different categories in order to make the world stores information. (Stavredes, 2011)
simpler and easier to understand. We are simply inundated with  response to behaviorism
too much information to sort through all of it in a logical,  not all learning occurs through shaping and changing
of behaviors
methodological, and rational fashion. Being able to quickly
 Jean Piaget was one of the most influential cognitive
categorize information allows us to interact and react quickly, psychologist of Human development can be outlined in
but it also leads to mistakes. Prejudice and stereotyping are just terms of functions and cognitive structures. Piaget did
two examples of the mental mistakes that result from our many experiments on children’s way of thinking and
tendency to quickly categorize information in the world around concluded that human beings go through several
us. distinct stages of cognitive development. Each stage
involves the acquisition of new skills and rest upon the
THEORIES OF LEARNING successful completion of the preceding one.
NIKKI MANTYLA - “If we are all teachers, everyone gains  He identified four development stages:
more.” o Sensorimotor stage - (birth – 2 y/o)
o Preoperational stage- (ages 2 – 7)
WHAT ARE THE THEORIES OF LEARNING? o Concrete operations- (ages 7 – 11)
1. Behaviorism o Formal operations - (ages 11 – 15)
2. Cognitivism
3. Social Learning Theory FOUR PRINCIPLES CITED IN COGNITIVISM
4. Social Constructivism  IMPORTANCE OF READINESS
5. Multiple Intelligence  MOTIVATION FOR COGNITIVE ACTIVITY
6. Brain-Based Learning
 AWARENES
 INTELLIGENCE AS AN ACTION
BEHAVIORISM- focuses on objectively
observable behaviors
IMPACT ON LEARNING
 discounts any independent activities of the mind
 CURRICULUM- Educators must plan a
 Learning as nothing more than the acquisition of
developmentally appropriate curriculum that enhances
new behavior based on environmental conditions
their student’s logical and conceptual growth
o CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (PAVLOV)
 INSTRUCTION- Teachers must emphasize the
 Occurs when a natural
critical role that experiences or interactions with the
 reflex responds to a stimuli
surrounding environment plays in student learning
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY- Observational learning
occurs when an observer’s behavior changes after viewing the
behavior of a model.
An observer’s behavior can be affected by the positive or
negative consequences - called vicarious reinforcement or
vicarious punishment- of a model’s behavior.
Several guiding principles behind social leaning theory:
1. The observer will imitate the model’s behavior if the
model possesses characteristics
2. The observer will react to the way the model is treated and
mimic the model’s behavior
3. A distinction exists between the observer’s “acquiring” a
behavior and “performing” a behavior
4. Learning by observation involves four separate processes:
attention, retention, production and motivation
5. Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning
of a model’s behavior; production and motivation control
performance
6. Human development reflects the complex interaction of
the person, the person’s behavior, and the environment.
The relationship between these elements is called
reciprocal determinism
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM- Grew out of and in response
to cognitivism and was framed around Metacognition.
Knowledge is actively constructed
 Learning is:
o A search for meaning by the learner.
o Meaning requires understanding of wholes as
well as parts
o The Responsibility of the Learner
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
 Developed by psychologist Howard Gardner
 There are a least seven ways that people have of
perceiving and understanding the world
 Gardner labels each of these ways as distinct
“intelligence” – in other words, a set of skills allowing
individuals to find and resolve genuine problems they
face.
 Gardner identified the following:
 Verbal-Linguistic
 Logical-Mathematical
 Visual-Spatial
 Body-Kinesthetic
 Musical-Rhythmic
 Interpersonal
 Intrapersonal
BRAIN-BASED LEARNING
 This learning theory is based on the structure and
function of the brain. As long as the brain is not
prohibited from fulfilling its normal processes, learning
will occur.
 CORE PRINCIPLES:
 Brain is a parallel processor.
 Whole Body Learning
 A search for meaning.
 Patterning
 Emotions are critical.
 Processing of Parts and Wholes
 Focused Attention and Peripheral Perception
 Conscious and Unconscious Processes
 Several Types of Memory
 Embedded Learning Sticks
 Challenge and Threat
 Every brain is unique
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
 The application of skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes
that were learned in one situation to another learning
situation.
 The first place to practice transfer of learning is the
School. The purpose of the school is to develop
student’s skills and knowledge necessary for
functioning effectively inside and outside the school.
 In a new learning environment, for an example, a
working environment, it is necessary to have work-
related skills and knowledge to function properly in a
working environment. Instead of learning from the
scratch in the first day of working, acquired skills and
knowledge from school can be used to increase the
speed of learning to make it easier to adapt and perform
better.
TYPES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING
1. Positive Transfer - when learning in one situation
facilitates learning in another situation, for example,
skills in playing Mobile Legends facilitate learning to
play better gaming performance in other games of the
same gaming genre.
2. Negative Transfer - when learning of one task makes
the learning of another task harder, for example, skills
in playing Mobile Legends on smart phones hinders the
learning of skills in playing in a desktop
3. Neutral or Zero Transfer - when learning of one
activity neither facilitates nor hinders the learning of
another task, for example, skills in Mobile Legends in
no way affects learning in Applied Auditing and other
accounting subjects.
4. Near Transfer - transfer between very similar contexts
or skills and knowledge are applied the same way every
time the skills and knowledge are used, for example, a
person who knows how to drive a car can transfer these
existing skills to learn how to drive a bus.
 5. Far Transfer - transfer between contexts that seem
alien to one another or skills and knowledge being are
applied in situations that change., for an example, a
person who learned the principles of wind flow to design
a windmill can transfer that knowledge to direct the sail
on a sailboat.
6. Lateral transfer - learning of one kind facilitates
learning of the same level in other situations or in other
contexts, for an example, knowing Filipino should
facilitate one’s learning of Spanish because many words
are similar in the two languages.
7. Vertical transfer - learning of the lower level helps in
learning at higher level or acquires new knowledge or
skills by building on more basic information and
procedures, for an example, the way our curriculum is
structured requiring us to finish a perquisite subject in
order for us to be qualified to take a higher level subject.
b. Auditory learners best understand new content
through listening and speaking in situations
such as lectures and group discussions.
c. Read & Write learn best through words being
able to translate abstract concepts into words
and essays
d. Kinesthetic learners best understand through
tactile representation through figuring things
out by hand
4. Manner of teaching – teaching methodologies can help
or hinder the transfer of learning considering that
learners have differing ways to best understand

