BOILER QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q. What is boiler?
Ans. According to Indian Boiler Act 1923, a boiler is a closed pressure vessel / steam generating unit with
minimum capacity of 22.70 liters, including all mountings and accessories or we can say that the boiler is a steam
generator which convert chemical energy of fuel into heat energy which is utilized for steam generation .The
steam can be generated as per desired pressure and temperature.

Q What are the boiler mountings?

Ans. The boiler mountings are used for safe and efficient operation of boiler, these are placed in out side of the
boiler.
1. Safety valve.
2.pressure gauge.
3.Water level gauge glass.. Pressure gauge.
4. Start-up vent.
5.Air vent.
5.Manhole.

Q. What are boiler accessories?

Ans. These are the integral part of boiler which help to run the boiler most efficiently These are,
1. Super heater.
2. Economizer.
3.Air pre- heater.
4.ID and FD fans.
5. Ash handling system.
6.Dosing system.
7. Soot blower.
8.De super heating system.

Q. What is turn down ratio of boiler?

Ans. It is the operating range of boiler from maximum capacity to minimum capacity in which the boiler can run
efficiently without any external fuel support . The higher turn down ratio greater the efficiency of boiler. For
example if the boiler is designed 80mw and can operate up to 20mw without any external fuel support and any
variations of parameter then the turn down ratio is 80/20=4.

Q. What is boiler efficiency?

Ans. It is the ratio of heat output to heat input of the boiler.
Boiler efficiency= Heat output / heat input *100.
=steam flow (enthalpy of steam -enthalpy of feed water) / coal flow * gcv.
For example if there is a 80mw boiler with 540 dig centigrade of main steam temperature, feed water
temperature of 300 dig centigrade , coal flow 56 ton, gcv 4000 kcal/kg then the boiler efficiency will be
=307(826.28-242.58)/56*4000=80%.

Q. What is foaming of boiler?

Ans. It is the generation of foam In boiler due to high concentration of solids, organic matter, bubbles are build up
on the surface of boiler water and passed out with the steam. This is generally caused due to high concentration of
solids in boiler.
Q. What is priming of boiler ?
Ans. It Is the carrying amount of droplet water in the steam, witch leads to carryover of Salt crystals on the super
heater and turbines. priming may be caused due to sudden change of load and maintaining of high level of water.
Prevention of priming and foaming :-
The best remedy for foaming and priming carryover is the proper blow down of TDS. The continuous blow
down should be regulated to maintain the TDS at 3,000 to 4,000 ppm. More blow down means less TDS
but more blow down is the more loss of the boiler so the blow down should be within control level.

Q. What are boiler losses?

A. Generally the boiler efficiency is considered as 85%,here are the boiler losses considered as,
1. Heat loss in dry flue gas loss-10.7%.
2. Heat loss due to moisture in fuel - 2.2 %.
3. Heat loss due moisture in air - 0.38 %.
4. Heat loss due to formations of water from H2 in fuel - 4.4%
5. Heat loss due to conversion of C to CO- 0.53%

Q. what is critical point of steam?

Ans. It is the point at which all water vapor converts to steam .The critical point occurs at a temperature of 374
deg & 224.6 kg/cm2 .The point is called critical point and the pressure, temperature at this corresponding
saturation temperature is known as critical pressure and critical temperature.Here the density of steam and
water will remain same.

Q. What is evaporation ratio of Boiler?

Ans. It the ratio of quantity of steam generation in kg/hr to quantity of fuel consumed in kg/hr.
Evaporation ratio = quantity of steam generation/quantity of fuel consumed.For example quantity of steam Is 310
ton/hr and fuel is 55 ton/hr then the evaporation ratio is 5.63. Evaporation ratio is also known as steam fuel
ratio.A drop in evaporation ratio indicates drop in boiler efficiency.Boiler evaporation ratio depends on fuel
quality. Higher calorific value of fuel having higher evaporation ratio.
Value of evaporation ratio for different types of boiler is listed as-
a) Coal fired boiler- 4.0-6.0.
b) Oil fired boiler- 13.0-14.5 .
c) Gas fired boiler- 11.0-13.

Q. what is acid due point in boiler ?

Ans.The temperature at which the formation of sulfuric acid in the boiler is known as acid due point,It is generally
in between 130-140 deg celsius. As fuel contain sulfur dioxide (SO2) & H2O at certain temperature both are
condense together and sulfuric acid(H2SO2) is formed.
It will corrode the boiler tubes.To avoid acid due point we can use,
1>FD fan re circulation system.
2> By using steam coil air pre-heater (SCAPH).
3> FD air bypass system.

Q. What is slagging or fouling in boiler ?

A.Slagging is the formation of molten or partially fused deposits on the furnace surface or radiation zone . Fouling
is the deposition of fused particle on convection zone such as super heater & re- heater.

Q. What is proximate analysis of coal ?

Ans.it is the analysis of coal in which we can find moisture,volatile matter,fixed carbon & ash.we can found above
parameter as,
moisture-Take 1gm of coal sample heat in a woven at 105 deg for 01 hr.
Moisture + volatile matter- Take 1gm of coal sample heat in a woven at 950 deg for 07 minute.
Ash- Take 1gm of coal sample heat in a woven at 720 deg until the coal is completely burnt.
 Q. What is the ultimate analysis of coal ?
A. This is the most accurate method of coal analysis.In this analysis we can found the components of the mass of
carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,nitrogen,sulfur,moisture,ash.
so (c+h+o+n+s+m+a)= 100% mass.

Q. What is gross calorific value and net calorific value of coal?

Ans. 1.calorific value:- It is the amount of heat liberated with a unit mass of coal for 1g Kcal.
2.Gross calorific value:-It is the amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion of unit weight of fuel with
subsequent cooling of product(moisture/water vapor) . G.C.V is more than N.C.V.
3. Net calorific value :- It is the heat produced in complete combustion when the product of combustion are
allowed to escaped.
N.C.V = G.C.V - Latent heat of water vapor.
N.C.V = (G.C.V-0.09x587)cal/gm.

Q. What are the heat transfer mediums

Ans. There are generally three medium as,
a) Conduction:- Here the heat is transferred through molecules. The molecules move from one part to another
part of the substance. Liquid are the good conductor where as vapor and gaseous are poor conductor of
conduction medium.
b) Convection: - Here the heat is transferred through movement of heated medium. The heated medium moves
from one place to another place due to density difference. This medium is used in boiler furnace.
b) Radiation: - Here the heat is transferred through gasses or vacuum. The heat transfer depends on the fourth
power of body’s absolute temperature.

Q. What is boiling?
Ans. There are two boiling process used in medium heating.
a) Nucleate boiling: - Here the heat added in such a manner that the heat received from the inner wall of the
container and the droplets are individually converted into steam bubbles. As the bubbles grow the size they move
to upward due to lighter density. Other bubbles take their space and the process continues till the container
heated.
b) Film boiling: - This is called film boiling, because a bubble film is created at the inner surface of the container. If
the heat flux added is greatly increase to a certain value the bubbles are adjacent to each other instead of
detached and a film is formed at the inner wall of the container. This bubble film act as a poor conductor of heat.
The bubbles get super heated and finally increase the temperature of container and may lead to failure of
container / tube. The deviation of boiling process from nucleate boiling to film boiling is known as departure from
nucleate boiling (DNB).

Q. What are the circulations are used in boiler?

Ans. There are three types of circulation is generally used in boiler as,
a)Natural circulation:- This circulation happen due to density difference of the two medium. In boiler the two
medium are water and steam, as steam is lighter than the water it pushes to upwards flow of water steam mixture,
the steam is separated in drum and water comeback through down comer to again water wall. This circulation use
thermo- siphon principle. This circulation limited to operating pressure below 175 kg/cm².
b) Assist circulation:- In this circulation the medium moves through a mechanical pump. The pump overcome the
frictional loses in the tube. This type of circulation used pressure beyond 175 kg/cm² .The pump is placed in
between the down comer and bottom ring header of water wall.
c) Forced circulation / once through system:- This system used in boiler above critical pressure. Here the feed
water is directly fed from the beginning of the circuit to end of the circuit without circulation. No drum used in this
system. Super critical boilers are designed for once through system.

Q. What is stoichiometric combustion?

Ans. It is defined as the theoretical combustion in which fuel is burnt completely. It is used to determine the
actual theoretical air required for a proper combustion.
Q. What are the types of boiler?
Ans. There are two types of boiler is generally used,
a) Water tube boiler:- Here water is flowing through the tube. The hot gasses pass through tube and heat transfer
takes place. Now a day’s most of boiler are water tube boiler.
b) Fire tube boiler:- Here hot gas passes through the tube and tube is immersed with water. Heat transfer takes
place from the hot flue gasses and steam is collected from top of cell. This boiler used in for small steam demand.
The solid combustible hot gas settle inside the tube which reduce heat transfer.

Q. What are the types of economizer is used in boiler?

A. There are two type of economizer used in boiler as,
a) Steaming economizer:- Here some of the water is converted to steam and the steam-water mixture flows
through the economizer. This type of economizer used in high percentage of feed water to avoid scaling inside the
tube.
b) Non-steaming economizer:- In this type of economizer only water flows through the circuit.

Q. What is the draft and types of draft used in boiler?

Ans. The draft is defined as pressure difference in between a system. There are generally three types of draft used
in boiler,
a) Forced draft: - Here force draft (FD) fan is used to maintain the draft in boiler. Here the draft inside the boiler
would be always positive draft.
b) Induced drought: - Here induced drought (ID) fan is used to maintain the draft in boiler. The pressure inside the
boiler would be always negative.
c) Balance drought:- Here both FD and ID fan is used to maintain the drought inside the boiler. The drought at the
tip of the burner will be zero. This type of drought is used in maximum boiler.

Q. What is super critical boiler?

A. The boiler which works the pressure above the critical pressure is known as super-critical boiler. This boiler
works in the principle of once through system. There is no drum only separator is used for separating steam from
water during partial load

Q. What is (HGI) Hard Grove Index of coal?

Ans. It is the measuring unit through which the hardness of coal can be determined. Higher value of HGI means
coal can be easily grinded. The HGI of lignite coal is up to 120 where as the HGI of bituminous coal is 45 to 60 so
lignite coal can be easily grinded than bituminous coal. The HGI is inversely proportional to grinding power.

Q. What are the factors affecting for a coal mill performance?

Ans. This depend on the no of factors such as,
a) Grindability index of coal.
b) Fineness of coal
c) Moisture content of the coal
d) Size of raw coal.
e) Mill component wear.