THEORIES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING

1. Theory of Mental Discipline- It tells that education is
a matter of training or disciplining the mind through
vigorous mental exercises. The theory assumes that
those training can make an individual effective in all
area where a given faculty is employed.
2. Theory of Identical Elements- According to Edward
Thorndike, transfer of learning occurs from one
situation to another in which there are most similar or
identical elements such as: content, method, aim, or
attitude present in both situations where the degree of
transfer increases as the similarity of elements increase.
3. Theory of Generalization- Formulated by Charles
Judd assumes that what is learnt in task ‘A’ transfers to
task ‘B’, because in studying task ‘A’, the learner
develops a general principle which applies in part or
completely in both ‘A’ and ‘B’. Better transfer can be
possible when one can understand the principle.
4. Theory of Configuration- Transfer of learning occurs
from one situation to another when generalization,
concept or insights developed into a single learning
situation is employed in other situations, not as parts, but
in a holistic manner.

FACTORS THAT WOULD AFFECT SUCH TRANSFER

OF LEARNING IN SCHOOL
1. Mental ability of the learner – affects the learner’s rate
and difficulty of learning
2. Attitudes and efforts of the learner – involves
willingness to learn
3. Nature of the learner
a. Visual learners prefer the use of images, maps,
and graphic organizers to access and understand
new information