Q. What are the advantages of (PF) pulverized coal fired boiler than the other boiler?
Ans. Here is the advantage of using pulverized coal fired boiler as,
a) Pulverized coal burners act like gas so the fire can be easily controlled.
b) Cheaper low grade coal can be burnt easily.
c) High combustion efficiency.
d) Load can be varied quickly.
e) Quick and smooth light up of boiler.
f) Flexibility in firing to meet fluctuating load.
Q.What is soot blowers and their types?
Ans. The soot blower is a equipment through which the deposition of soot in boiler is removed. There are two
types of soot blower is generally used,
a) Steam inject soot blower:- Here the steam is used as the cleaning medium. The steam flow through a pipe and
nozzle, strikes at the surface of tube and removes the soot. Here three soot blowers are generally used as i) long
retractable soot blower ii) Wall soot blower iii) Rotary soot blower.
b) Sonic soot blower: - This type of soot blower is used to remove soot by using low energy and high frequency
sounds. They produce non-destructive sound waves which hit at the surface of tube wall and remove the
deposited soot. By using this type of soot blower erosion and corrosion of tube can be avoided. Steam loss can also
be avoided. The frequency of sound in this type of soot blower is ranging from 60 HZ to 350 HZ.

Q. What is foaming of boiler?

Ans. It is the generation of foam In boiler due to high concentration of solids, organic matter, bubbles are build up
on the surface of boiler water and passed out with the steam. This is generally caused due to high concentration of
solids in boiler.

Q. What is priming of boiler ?

Ans. It Is the carrying amount of droplet water in the steam, witch leads to carryover of Salt crystals on the super
heater and turbines. priming may be caused due to sudden change of load and maintaining of high level of water.
Prevention of priming and foaming :-
The best remedy for foaming and priming carryover is the proper blow down of TDS. The continuous blow
down should be regulated to maintain the TDS at 3,000 to 4,000 ppm. More blow down means less TDS
but more blow down is the more loss of the boiler so the blow down should be within control level.

Q. what is the effect of soot deposits in a boiler?

Ans. a) The deposited soot act as a poor conductor of heat which reduce the heat transfer rate and increase
flue gas temperature.
b) The deposits block the flue gas path which increase the drought loss.
c) The deposit may lead to corrosion.
d) Due to falling of large size of soot it damage the tube in dry ash conveying system.

Q. What are the methods are used for steam temperature control in boiler.
Ans. We can control steam temperature by,
a) Using gas recirculation method-Hot flue gas is circulated for maintain steam temperature.
b) By providing excess air- By providing excess air it reduce the furnace temperature for some timing hence control
temperature.
c) Burner tilting method- Here the tilting of burner are provided by a pneumatic cylinder. The burner can be tilted
30° up and down for control temperature.
d) Attemporation control-This is the best method for temperature control in boiler. Here the attemporator are
provided to spray water in steam in steam pipe line. Ceramic thermal sleeves are provided to avoid thermal shock
due to temperature difference of steam and spray water.
e) Elevation of fuel firing – The temperature is controlled by choosing upper or lower elevation of fuel burner.

What is the cold startup procedure of boiler?

Ans. Pre check up for cold start up of boiler :-
1) Check all maintenance work are completed and all permit are returned.
2) Check all foreign materials has been removed vfrom the pressure parts
3) Check all access doors are closed.
4) Check all equipments are trial run successfully.
5) Check all interlock test and prior test to startup are completed.
6) Check no jamming in rotary equipment , lubrication oil , cooling water system is normal.
7) Check all the oil level meter are in operation.
8) Check all the position of valve is normal.
9) Check HFO & LDO pump are running in re circulation.
10) Fill the deaeretor with initial filling line.
Conform the position of the following valves:-
1) All blow down and drain valves on boiler and water wall should be closed condition.
2) All boiler and super heater filling valves are closed condition.
3) Soot blower master steam valve should be closed condition.
4) Main steam line stop valve should be closed condition.
5) De-super heater spray valve should be closed condition.
6) Drum vents should be open condition.
7) Super heater header drains should be open condition.
8) Fill the boiler with initial filling line and observe the water coming from the vent of economizer, drum vents, and
super heater vents sequentially.
9) CBD and IBD drains should be closed condition.

Start Boiler light up:-

1) Start the (ACW) industrial cooling water system.
2) Start the instrument air compressor.
3) Start the APH motor it that is rotary APH.
4) Put the auxiliary steam system (PRDS) in operation for oil heating.
5) Start the ID and FD fan.
6) Start the scanner air fan.
7) Start the HFO/LDO pump with recirculation.
8) Adjust the fan speed and opening of dampers , increase the air flow up to 30% of total air flow.
9) Maintain the furnace draft of approximately -4 mm.
10) Start boiler feed water pump and keep drum level as per purge permissive.
11) Make sure all purge permissive are satisfying and start purge for 5 minutes.
12) Start the oil burners by maintaining furnace draft.
13) Visually check the flame of the oil burner is that healthy or not.
14) When prepare for heavy fuel firing, be sure that atomizing steam is in service and oil temperature reach to
permissive value.
15) Change the position of oil guns on each elevation for uniform heating of furnace.
16) Increase the furnace temperature by 5 deg c per minute.
17) The firing should be continued nearly 08 hours.
18)Start the HP dosing pump with minimum stroke.
19) Observe the drum upper and lower metal temperature increase uniformly.
20) Close the drum vents when drum pressure reaches to 2 kg/cm2.
21) Observe the expansion reading of boiler within limit.
22) Close the main steam line vent when the pressure reaches to 5 kg/cm2.
23) Charge the auxiliary steam line and connect to common header if available.
24) Check all drains of the boiler should be closed condition.
25) Slowly open the main steam line bypass valve.
26) Observe all condensate removed from line and open slowly main steam valve to turbine and observe
hammering of steam line.
27)Charge the sample cooler line and ask D.M plant operator to check all the parameter of water and steam.

TURBINE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q. What is steam turbine?

Ans.The turbine is a rotary machine which converts heat energy of steam into mechanical energy. The steam
contain both pressure and temperature known as enthalpy .
Working- When steam allowed in the turbine the kinetic energy of steam at the expense of (enthalpy) is convert to
mechanical energy. As the steam moves over the blades due to change of direction and centrifugal force of
isometric expansion causes to rotate the blade.
Type of steam turbine:- There are generally two types of steam turbine.
1. Impulse turbine- Here the steam is expanding in the fixed nozzle and the pressure drops at each stage. The high
velocity of steam entering in the nozzle does work in the moving blades which causes shaft to rotate. The main
features of this turbine are maximum pressure drops in the nozzle.
2. Reaction turbine- In this type of turbine the pressure is dropped in both fixed and moving blades. The both fixed
and moving blades act like a nozzle. Work done is obtained due to impulse effect (Reversal of direction of high
velocity steam) plus reaction effect of (Expansion of steam) trough the moving blades. The velocity of steam is
proportional to the square root of heat drop in the nozzle.

Q.What are Classifications of steam turbine:-

Ans. The steam turbine are classified as under,
1. According to number of cylinder-
a) Single cylinder.
b) Double cylinder.
c) Three cylinder.
2. According to steam flow :-
a) Axial flow turbine-Here the steam flows parallel to the axis of turbine.
b) Radial flow turbine- Here the steam flows perpendicular to the axis of the turbine.
3. According to the method of governing:-
a) Throttle governing-Steam enters trough the throttle valves.
b)Nozzle governing- steam enters through two or more nozzles.
c) Bypass governing- Here the steam is divided two or more stages of turbine.
4. According to the principle of action:-
a) Impulse turbine.
b) Reaction turbine.
5. According to the heat balance arrangement:-
a) Condensing turbine-Here the steam is condensed through a condenser .
b) Back pressure turbine- The exhaust steam is used in the purpose of industrial or process heating purpose.
6. According to pressure used:-
a) Low pressure turbine.
b) Medium pressure turbine.
c) High pressure turbine.
7. According to shaft arrangement.
a) Tandem compound -Here the shaft are arranged in single shaft.
b) Cross compound – Here the shaft are arranged to drive different generators.
8. According to casing:-
a) Single shell casing.
b) Double shell casing.

Q. What Is turbine heat rate?

Ans. It the ratio of heat input to MW generated in kcal/kWh.
= steam flow(enthalpy of steam-enthalpy of feed water) / MW.

Q. What are the turbine losses?

A. The turbine losses are mention here as,
a)Tip Leakage loss- This loss is happen due to the clearance in between the fixed and moving blades.
b) Friction loss- This loss is due to the fluid friction in nozzle and rotor blades.
c) Leaving loss- This loss is considered due to the leaving of steam in last stage of blade without doing further
useful work.

Q. why maximum steam turbine double shell casing is provided?

Ans.The double shell is preferred because,
. a) For quick start up of turbine.
 b) Less stress developed in the casing due to double casing.

Q. What are the types of condenser used in steam turbine?

Ans. There are two type of condenser is general used in steam turbine as,
a) Jet condenser: - In this type of condenser exhaust steam and cooling water is directly mixing together. Here
very high quality of cooling water is needed. The quantity of cooling water required is very less as compared to
surface condenser.
b) Surface condenser:- Here the cooling water is flowing through tube shells and the exhaust steam is cooled
through the contact of cooling water tubes.

Q. What is vacuum?
Ans. The vacuum can be defined as a state of very low pressure or we can say that a space of no matter. It is below
the atmospheric pressure and measured in (mmHg).

Q. What is the effect of high vacuum in Turbine?

Ans. We can't maintain very high vacuum in steam turbine because,
a) Turbine last stage is designed with 12% wet steam ,very high vacuum will lead to increase wetness in last stage
so it will reduce the mechanical strength of turbine last blade as the volume of steam increase.
b) Due to high wetness corrosion of last blade will increase.
c) The condensate water will goes to under cooling due to low saturation pressure so more coal and sensible heat
required to rise the temperature of condensate.
d) Due to high vacuum condenser tube may be compressed.

Q. What is the effect of low vacuum in a steam turbine?

Ans. By maintaining vacuum in a turbine the work done of turbine will be increase because vacuum will reduce the
back pressure of the turbine hence there is more pressure difference in between the turbine and more work
done.Vacuum helps to convert of steam to water by providing low saturation temperature.

Q. What is gauge pressure and absolute pressure?

Ans. Absolute pressure :- It is the pressure which is zero-referenced against vacuum.
The absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure :- It is the pressure which is zero reference to atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure = absolute pressure – atmospheric pressure.

Q. What is Electro - Hydraulic governing control of turbine?

Ans. Now a days most of the turbine speed is controlled through this type of governing. It is the governing system
in which the turbine speed is controlled by electrical sensing and hydraulic control. This type of governing provides
very faster speed response than the other governing. The turbine speed is measured through a electrical speed
transducer mounted on the HP end of the turbine rotor.

Q. What is eccentricity of steam turbine?

Ans. It is defined as the deviation between the center axis of the shaft to outer diameter of the turbine rotor .This
happen due to uneven cooling of turbine after shutdown condition. Due to this effect the shaft may be got
permanent damage and the fixed blade may touch to moving blades. The eccentricity is measured when the
turbine speed is <240 rpm .

Q. What is the NAS value of oil ?

Ans. The NAS stands for National Aerospace Standard, is used to find the contamination of oil. The NAS value is
maintained 6 for turbine oil servo-46.The water concentration of oil should not exceed more than 300 ppm.
Methods of oil sampling:- The oil sample is always taken from a upward pipe with continuous flow. The sample
taken between the pump and filter.
Q. What is diaphragm of a steam turbine?
Ans. The diaphragm is used in steam turbine to prevent leakage steam passing through fixed and moving blades. It
is the partition in between the fixed blade and moving blade of steam turbine. Generally labyrinth seals are used
for diaphragm. One half of diaphragm is fitted into the top casing and another half is fitted into the bottom casing.
It works as a seal in between fixed and moving blade. It increase the turbine efficiency.

Q. what are the Turbine losses?

Ans. Here are the turbine losses are defined as,
a) Tip leakage loss: - This loss is happen due to small amount of steam passing in between the clearance of fixed
blade and moving blade. The labyrinths are provided for sealing of fixed and moving blades. Some steam passes
through this labyrinth clearance without any work done.
b) Disc windage loss:- This is the friction loss due to the surface friction created on the disc.
c)Secondary loss:- This loss is due to friction on the casing wall and tip of the blade.
d) Wetness loss:- The turbine is designed for 12 % of exhaust steam. If the wetness of steam increase id absorb the
energy due to water droplets and second thing is it make erosion at the last stage of the blade.
E) Loss due to lancing wire:- As the lancing wire is provided at the last stage of turbine blade to provide mechanical
strength , the production of losses in blade efficiency because of passage area they block.

Q. What is the function of a condenser in turbine?

Ans. :-It save the DM water as the steam is converted to water and reuse.
:- It provide high vacuum so that heat rejection takes place from steam to water.
:- It give space for storage of condensate.

Q. What is dummy / balancing piston in steam turbine?

Ans. It is one part of the turbine used to neutralizing the axial thrust of turbine rotor.As the pressure drop at each
stage of turbine blade it produce axial thrust at the same direction of steam flow. So it is necessary to balance the
shaft. It is placed before the first stage of turbine. This is fixed with the turbine shaft. The steam enter in between
the balance piston and first stage of turbine and give a reaction force to the balancing piston opposite to the axial
thrust hence it counter balance the turbine shaft.The diameter of the balancing disc is designed in a such manner
is that it can oppose the force acting on turbine shaft.

Q. What are the types thrust bearing are used in rotating machine
Ans. There are generally four types of thrust bearings are used as,
a) Tapered bearing.
b) Babbitt faced bearing.
c) Tilting pad bearing.
d) Roller bearing.

Q. What is the critical speed of turbine.

Ans. It is the speed at which the natural frequency of turbine shaft is close/near to the operating frequency of the
shaft. The turbine shaft material has its own natural frequency, when we rotate the turbine rotor at some speed
the both frequency are near equal so it produce a high vibration and noise at this particular frequency. To avoid
critical speed we have to accelerate the turbine speed if the turbine speed hold at this frequency then a high
vibration occurs in the shaft. The value of critical speed is defined by the designer of turbine. For example we can
say that critical speed of a 150 MW , 3000 rpm steam turbine may be 1800 rpm , 2200 rpm and 2500 rpm.

Q. What are the couplings used in steam turbine.

A. There are three types of coupling are generally used as,
a) Flexible coupling:- This couplings are used where there is small misalignment and axial movement of shaft .This
coupling require lubrication.
b) Semi flexible coupling:- These couplings are generally used in between turbine and generator. No lubrication
require for this coupling.
c) Rigid coupling:- This couplings are provided in between the cylinders such as in between HP- LP and between
LP- IP cylinders.

Q. Why turbine kept in turning gear after shutdown?

A.To avoid hogging (bending downwards) or sagging (bending upwards) effect of turbine turning gear is used after
shutdown . There is a temperature difference in lower casing and upper casing of turbine after shutdown if we
kept turbine shaft stationary then it will bent turbine rotor, to avoid this the turbine should be rotate in slow
speed. There are generally three type of turning gear used ,
a) Electrical turning gear – Electrical motor is used in this type of turning gear to rotate the turbine less than 30
rpm . A reduction gear is used to reduce the speed.
b) Hydraulic turning gear- In this system a hydraulic turbine wheel is mounted on the shaft of the turbine. High
velocity oil is supplied from jacking oil pump which rotate the blade of hydraulic turning gear hence the turbine
rotor. This system will start after the starting of JOP. Most of advanced turbine use this system.
c) Hand barring system – If the electric or hydraulic system fails then hand barring is done with slow speed through
a lever and handle.

Q. What is turbine stress evaluator (TSE)?

A. It is the instrument used to online monitor of turbine mechanical stress. It calculate the temperature difference
of turbine upper and lower casing. It is the algorithm system based on the comparison of actual calculated stress.

Q. Why gland steam system is provided in steam turbine?

A.The main function of gland sealing system is , it prevent the escape/leakage of steam at the HP side of turbine
and prevent the ingress of air at the LP side of turbine. It is provided at the turbine shaft. Labyrinth seals are
generally used for sealing purpose. It is generally made of aluminum, bronze and mild steel. Radial and axial
clearance is provided in between the seal. Steam throttled in every stage and gain kinetic energy at the expense its
pressure energy. So pressure dropped in every stage and it provide sealing of shaft. By providing the labyrinth
clearance very small the loss can be minimized. Collecting pockets are provided at other end of sealing in which the
steam can be collected and can be used in gland steam blower.

Q. What is the differential expansion of steam turbine?

A. It is the difference of expansion in between the turbine shaft and turbine casing. The thermal emanation of
rotor is happen because of mass of casing is more than the mass of rotor. This is happen due to sudden loading of
turbine or rate of steam inlet in turbine is very high. If the rotor expansion is more than casing then it is known as
positive explanation and if the casing expansion is more than rotor is known as negative expansion .The expansion
value for turbine tripping is generally provided as +- 6 mm. It is measured by LVDT ( linear variable differential
transducer).
The differential expansion = Change in shaft length into change in turbine casing length.

Q. What is axial shift of turbine?

A. The axial shift of turbine can be defined as the physical shifting of turbine rotor from the center point. This
shifting is happen due to thrust on blade of rotor. Thrust tapered bearing is provided to prevent the axial shift of
rotor. The tripping value for turbine axial shift is generally provided with +- 0.6 mm. The possible causes of axial
shift is due to,
a)Sudden drop in vacuum
b) Sudden drop in steam temperature
c) Sudden change in load
d) Sudden closer of extraction NRV.
e) Lube oil failure in thrust bearing.
f) Scaling in turbine blades.
Q. What is TSE (turbine supervising panel)?
A.This is the integrated combine logic provided to observe the safe operation of turbine. This supervisory panel
observes,
a) Turbine casing explanation during roiling.
b) Turbine differential expansion.
c) Turbine rotor eccentricity.
d) Turbine vibration.
e) Rate of loading of turbine.

Q. What is over speed of turbine?

A. It is the increased speed of turbine due to grid failure or islanding condition. Over speed happen due to sudden
unloading of turbine. The over speed of turbine tripping is generally provided with speed > 110 % of rated speed.
The machine should not be allowed to cross that limit. The over speed tripping can be provided by a over speed
governor or mechanical governor.

Q. What is turbine tripping condition?

A. A turbine may be tripped due to this reasons,
a) Boiler trip/generator trip
a) Due to over speed- >110 %
b) High axial shift - +- 0.6 mm.
c) High differential expansion - +- 6 mm.
d) Condenser vacuum very low - < 0.6 kg/ cm²
e) Main steam temperature low - <485 deg c.
f) Main steam temperature high - > 565 deg c.
g) Press of emergency push button.
h) Main steam pressure and temperature low low and high high.
i) Turbine bearing temperature high- >120 deg c.
g) Turbine vibration high - > 165 micron.
h) Turbine lube oil temperature high - >65 deg c.
i) Mot oil level low - < 30 %.
j) Malfunction of sensing device.

Q . What is steam trap and it's function?

Ans. function of steam trap- It is a device is used in steam pipe line to discharge condensate and gasses, prevent to
escape of steam through the line. It ensures that steam is not wasted. This is a self contained valve which
automatically drains the condensate from a steam containing device. This is generally provided in steam drains or
before steam drain valve.
Types of steam trap:-
1> Mechanical trap – Works in the principle of difference in density between steam and condensate. This type of
trap operate according the condensate level in the port if the condensate level increase the float operates and
allow to condensate pass through the pipe ,when condensate level decrease is close the valve and doesn’t allow
the condensate. Types of mechanical trap i) Float type, ii)Float with lever type, iii)Inverted bucket type, iv)Open
bucket type.
2> Thermodynamic type steam trap - Works in the principle of difference in between thermodynamic property of
steam and condensate.This types of traps operate due to velocity change in flow of compressible and non
compressible fluids.As the steam starts condensate there is a temperature difference which allow the trap to
operate. Types of Thermodynamic type steam trap i) Disc type ii) orifice type.
3> Thermostatic type steam trap- This trap works in the principle of difference of temperature in between steam
and condensate. Types of Thermostatic type steam trap i) Bimetallic type, ii) Metallic expansion type.
Q. What is (NRV) Non Return Valve?
A. This is also known as one way valve which allow the fluid flow in one direction only. As its name implies non
return means there is only one direction flow.All the assembly are provided with a valve bonnet.This valves are
generally used in pump discharges and steam water pipe lines.This device ensures there is no back flow of fluid
from the source. It has two lines one is inlet line and other is outlet line.There is a direction symbol provided on
the valve which show the direction of flow fluid.
Types of NRV:-
i> Tilting disc check valve-This is a disc type check valve.The disc provided fixed with a hinge which swing up and
down. As the fluid flow in the line it lift by the fluid force and allow the fluid to flow in the pipe . When there is no
fluid flow in the circuit it closes due to gravitational force.
ii> Ball check valve- Here a spherical ball is used to fervent the fluid flow. The ball is spring loaded which close the
valve when there is no fluid flow in the line. The pressure of fluid lift the ball and let the fluid to flow.
iii> Diaphragm type NRV – This is consists of a rubber diaphragm clapper ,Which works on the differential pressure
When the pressure in the upstream is more it open the diaphragm and allow the fluid to flow and when the
pressure is equalize is closes diaphragm and prevent to fluid.
iv> Stop check valve- It’s construction is same as the swing check valve except that here is a external control
mechanism of handle or lever provided.
v> Lift check valve- Here a lift or disc is provided which operates on the working pressure of the fluid.

Q. what is Pressure relief valve(PRV) ?

A. The relief valve (PRV) is a type of valve used to control or limit the pressure in a vessel or system during an
overpressure of the system. The primary purpose of a pressure Relief Valve is protection of life and property by
venting fluid from an over pressurized vessel. Many electronic, pneumatic and hydraulic systems exist today to
control fluid system variables, such as pressure, temperature and flow. Each of these systems requires a power
source of some type, such as electricity or compressed air in order to operate. A pressure Relief Valve must be
capable of operating at all times, especially during a period of power failure when system controls are
nonfunctional. The PRV is provided on the on the main steam line to control the line pressure. The PRV is generally
operated through pneumatic pressure.The PRV operated according to the set pressure of rhe controller. The valve
set down when the pressure reach to normal value.

Q. What is the difference between safety valve and pressure relief valve?
A. Difference between safety valve and relief valve
Relief Valve –The relief valve is used on a filled vessel. For such a valve the opening is proportional to increase in
the vessel pressure. Hence the opening of valve is not sudden, but gradual if the pressure is increased gradually. A
relief valve is meant to relieve pressure to prevent an over pressure condition. A relief valve may have an operator
on it to assist in opening the valve in response to a control signal. The capacity of PRV are generally small.
Safety Valve – This device is used to relief on a compressible filled vessel. For such a valve the opening is sudden.
When the set pressure of the valve is reached, the valve opens almost fully. A safety valve is meant to relieve
pressure without operator assistance and a safety valve, or combination of safety valves, must be have a capacity
to relieve more than the energy input to the volume being protected.

Q:Procedure of turbine cold startup?

The startup condition of the turbine is considered as per inner casing temperature of the turbine such as,
a) Cold start up – If the casing temperature is < 200°C.
b) Warm start up - If the casing temperature in between 200-300°C.
c) Hot start up- If the casing temperature is > 450°C.
Pre checklist for cold start up:-
1) Check all work completed and all permit is returned.
2) Confirm all interlock test of turbine is completed.
3) Check all level gauges and pressure gauges in operation.
4) Check cooling tower sump level should be normal level.
5) Check the oil level of MOT tank and control oil tank should be normal.
6) Check the generator cooling water and lube oil cooling system is normalized.
7) Check the compressor is system in running .
8) Check the ACW pump in running.
9) Check the circulating water pump(CW) in running.
10)Check the turbine lube oil pump is running and turbine is in barring gear.
11) Check the generator air cooling system is in operation.

Procedure for turbine rolling:-

1) Start the CEP with minimum re circulation.
2) Start the gland steam system with auxiliary PRDS.
3) Start the gland steam blower and normalize Gland steam drain system.
4) Maintain the gland steam temperature in between 121 to 177 deg c.
5) Start the vacuum pump or ejector for vacuum pulling.
6) Ensure the boiler develop rated pressure above 15 kg/cm2 & temperature >360deg c
7) Put the HP and LP bypass system in operation for line warm-up.
8) Ensure all turbine drains are open condition.
9) Check the turbine lube oil temperature is in-between 38-42 deg c.
10) Check the differential expansion and eccentricity is normal.
11) Reset the turbine from governor panel.
12) Press the latching or start bottom to open the ESV.
13) Give command for rolling of turbine.
14) Check the turning gear and JOP automatically stopped when speed reaches >300 rpm.
15) Press the hold button of turbine and hold the speed in 500rpm to check the eccentricity < 0.076 mm, axial shift
+- 1 mm and differential expansion +- 6mm of turbine.
16) Continue the speed of the turbine with 40 rpm/min and speedup the turbine speed during critical speed of
1850,2000 and 2200 respectively (as per designer).
17) Check the main oil pump comes in service and AOP is stopped condition.
18) After turbine reached to full speed hold for some time and ensure upper and lower casing temperature
difference is within limit.
19) Ask the electrical people for synchronization.
20) Close all turbine drains after synchronization.
21) Increase load by follow of turbine cold startup load curve.
22) When the load is increase to 20% of full load charge the Extraction line gradually.
23) Finally check all parameter of turbine is ok and increase turbine load to full.

Q. What is the function of ejector in condenser and it’s working principle ?

Ans. Function of ejector:- The main function of the ejector is to extract air and no condensate gasses from a closed
system . It removes air from the condenser and provide vacuum. The amount of air extracted at the time of
starting is more as compared to running unit.
Parts of ejector:- It generally consists of converging nozzle , diverging nozzle , diffuser throat , inlet and outlet
pipes, Rota meter for measurement of air flow , cells with tube for regeneration heat transfer , Steam traps for drip
control .
Working principle of ejector :- When a high pressure motive fluid( steam/liquid) enters the steam nozzle , this
result in a decreasing pressure and increasing velocity of the fluid again the fluid enters in the diffuser which result
in a increasing pressure and decreasing velocity of the fluid so due to pressure difference vacuum is created in
between the nozzle and diffuser we can say venture throat . So due to pressure difference or vacuum it sucks no
condensable air and fluid from the system. The mixture then enters to an inter condenser where the steam is
condensate. The inter condenser are designed with a special inter condenser baffles of tubes where heat transfer
takes place . The second stage ejector handles the non condensate gasses of first stage ejector and through a vent
opening to the atmosphere. The air flow can be measured by the rota-meter. The condensate water of steam send
back to re use through steam traps.
Types of ejector :-
There are generally two types of ejector generally used as ,
i > Hogger ejector :- This ejector is known as the starting ejector which is used to pull the gasses at the time of
starting of system. It has high capacity of air extraction. This ejector operates with parallel with the running ejector
till the vacuum reaches 500-600 mm of HG column , then the hogger ejector is switched off and main ejector will
remain in service. The main disadvantages of this ejector is the steam escaped to atmosphere and can't reuse.
ii> Main ejector :- This is also known as the running ejector which evacuate the air continuously at the system
running condition. This is a multi stage type ejector . The high velocity air -water mixture enters to the shell and
cooled in the first stage of the shell by condensate. Steam is thus condensate and the steam air mixture volume
reduced and allowed to second stage of the nozzle . In the second stage the mixture is completely condensate and
the air is vented to the atmosphere. The drains are provided with loops or siphoned to prevent ingress of air from
the atmosphere.Here the condensate seam is again recovered in condenser and reuse.

Q:What is Vacuum pump or liquid ring air pump used in condenser and it's working principle ?
As the steam ejector use steam for air evacuation this is a loss for the plant as the pressure and temperature of
the steam is reduced to the rated parameter of the ejector , so now a days in modern power plants rotary air
pumps are used for air extraction purpoes.The rotary air pump is more flexible as it doesn’t depend steam and
water circuit for air extraction.
Construction: - It’s construction is same like a centrifugal pump with multiple impellers. It consists of impeller,
suction pipe , discharge pipe. Diffuser, divergent cone, fixed guide nozzle . The impeller with a blade is attached to
a center hub located in a cylindrical body. The pump require liquid to create vacuum. A tapping is provided at the
top of the pump for air line connection.
Working principle:- The liquid if fed to the pump through suction pipe , due to rotary motion of the pump
impeller a centrifugal force is created in the impeller of the pump. It consists of a multi-bladed, rotating element
(impeller), eccentricity positioned within a cylindrical casing. The compression of the gas occurs in one or two
impeller stages depending on the ultimate vacuum required, although for this service two/multi stage pumps are
generally required. Water or some other in-compressible fluid, called service liquid, is introduced to the LRVP. As
the impeller rotates, a ring of liquid is formed inside the pump casing from centrifugal force. This action draws the
gaseous stream into the pump through the inlet port. The gas is compressed by the liquid ring, exiting the first
stage through a smaller area discharge port and into the second stage of the pump. The second stage is
volumetrically smaller doing the final compression of the gas. The gas then exits the pump usually at atmospheric
pressure, along with the service liquid.Only small amount of water makeup required due to water leakage or
evaporation.

uses of liquid ring pump:-

1) Power generation equipment (produce vacuum).
2) Petrochemical.
3) Seawater deae-ration.
4) Pharmaceutical.
5) Ground water remediation/vapor extraction.
6) Food production.
Advantages of liquid ring pump:-
These pumps can easily take care of condensable vapors and can even handle fluids of various kinds without
affecting the performance of the pump. Based on liquid ring technology, pumps have only one rotating or prime
functioning part and therefore are economical and much easier to maintain than the other pumps. The repairing or
rebuilding of these pumps is very easy in comparison to other complicatedly designed pumping units. Liquid ring
vacuum pumps can efficiently be employed as vacuum jobs and also for the compression tasks as well which
usually is not possible with ordinary pump sets.Quick starting also another advantage of this pump.
Q:What is Burner Management System (BMS) and it’s function?
Ans: The main function of Burner Management System (BMS) is to protect boiler from explosion as it ensures a
safe, orderly operating sequence in the start-up and shutdown of fuel firing equipment and to reduce possible
errors by following the sequential and safe operating procedure.It is a digital logic system, which provides status
information and monitoring of the firing equipment ensuring a safe orderly operating sequence during the start-
up, continuous operation and shutdown of the fuel firing equipment, and prevents any errors of commission or
omission as a result of the various permissive and safety interlocks of satisfied operation.The system also protects
against malfunction of fuel firing equipment and associated systems .BMS provides permissive interlocks only to
ensure safe startup of equipment. Once the equipment is in service, the operator must follow acceptable safe
operating practices.The BMS supervises, controls and monitors the preparation, distribution and admission of fuel
and air into the furnace.The primary function of the BMS components is to prevent the formation of an explosive
mixture of fuel and air from accumulating within any portion of the boiler.Major furnace explosions can result
from the ignition of un-burned fuel accumulated within the furnace in only one to two seconds. Operator reaction
time is inadequate to respond quickly enough to prevent dangerous situations from occurring. The safety systems
incorporate many permissive and interlocks which allow the operation of equipment only after certain conditions
have been satisfied. Much of the “logic” has been derived from established operating procedures which have been
proven safe over the years in fossil fuel fired plants.
The Burner Management system is a constant monitor of many points of operation and reacts almost instantly to
malfunctions of equipment or potential problems. It provides the operator with a certain degree of security and
alerts the operator to problems by sounding an alarm in time for the operator to check the problem and, in most
cases, correct it before damage to the unit or a trip occurs.

Q:CAUSES FOR FURNACE EXPLOSIONS:-

Here are the main causes of furnace explosion:-
a) Ignition of an accumulation of combustible gas in a boiler out of service.
b) Operating for a long period of time with a deficiency of air and then
suddenly bringing about proper air fuel ratio.
c) Improper sequence of operation of firing system components
d) Insufficient ignition energy supplied relative to actual requirements
e) Firing with improper air fuel ratio and insufficient furnace temperature.
Function of BMS :-
a) Prevent firing unless a satisfactory furnace purge has first been completed.
b)Prohibit start-up of the equipment unless certain permissive interlocks have first been completed.
c) Monitor and control the correct component sequencing during start-up and shutdown of the equipment.
d) Conditionally allow the continued operation of the equipment only while certain safety interlocks remaining
satisfied.
e) Provide component condition feedback to the operator and to the plant control systems and/or data loggers.
f) Provide automatic supervision when the equipment is in service and provide means to make a Master Fuel Trip
(MFT) should certain unacceptable firing conditions occur.
g) Execute a MFT upon certain adverse unit operating conditions

Q:Major Equipments Included in the BMS system:-

a) Pulverizes and Coal Feeders.
b) Induced Draft Fans (ID Fans )
c) Forced Draft Fans (FD Fans)
d) Fuel Oil Trip Valves.
e) Oil Burners system.
f) Scanner Cooling Air Fans.
g) Primary Air Fans (PA Fans )
h) Seal Air Fans (SA fans)
Q:What is Boiler Master Fuel trip relay (MFT) ?
Ans:The boiler Master Fuel Relay Trip (MFT) provided to protect the boiler from any unsafe operation condition in
the boiler. Once MFT is initiated, The BMS will stop all fuel supplied to the furnace. The All Fuel oil (LDO and HFO)
trip valves will be closed, All Pulverizes and Coal Feeder will be tripped along with Primary air and seal air fans.
The Boiler MFT will be initiated in following abnormal conditions:-
1) By Pressing Boiler Emergency push buttons together from the control desk.
2) Turbine trips after turbine reset.
3) Drum Level Hi Hi.
4) Drum Level Lo Lo.
5) Drum Press Hi Hi.
5) Main Steam Temperature Hi Hi – At 555 deg. C.
6) Air flow less than 30% of total Secondary Air flow.
7) 2/3 Furnace Pressure Hi Hi.
8) Both ID Fans off.
9) Both FD Fans off.
10)Unit flame failure.
11) Loss of fuel.

Q:Unit flame failure-

Ans: Operating boiler with unstable flame is lead to boiler explosion as accumulation of unburnt carbon and gasses
will be more. The unit flame failure happen due to sudden reduction of fuel to minimum value,Malfunctioning of
flame scanner,Air flow less than 30% of total air flow,loss of ignition energy,sudden closer of fuel air dampers.
Loss of all fuel-
Normally loss of fuel is activated after the boiler is lighted up or tried to light up (i.e. any local fuel oil has opened
once). After that if all burner fuel valves get closed, and all feeders are off it will generate loss of all fuel OR All
feeders are off, any burner oil valve is open and main trip HFO/LDO not opened.

Q:Working principle of pulverizing Bowl mill ?

Bowl mill is a vertical spindle medium speed mill. In a bowl mill the coal is pulverized between a disc called bowl
rotated by the drive assembly called rollers .The rollers kept above the disc loaded by springs or pneumatic or
hydraulic loading devices.

Q:Parts of bowl coal mill:-

Mill base and body.
Gear box assembly.
Separator body.
Lubrication system.
Scrapper assembly.
Roller and bowl assembly.
Mil discharge pipes.
Pirate discharge assembly.
Measuring instruments.

Q:Construction of Bowl mill:-

The vertical drive shaft is accommodated in the mill base with a worm wheel keyed to it and coupled by a
motor.The speed reduction is provided by gear box assembly. One thrust bearing below the worm wheel and two
radial bearings one above and one below worm wheel support the vertical shaft. The work wheel, worm shaft,
worm shaft bearing, vertical shaft thrust bearing and lower radial bearing, all housed in the mill base, are flood
lubricated by the oil filled in the mill base up to the worm wheel. The upper radial bearing is lubricated by the oil
pumped by a gear pump attached to the vertical shaft through the bore drilled in the vertical shaft. This oil from
the bearing drains back to the sump through the oil cooler placed in the mill base. A view port with a sight glass is
provided on the oil return line to monitor the oil flow. A blow assembly with scrappers is mounted on the top of
the vertical shaft. The surface of the bowl is lined with bullring segments made of wear resistant material such as
BIHARD, HICHROME etc. As the mill works under pressure, to prevent the entry of dust laden air to the gearbox a
sealing arrangement is provided. When the bowl rotates, the seal runner moves over the bronze seal making a
metal to metal contact. The air seal housing is admitted with clean, cold seal air at a pressure higher than mill
pressure. With such an arrangement through the interface clearance between rotating and stationary parts only
the seal air can pass. Hot high-pressure air called primary air is admitted to the mill sided assembly the bowl. The
mill side consists of insulation to prevent excessive conducting of heat from mill side to mill base. It also has
bottom liners to provide an enclosure for the scrappers of the bowl assembly. The scrappers scrap the pyrites and
rejects falling from the bowl on this zone into the pyrite hopper through the tramp iron spout opening in mill
base.There are two pirate gate in hopper, The outlet gate will be opened only for emptying the pyrite hopper after
closing the inlet gate. The mill has three grinding roll assemblies, in each assembly a grinding roll is suspended on a
journal shaft which is fixed to the journal head. Tapered roller bearing are provided inside the housing of journal
shaft. Oil is filled in the housings to lubricate the bearings. The rollers are centrifugally casted with the outer
surface made of material same as that of bull ring segments such as NIHARD, HICHROME ETC. A turnion shaft is
inserted through the journal head for placing the roller journal assembly can swing over the turnions shaft. The
roller journal assemblies are mounted in such a manner that the roll face
is approximately parallel to and is in close proximity with the inside surface of the grinding bowl. Stop bolts are
provided to supports the journal head at the bottom. Through these stop bolt the clearance between roller and
bowl can adjusted. Pressure for grinding is applied through compression springs mounted from above the roller
journal assembly. The tip of the spring will
be just in contact with the journal head. The separator body encloses the roller journal assemblies and springs. The
separator body has liners at the bottom, which deflect the primary air entering the mill from the mill side. An
internal multivaned classifier connected to the mill outlet is located at the bottom of the separator body top. The
classifier vanes are externally adjustable. A venturi is provided at the classifier outlet and classifier can be adjusted
manually as per requirement of coal size.

Q:Working of bowl mill:-

Coal from the raw coal feeder is fed at the centre of the bowl through a raw coal inlet chute inserted at the center
of separator body top. Due to centrifugal force the coal moves towards the periphery. The three rolls exerts the
required grinding pressure through the springs. The primary air supplied to the mill side moves up through the
vanes around the bowl. B thedeflector liners the air is directed towards the center of the mill which cause the
reciruculation of the coal through the grinding area. The air moving upwards picks the fine coal and enters
classifier through the vanes. The vanes introduce spin and as a result course particles get separated from the
stream and return through the annulus between the centre feed pipe andclassifier cone to the bowl further
grinding. Fine coal moves out with air through the multi-port assembly at the outlet of the classifier. Any hard
foreign material (Pyrites) entering the mill with coal cannot be pulverized. Such particles when move on the bowl
lift the roller journal assembly compressing the spring and increasing the gap between roller and the bowl. Once
such particles clear the bowl the spring brings back the roller journal assembly to the initial position. The Pyrites
fall down from the bowl into the mill side assembly where they are sweeped by the scrappers and discharged into
the pyrite hopper through the tramp iron spout. Periodically the rejects are removed from the pyrite hopper by
first closing the inlet gate and then opening gate.

Q:What is furnace purge and it’s necessary?

Necessary of furnace purge-
The furnace purge is one of the parts of Furnace safe guard and supervisory system (FSSS) and is provided to
remove incombustible gasses and un-burnt particles from boiler before boiler light up. During boiler sudden trip
there is accumulation of un-burnt gasses in furnace , At the time of starting of boiler this gasses may cause of
explosion to avoid that furnace purge is provided.
30-40 %ge of air flow is provided in boiler by starting ID,FD fan and purging continue for five minutes.

Cndition of furnace purge-

1) Boiler shall be in trip condition
2) Drum level within operating range (not high, not low)
3) Either of the ID and FD Fans are in service
 4) Purge airflow should be 30-40% of the full load airflow.
5) LDO Header trip Valve closed.
6) HFO Header Trip Valve Closed
7) All Pulverizer OFF.
8) ALL PA Fans OFF.
9) All Pulverizer fuel oil valves Closed.
10) All Coal Flame Scanner sense no flame.
11)All Oil scanner senses no flame.

Procedure of boiler purge:-

When the above purge permissive conditions are satisfied a "PURGE READY",
Indication will appear in DCS. By pressing the "PURGE START" button, furnace purge will start which will be
indicated by "PURGE IN PROGRESS”. The furnace purging will continue for 300 Seconds, after that "PURGE
COMPLETE" indication shows that purge has completed. Press "MFRRESET" Button which will reset master fuel trip
relay giving indication “MFR RESET".
After MFT reset condition boiler is ready for light up.
What is the function of condenser in steam turbine & it’s type?

The main function of condenser is to convert gaseous form of exhaust steam into liquid form at a pressure of
below atmosphere or we can say that It is a heat sink in the thermal cycle in which rejection of heat energy takes
place on condensation of exhaust steam of turbine. Cooling mediums are used such as water/air to convert steam
into water. By converting steam into water the back pressure of the turbine exhaust can be reduced and due to
pressure difference between inlet and outlet of turbine , there is more enthalpy drop and more work done in the
turbine. Back pressure of turbine is defined as pressure at the exhaust nozzle of the turbine.
The main function of condenser:-
i)saving on steam require per unit of electricity
ii) To convert exhaust steam to water for reuse thus saving on deed water
requirement.
iii) Deaeration of make-up water introduced in the condenser.
iv) To form a convenient point for introducing make up water.

Image of surface condenser

Type of condenser:-
There are generally two types of condenser as
a) Direct contact (jet) condenser- Here cooling water and exhaust steam are mixed together. The requirement of
cooling water is very much less than surface condenser. This is the best effective condenser but it has the
disadvantage that cooling water quality should be maintain properly.
b) Surface Condenser-This type of condenser is used in most modern steam turbines. Cooling water flows through
inside of tube and Condensation of exhaust steam takes place on the outer surface of the tubes. The condenser
essentially consists of a shell which encloses the steam space. Tubes carrying cooling water pass through the steam
space. The tubes are supplied cooling water from inlet water box on one side and discharged, after taking away
heat from the steam, to the outlet water box on the other side. Instead of one inlet and one outlet water boxes,
there may be two or more pair of separate inlet-outlet water boxes, each supplying cooling water to a separate
bundle of tubes. This enables cleaning and maintenance of part of the tubes while turbine can be kept running on
a reduced load. Manholes have been provided for routine maintenance and visual inspection along with venting
and draining arrangement for individual water boxes. The tubes have been so arranged that there is equal
distribution of steam on the tube nest with minimum resistance to steam flow. In order to allow expansion along
he height, the condenser is supported on springs specially designed to take up load ,Springs are provided at the
bottom of condenser.
Working of condenser:-
The exhaust steam flows from turbine exhaust through cooling tube. Steam condensate to water and pumped
through condensate extraction pump (CEP).The cooling water return to cooling tower after heat exchange for
cooling. An ejector system is provided at the top of condenser to remove non condensate gases. Scrubber mesh is
provided near air extraction point of condenser to prevent carryover of steam through no condensable gasses.
Materials for Condenser Tubes-
Generally condenser tube material is designed in the view of cost and cooling water quality. Copper alloys are
Brasses, Cupro-nickel,titanium grade-2 and Bronzes are generally used in most condenser. Stainless steel tubes
has also been used and has good corrosion resistance though heat transfer co-efficient is quite lower than the
copper alloys. Because of high cost, stainless steel is used only where water is highly corrosive. Some sea side
power plants are also using Titanium despite high cost, because of highly corrosive environment.
What is necessary of deaerator and it’s working principle?

Necessary of deaerator:-
The presence of oxygen, and other non-condensable gases, in the feed water is a major cause of corrosion in the
feed water piping, boiler, and condensate piping line. The dissolved oxygen content of the feed water is a major
factor of corrosion in boiler. Low pH levels in feed water cause severe acid attack throughout the boiler system.The
remove of desolved gasses and oxygen process is known as deaeration. There are two types of deaeration is
generally happen as chemical deaeration and mechanical deaeration. The main function of deaerator is -
1)Removing the dissolved gases to prevent corrosion feed water heated.
2) Work as a feed water storage tank.
3) Increase thermal efficiency.
4) Provide required Net positive suction head to feed water pump.

Image of deaerator You tube video of deaerator

Working principle of deaerator:-
a) by Henry’s Law- Accordind to William Henry in 1803 it state ,that gas solubility in a solution decreases as the gas
partial pressure above the solution decreases.In simple we can say that The solubility of any gas dissolved in a
liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. Solubility of gases decrease with increase in
solution temperature and or decrease
in pressure.
b) The second principle state that ,deaeration is the relationship between gas solubility and temperature. Easily
explained, gas solubility in a solution decreases as the temperature of the solution rises and approaches saturation
temperature.
Types of deaerator:-
a) Tray-type deaerator- It consists of over several rows of trays. Makeup water and pumped returns are sprayed
into the deaerator tray section through a stainless steel spray nozzle. The spray nozzle provides a thin conical sheet
of water that condenses the vapors while permitting oxygen to exit through the vent. The partially deaerated
water then begins to cascade through the trays. The combined makeup and pumped returns are heated with
steam that flows upward through the stainless steel trays. The steam vigorously scrubs the dissolved oxygen from
the makeup and pumped returns. The trapped returns enter the deaerator storage section. Steam from the
returns also flows upward through the deaerator trays, while the water drops to the water level in the deaerator
storage section. The fully deaerated water remains in the deaerator storage section for use by the boiler, while the
excess steam flows into the deaerator tray section. Non-condensable gases enter the vent and pass to the
atmosphere.
b) Spray type deaerator- The spray-type deaerators do not use trays for dispersion of the water. In this case, spring
loaded nozzles located in the top of the unit spray water into a steam atmosphere which is heated to within a few
degrees of the saturation temperature of the steam. Most of the non-condensable gases are released to the
steam, and the heated water falls to a water seal and drains to the lowest section of the steam scrubber. The
water is scrubbed by large quantities of steam and heated to the saturation temperature prevailing at this point.
The intimate steam to water contact achieved in the scrubber efficiently strips the water of dissolved gases. As the
steam-water mixture rises in the scrubber, a slight pressure loss causes the deaerated water temperature to
remain a few degrees below the inlet steam saturation temperature. The deaerated water overflows from the
steam scrubber to the storage section below. The steam, after flowing through the scrubber, passes up into the
spray heater section to heat the incoming water. Most of the steam condenses in the spray section to become part
of the deaerated water. A small portion of the steam, vented to atmosphere, removes non-condensable gases
from the system.

PREV PAGE
c) Vacuum type of deaerator- Here The oxygen-containing make-up water, preheated to 40-90 °C, is led to the
upper section of the deaeration tank. In order to optimize the removal of oxygen, the deaeration tank is equipped
with fillers for division of the water into fine particles. The vacuum pump creates the necessary vacuum so that the
make-up water boils. When the water boils, the oxygen is liberated and removed by means of the vacuum pump.
The deaerated water is separated into two streams, which are pumped partly into the district heating network,
partly recycled over the deaeration tank.
Chemical reaction in deaerator during Hydrazine doosing-
N2H4 + O2 = N2 + 2H2O
Gas +Water
3N2H4 = 4NH3 + N2
Additional ammonia reacts with
2NH3 + CO2 + H2O = (NH4)2CO3
(acidic) Ammonium Carbonate (Neutral)
How oil centrifuge works for oil purification work?
Introduction :-
The main function of oil centrifuge is to purify oil, remove moisture and non dissolved solids from oil. It is most
necessary to supply moisture free oil to Turbine shaft. In Power Stations, Centrifuges are mainly used to separate
moisture particles from lubrication oil. They are connected with turbine main oil tanks. Two separation processes
viz. Purification and Clarification can be done in centrifuge. Purification is the process of separation of two
immiscible liquids having different specific gravities and is useful for the removal of the solid particles with specific
gravity higher than those of the liquids. Clarification is the process of separation of solid particles from oil or any
other liquid.
 Image of oil centrifuge

Construction of centrifuge:-
The centrifuge consists of a bowl which rotates on a vertical axis in an outer
casing. A 415V, 3 phase induction motor, mounted on the side of the casing drives the bowl through a centrifugal
clutch and a worm gear; a manually operated brake is included on the worm shaft. The outer casing has a hinged
lid which incorporates the oil inlet and outlet connections, indications for flow and temperature and a priming
water supply. The base, which has an oil sump in which the worm gear runs, is mounted on the purifier. The bowl,
rotated by a vertical shaft, consists of a body and hood joined with a locking ring. The body contains a stack of
conical discs on a distributor, the top disc has
a level ring which bridges the hub of the distributor, immediately above the level ring is fitted a paring disc. The
dirty oil inlet passes through the bowl hood gravity ring and paring disc to the hollow distributor.

Working principle of centrifuge:-

The dirty oil from the main oil tank is supplied to the centrifuge through an inlet pipe. This inlet line is provided
with a manual gate valve for adjusting the capacity of centrifuge, a Y type strainer. The inlet line supplies the oil to
the suction of a feed pump. A view glass provided before the pump enables the visual inspection of the oil flow.
The feed pump is built in with the centrifuge and is a gear pump. It is provided with an integral pressure relief valve
to prevent building up of excessive pressure in the discharge side due to closure of any gate valve. When the
pressure exceeds a preset value, the relief valve. and discharges the oil to the pump suction itself. The suction and
discharge pressure can be read from the pressure gauge respectively and these gauges are mounted on the local
panel. The pump delivers oil to a heater tank through a check valve. The oil is heated in this tank by means of hot
water. The water is in turn heated by electric heaters. The tank is provided with connections for water inlet,
overflow, and drain. A vent provided on top of the tank is useful to let out water vapor and to fill up the tank
quickly with water. A sight glass is also provided for checking the water level. Three sections of immersion type
electric heaters are used for heating the water. The required number of heaters to be in service can be selected by
means of a selector switch provided in the control panel. In case of low water levels in the tank, a level switch is
useful to trip the heater. In case of high water temperature at 90 deg. C, a temperature switch RT will trip the
heaters. Two numbers of thermostats RT 101 provided the outlet of heater tank maintain the oil temperature by
tripping the heaters through relay R2. The heated oil is then fed to the centrifuge through a rotameter of range
900 – 9000 liters per hour (lph).
The oil is purified in the centrifuge and the water gets separated. The water is discharged to an antiflood tank and
then drained through the tank drain. In case of breakage of water seal inside the bowl, a high level switch provided
in the Anti flood tank gives an audible alarm and shuts off the oil supply by closing the solenoid valve in the inlet oil
line. The water seal has to be established on start-up by filling the bowl with hot water; this can be supplied from
the pump through the inlet connection on the hood. The clean oil leaving the bowl rotates in the form of a ring
around the paring disc which is fitted with internal radial scoops. These scoops dip into the liquid ring converting
its kinetic energy into pressure to pump the oil through the annular space, between the oil inlet tube and the
housing, to the outlet connection.
Ensure before operation of centrifuge:-
1. Adequate water level in the heater tank is to be ensured. If the water level is insufficient, the tank can be filled
up by opening the make up valve.
2. The heater section is to be started half an hour earlier to the starting of the centrifuge. This is for preheating
the water.
3. The oil level in the centrifuge worm wheel housing is to be checked.
4. The frame hood of centrifuge has to be kept tight.
5. The main oil tank level is to be checked. The oil level and temperature of oil at inlet to oil cooler are to be
recorded.
6. All the bypass valves, drain valves and the sampling valves in the oil circuit are to be kept in closed condition.
7. The inlet and outlet valves of the heater, PALL filter and the rotameter should be kept “open”.
8. The gate valve in the inlet oil line is to be kept fully closed.
9. The gate valves in the oil line from the main oil tank to dirty oil header should be fully closed. These valves
should never be opened.
10. The gate valve in the inlet oil line to centrifuge from the clean oil chamber of the main oil tank has to be kept
closed and the gate valve from the drain oil chamber of the main oil tank has to be kept OPEN.
What is voith/Hydraulic coupling and it’s working principle?

The main function of Hydraulic coupling is of controlling variable speed of equipment by keeping the drive speed
constant. Here the drive/motor speed is kept constant and pump speed is varied as per requirement of discharge
pressure and flow. This reduces the power consumption particularly at part load/full load operation. The speed of
pump is varied by varying position of scoop.

IMAGE OF FLUID COUPLING

The essential parts to a fluid coupling:-

1) Pump impeller.
2) Aux. Lube oil pump.
3) Main lube oil pump.
4) Lube oil cooler.
5) Duplex filter.
6) Oil reservoir.
7) Scoop chamber.
8) Turbine wheel.
9) Working oil pump.
10) Scoop tube (adjustable).
11) Scoop tube control.
12) Working oil cooler. You tube video of voith coupling
13) Oil circulation control valve.
Types of fluid coupling:-
a) Fixed speed- constant fill and Delay fill
b) Variable speed- Scoop controlled.

Working principle of voith coupling:-

The rotating coupled with the motor and operating fluid. The resultant centrifugal force causes the fluid to flow
outwards due to centrifugal force, where by the velocity of fluid is increased. The flow of fluid into the runner
takes place at the outer diameter, where the energy is transmitted from the fluid to the runner. The fluid in the
runner blade chamber then flow inwards to the center & back into the impeller blade chamber. This circuit is
maintained by the centrifugal force difference resulting from the speed difference between the runner & impeller.
The time required to reach the full speed is dependent on the inertia of the driven load, resistive torque, and the
torque transmitted by the coupling. The speed of the coupling is varied by varying the position of scoop. Here the
scoop is a cylindrical pipe with no of holes and act for draining oil from scoop chamber. The scoop chamber is
charged by a continuously running pump which delivers oil from the integral sump below the coupling to the
working compartment. The working compartment is the chamber between the primary (impeller) & secondary
(runner) wheels. The oil level inside the working compartment determines the speed of the output side of the
coupling & depends upon the radial position of the scoop tube located in the scoop chamber.
The output torque is equal to the input torque,defined as-
SLIP (%) = let n1=input speed
n2=output speed
n1 – n2 slip(%)= ---------------- X 100
n1
All fluid couplings are normally designed to have a slip of 2% to 4%.
Advantage of voith coupling:-
1) The main advantage of fluid coupling is motor starts with minimum load.
2) No need of mechanical connection between the input and output elements.
3) Steeples speed variation in wide range obtained in scoop type fluid couplings.
4) Simple control of minimum to maximum load.
5) Effective for shocks, load fluctuations and torsional vibrations.
6) Economy for machine and drive design.
What is governing system of turbine and it’s working?
The main function of governor is to maintain constant speed of turbine during fluctuations of load by varying
steam input to the turbine. It has following function-
i) The run up of the turbine from rest t rated speed and synchronizing with the grid.
ii) Meeting the system load variations in a predetermined manner, when running in parallel with other machines.
iii) Protecting the machine by reducing the load or shutting off completely in abnormal and emergency situations.
The governing system also includes other devices to protect the turbine from abnormal conditions that may arise
during operation.
iv) To assist in matching the power generated to that demanded by responding to the network frequency changes.
Types of governing system:-
a) Throttle Governing- Here the supply of steam is controlled by single valves or two or more valves operating in
parallel .The flow of steam is controlled by throttling position of valve. For increase of load the valve opening is
increased and vice versa. Most of governing system used now a days is throttle governing due to it’s reliable
operation.
b) Nozzle Governing – In this type of governing the first stage is divided in no of groups. The steam supply to each
group of nozzles is controlled by a valve and the number of valves opened is varied according to the load on the
turbine. The no of nozzles opened as per increase demand of load.
c) By-pass Governing- Here a bypass valve is provided in main stream line when demand of load is less than original
steam flow steam flow.
Types of governors:-
Here are the types of governor mentioned as-
Electro-hydraulic governor,Hydraulic, Mechanical governor, Electrical governor. Here we discuss about electro-
hydraulic governor,
Electro hydraulic governor- As it name indicate it has electrical sensing and hydraulic controlling. In electro
hydraulic governing all transducers are electrical/electronic components. The acquired signals (of control valve lift,
speed ,load & initial pressure etc..) are processed electronically and processed signal is introduced at a suitable
point in the hydraulic circuit through a electro-hydraulic converter which is used as a connecting link between the
electronic modules and valve actuators. Hydraulic signal before application to control valves servomotors is
suitably amplified. EHG consists of three control loops for speed, load and pressure. EHG optimizes the turbine life
by conservative operation with the aid of TSE. Actual speed of the turbine is measured by using hall probes. Speed
regulation (Droop) can be changed from 2.5% to 8% in a step of 0.5% even when the machine runs on load. The
usual setting of droop in EHG is 5%.Speed regulation (Droop) can be changed from 2.5% to 8% in a step of 0.5%
even when the machine runs on load. The usual setting of droop in EHG is 5%.

Image of electro-hydraulic governor

Components of electro-hydraulic governing:-

a) electro-hydraulic controller-The parameter is to be controlled i.e load, speed, pressure are measured and
converted into electrical signal by means of transducer. The signal are then fed to electro-hydraulic converter
where it is converted into hydraulic signal for actuating the hydraulic operated control element/control valves. The
control loops are generally speed, loop and boiler pressure.
b) speed controller-The speed controller is used to starting the turbine up to synchronization and full loading. It
can also operate over the full load range during emergency such as turbine tripping from full load to house load
operation. The speed controller is always kept in readiness for operation.
c) Speed control loop-The turbine speed is sensed by digital speed pick-up probes mounted on the turbine shaft in
the front bearing pedestal and fed to the speed controller as the actual speed signal(N act).The speed reference
value is indicated on two instruments, one with rating 0-3000 & 2700-3300 rpm for finer adjustment. The incoming
speed reference signal is fed into high gain DC voltage amplifier. The signal is then passes to an integrator which
generates the LIMITED SPEED reference.NR limit is transmitted to the controller module where it is compared to
the actual speed N act and generate final output signal of the speed controller.
d) Load controller- The load controller is used for controlling turbine output during load operation. For selecting
load controller a push button on/off load controller switch is provided. The load controller must be switched ON if
it has come to action. It takes several signal like load limiter set point, load reference etc. Load controller is
provided on the turbine control panel which glows and gives signal that load controller is in service.
e) Turbine stress evaluator (TSE) - The main function of stress evaluator is to safe run of turbine by evaluating
turbine calculated metal temperature and safe load gradient(load increase/decrease).This evaluate turbine stress
by using parameters like turbine cylinder metal temperature, steam temperature, speed and load. It provides
operation margin within which turbine can be operated safely under the particular set of parameter.
f) Coordinated master control(CMC)- CMC works in coordination with the turbine generator and boiler. It also
takes care of TSE influence and run back system.
e) Pressure controller- While operating under the limit pressure mode depend load reference value pressure drop
is proportional action to the pressure coordinator. It compares the set pressure and actual pressure of the turbine.
What are the Condenser tube cleaning methods used in power plant

It is necessary to removes scale formation of the condenser tubes for proper heat rejection.Most of tube cleaning
is offline/mechanical method. Great care must be taken to avoid damaging any tube sheet or tube coatings which
may be present; otherwise the successful removal of fouling deposits may become associated with new tube leak
or increase tube sheet corrosion.There are generally two types of tube cleaning done as online and offline tube
cleaning.
Online Tube Cleaning System (OLTCS):-
This type system is used large size of condenser now a days. Here the cleaning is done online or without
isolate condenser. Over sized balls are continuously pressed through the tubes to keep them clean. Balls are pass
on one end of tube and collected at the other end.
A system consists of a ball vessel into which the balls are introduced. “Ball recalculating pumps” inject these balls
into the inlet water pipe of condenser. These balls are carried by the circulating water to the condenser tubes.
Since we are using oversized balls, the balls are pressed through the tubes and thus wiping and carrying the
deposits . After passing through the first pass of the condenser, the balls are accumulated in the Reverse Chamber.
Then the balls pass through the second pass of the condenser tubes and reach the outlet water pipe and collected
through screens for re-circulation. In online ball cleaning system following factors are taken care as
a)Top up balls periodically
b)Cleaning the ball collector screen.
c)Ball circulation pump overhauls

Off load cleaning of condenser:-

Jet cleaning:- This is the one of the most effective offline cleaning method, here the condenser is isolated for
cleaning purpose. A high pressure water jet with discharge pr of 600 to 1000 bar through flexible or rigid hoses
with nozzle (Lancers) is used. The lancers with water jet will be inserted through out the entire length of the tube
so that the scales are completely removed.
 Before cleaning After cleaning

Acid cleaning:- This method is restricted to condensers suffering from scaling problem like calcium carbonate and
phosphate. Variety of acids, including Hydrochloric, uric acetic and EDTA are used. Inhibiters like Rhodine-213 are
added to the acid to prevent the acid from attacking the metal of the tubes .After the acid cleaning the acid traces
in the condenser is neutralized with circulating the alkali caustic soda , Lime ie NAOH .Then scales dislodged were
removed by water and air jet.
Grit cleaning: An alternate to bulleting, this method is known as sinusoidal grit blasting, it involves blasting
graded silica free mineral grit through the consenser tubes.
Water washing:- Tube can be cleaned with a jet of high pressure (around 70 bar). However before adapting this
method, trial must be carried out for successful result.
Thermal method: -This is used to control mussel growth in sea water stations, CW culverts, and to clean the
condenser tubes by drying internal deposits prior to flushing with water. Heating is achieved by introducing
auxiliary steam through the CW tubes and by reversing the cooling water flow through tubes.
BOILER STEAM BLOWING PROCEDURES

PURPOSE OF STEAM BLOWING:-

Steam blowing of MS lines, CRH,HRH,SH,RH,HP & LP bypass pipe lines of turbine is carried out in order to remove
welding slag, grease, loose foreign materials, iron pieces, rust etc. from the system, generated during
manufacturing, transportation & erection.
PRE-CHECK LIST FOR STEAM BLOWING :-
Following precautions must be followed when Steam Blowing is
planned:
1) Supporting arrangements for permanent piping must be in order. (ensure the rigidity of temporary support).
2) The temporary low pressure piping exhausting to atmosphere will be subject to strong reaction forces during
the blow and must be adequately secured.
3) During the blowing period steam and debris will be coming out from the discharge pipe at high velocity and the
location and direction of this must be carefully considered in terms of safety.
4) The temporary piping exhausting to atmosphere must be of suitable size so that it will not significantly restrict
the flow.
5) The steam blowing MOV should be arranged to operate from remote distance.
6) Before starting blowing out process, insulation of the steam lines should be completed to reduce danger of
accidents (burns) or of fire (cables, oil, etc.).
7) Clearly identify the danger areas by means of tapes and ensure that the area is cordoned off before starting
blowing out.
8) Achieving high velocity of steam-flow during steam-blowing is the most important factor for good levels of
steam piping cleaning by blowing out. Experience has shown that steam piping is cleaned better by achieving high
temperature. Also, at an operating pressure of around 40 kg/ cm2, the
internal surface of the super heater and steam pipes are subjected to an optimum disturbance that helps most
effectively in dislodging any loosely adhering material when the steam is allowed to blow out to the atmosphere.
9) The following empirical values are used to specify the steam pressure and temperature for blowing out:
:- Steam Pressure: 40 kg/cm2 or 50% of boiler working pressure
Whichever is less.
:-Steam Temperature: 50 deg. Overheating relative to the rated
pressure.
10) The boiler pressure used for blowing out the lines must not exceed the design pressure of the low pressure
piping and fittings used during the blowing period.
11) An adequate reserve of feed water must be kept readily available to replace blowing losses. After completion
of each blowing, feed water to be taken in the boiler and boiler to be lighted up.
12) Water level in the boiler must be carefully watched and kept under proper control.
13) Chemical cleaning should be completed
14) SH primary and secondary de-super heater piping and RH’s emergency de-super heater piping ready for
operation
15) Silencer should be connected at temporary pipe exit
16) Soot blowing for APH should be available
17) Make up for de-aerator made ready
18) Hydraulic test of the following lines completed - Feed Lines , MS, HRH, CRH Lines , MS to Aux. PRDS Line .
19) All other auxiliary lines identified for steam blowing.
20) Sampling system made ready.
21) Flow nozzle, control valves and NRV flaps wherever applicable should be not erected before steam blowing and
suitable spool pieces are erected. Strainers in the path should be removed.
22) Required number of Target Plates and holder made available.

You tube video of steam blowing

OPERATION: Start steam blowing:-

1) Start the ID and FD fan maintain furnace draft.
2) Fulfill all the boiler purging condition and start purge.
3) After purging reset boiler MFT and take a pair of oil burner .
4) Ensure openings of all M.S. line drain valves.
5) Charge M.S. line by opening of By-pass valve of main blowing valve for warming
up of the system.
6) Ensure complete draining of condensate through all M.S. line drain valves.
7) On the first day after, raise main steam pressure upto 15 kg/cm² and When the steam line blowing parameter
reaches , open the temporary purging valve gradually and increase the fuel and feed water volume to sustain
parameter stability.
8) Allow the pressure drop from 15 kg/cm² to 10 kg/cm² and close main valve and its by-pass valve.
9) After closing of the steam blowing MOV Remove the target plate and check it (scratch of plate)
10) Fill water to steam drum up to one/two ports and restart firing/ pressurizing the boiler.
11) Rectify the problems of temporary discharge piping & support, if any abnormality noticed during first blowing.
12) Repeat the above procedure and raise the pressure up to 20 kg/cm² for second
13) blow and 25 kg/cm² for third blow etc
14) Maximum blowing pressure may be set between (35-40 kg/cm²).
15) Continue the procedure until clear target plate (if fitted with Target Plate Holder in temporary piping) is
obtained.
16) Provide a gap of around two hours between successive blows- maximum 6 to 7 Blows can be planned per day.
In the evening the boiler to be boxed up for overnight cooling followed by lighting up in next day early morning for
continuing the blowing process.
What is the procedure of boiler alkali bailout ?
The main aim of alkali bailout is Alkali Boil Out to remove loose muck including Iron Oxide, oil, grease and debris. It
also ensure dry-out of the new refractory poured in burner-mouth or Air-heater area in the boiler.
Pre-checklist of alkali boil out:-
1) Ensure mechanically remove as much oil and grease as possible and boiler is completely flushed with fresh
water from drums and headers before alkaline boiling out. Check all drum internals for tightness of bolted parts.
2) Ensure there is no loose materials, nuts, bolts, washers, etc. should be left inside the drum and All boiler
instruments, leads and sampling line should be isolated except drum sampling and direct reading level gauge glass
(better use temporary gauge glass) in drum..
3)Ensure the steam drum internals should be kept loose inside the drum prior to boil-out.
4) Ensure secondary Steam Separators (Scrubbers) can be kept outside the drum as chemicals can stick inside the
corrugated surfaces which would be very difficult to clean afterwards. These parts can be mechanically cleaned
before fitting into the drum after Alkali Boil Out.
5) Ensure all instrument impulse pipes connected to Drum except those minimum required during Boiler
Pressure-raising should be isolated during the boil-out.
6) Ensure hydro test is completed before alkali.
7) that all temporary anchors made in the boiler during erection has been removed and boiler is free to expand.
8) Ensure all expansion reading indicator are erected properly.
9) Before introducing chemical to the boiler, particular care should be taken to eliminate possible leaks in the
pressure parts and adequate precautions should be taken to protect personnel in the event leaks occur.
Chemicals to be used:-
Generally the chemical is added 3 kg per ton of water in boiler. For example if the water holding capacity of boiler
is 150 ton then chemical used is 150x3=450 kg. Here water holding of super heater is not considered or deducted
from boiler water holding, because super heater is not filled with chemical.
i) Crystalline Tri-sodium Phosphate and sodium carbonate . In addition to the above chemical, a wetting agent
(like TEEPOL or equivalent) may be added @ of 100 ml per ton of water holding capacity of the boiler. Final
strength 1000 ppm phosphate and 500 ppm carbonate.

Procedure of alkali:-
Before starting Alkali Boil Out, the boiler has to be flushed with DM water as follows:
The boiler is filled through economizer or filling line using boiler filling pump up to the bottom of the manhole door
of the drum. After filling, the water is drained partially by opening all the furnace bottom header drain valves for a
few minutes. This process is to be repeated one or two times till the water collected from drains is reasonably
clear. If the super heater back-filling arrangement is available, these can be filled with water for flushing till clear
water starts coming to Steam Drum through the saturated pipes. Refill up the boiler with the DM water up-to
bottom most portion of the steam-drum gauge
glass. Mix the required quantity of chemicals in the separate mixing drum, mix with water and transfer in small
increment to boiler drum through open manhole door. After adding the chemical to boiler, close the drum
manhole door. Light-up the boiler and start heating with slow-firing to raise the temperature at a very slow rate
(1º C per minute for change in saturated steam temperature). As this firing will also be utilized for drying of the
burner-mouth refractory, so slow-firing will help in proper dry-out of the refractory.
The firing will be maintained throughout the day & boiler pressure will be raised up to 15 kg/cm2 (g) on the
first day, maintained throughout the day and boxed up in the evening for overnight cooling. During pressure-
raising, furnace bottom header-drains will be operated one at a time at every two-hour interval and flushed for a
minute to remove the deposited sludge
utilizing the pressure of boiler. Samples should be taken at random for one or two drain samples to check the pH,
alkalinity and conductivity. Traces of oil can be checked in the final stage. Drum-level to be monitored continuously
using the Drum-level gauge or one level transmitter put in service for checking from control room. As these
instruments (once put in service) will handle the high-concentration of alkaline water, so on completion of the
Alkali boil out
process, the impulse pipes need to be flushed thoroughly during rinsing operation.
 On 2nd day morning, the drum level to be normalized by taking D, M. water and again lighted up in a similar-
fashion like 1st day. Gradually, the boiler-pressure to be raised to 30 kg/cm2 (g) and maintained throughout the
day. Intermittent flushing/sampling to be done like first day. Flushing by opening the bottom-header drains should
be done up to 10 kg/cm2 pressure in boiler.
On 3rd day after blow down normal drum level is restored boiler is lighted up and pressure is raised to 40
kg/cm2 and held for 2 hours. Samples drawn for analysis of pH, alkalinity , oil and phosphate. Again fire is killed
and low point sequential blow down for 30 sec is given. This process is repeated for 8 to 9 times or till the oil
content is nill (less than 0.5 ppm). If chemical concentration falls below half of the initial concentration, excess
chemicals is injected to restore initial concentration. When test result shown no further repeat is required the
boiler is allowed to cool down. and at 2-3 kg/cm2 pressure the entire system is drained through all the bottom
drains keeping the vent open.
Final stage of alkali:-
This stage is known as Rinsing Operation of boiler. Following complete draining of the alkaline solution, the boiler
should be filled to the top of the
gauge glass with D.M water for rinsing. While the boiler is being filled for the boil-out rinse, fill the economizer
through the inlet header. Leave the rinse water in the boiler until sufficiently cooled to allow inspection. Drain the
boiler. Rinsing will be continued until quality of drain water becomes nearly normal as the feed water. Cut the
inspection nipple / hand hole caps of bottom headers to flush with water of any accumulated deposits. On
completion of this flushing, re-weld the nipples / caps, conduct hydro-test of boiler at working pressure to ensure
the integrity of the pressure parts after boil out operation. Now the boiler is ready for further activities.
Boiler preservation and it's necessary ?
Necessary of boiler preservation –
When the boiler is kept standby for long period it is very necessary to keep boiler in preservation to avoid internal
corrosion of tube. If water is left in boiler without properly treating for oxygen removal, can lead to corrosion. The
attacks on metals take place due to improper pH level too. Corrosion of the steam/water circuit, at ambient
temperature is the result of
oxidization of metal by combined effect of water, oxygen and lowering of pH from absorption of CO2 and SO4.
Types of preservation:-
There are generally two types of preservation done as,
1) Dry preservation.
2) Wet preservation under hydraulic pressure.
1) Dry preservation:-
The dry preservation method is effective provided the boiler is completely drainable. If Super
heater/economizer sections are completely drainable then this method can be practicable. The plant which will
remain unopened during outage can be completely filled with N2
gas and a little over pressure is maintained to prevent O2 ingress. The problem with N2 preservation is that if there
is any leakage than that has to repaired. N2 being odorless, colorless and chemically inactive gas; it is very difficult
to detect N2 leakage.
2) Wet preservation:-
Here in this preservation the plant item is completely filled with D M Water containing 200 ppm hydrazine
ammonia is added to raise the pH to 10. chloride should be below 2 ppm. Keep proper pre-mixing of the chemicals
with the water to insure a uniform mixture entering the boiler It is necessary to back fill the boiler from
Superheater section and ensure the water overflows from Superheater to the steam drum. The water should be
filled from the lowest point to ensure the air is properly released from boiler. The boiler pressure should be
maintained 5 kg/cm2 that means above atmospheric pressure to prevent ingress of air. Every day pressure should
be monitored. Sample may be collected and checked periodically and if needed, add chemicals
NATURAL DRAUGHT COOLING TOWERS
Introduction:
The efficient operation of a steam turbine depends on the vacuum in the condenser and the effective functioning
of the circulating water system. The absorption of latent heat of the turbine exhaust steam result in effective
condensation and maintaining optimum vacuum in the condenser warrant that the performance of cooling towers
should be kept high.
If a natural supply of water is available from a river, a mine or from the sea, it is best to employ this natural source
rather than cool the cooling water by exposing it to an air stream. However, circumstances often arise where the
water is unsuitable, or the supply very limited, in which case the cooling water must be cooled by spraying it down
a tower, through which air circulates, or by spraying it directly into the atmosphere over the surface of a spray
pond.

Image of natural draught cooling tower

construction:-
A natural draught cooling tower is s semi-enclosed heat exchanger consisting of an empty reinforced concrete shell
forming a chimney, which has the principal function of forming a draught. The shape of the tower is circular in plan
and hyperbolic in profile. At the lower portion of the tower, there is fill packing or distribution network through
which the hot water from the condenser sprayed and drops in a pre-determined manner so as to give up a portion
of its heat to the air stream flowing past.
The hyperbolic profile is chosen for the construction of the tower as it directs the air that enters to have a smooth
flow towards the center. Moreover upper rim aids to produce a strong upward draught.

Principle of operation:-
In natural draught cooling tower the draught is created mainly by the heated and mixing of air with the steam,
steam being lighter than air. The draught is due to the difference in densities between the air leaving the tower
and that entering the tower and also due to the aerodynamic lift of the wind passing over the top of tower. The
shell of the tower is supported on legs so as to allow free ingress of air at the base. The hot water from the
condenser is distributed at the level just above the fill packing’s by nozzle and sprayer and the resulting spray
makes a considerable contribution to increase the exposed surface of the hot water by subdividing into fine
droplets. Exchange of heat takes place between the ascending air and the falling water. The purpose of fill packing
is to increase the period (retention time) and area of contact.
The advantages of natural draught tower over a mechanical draught tower are:-
1. Ground space required is very less as a single natural cooling tower is equal to no of mechanical draught
cooling tower.
2. As the fans are eliminated, the operating costs, maintenance costs and down time are reduced and reliability
in operation .
3. Hyperbolic shaped towers have superior strength, since a thinner shell thickness can be used in comparison
with other designs, the quantitative need for materials of construction is reduced.
4. Due to higher elevation of natural draught cooling towers. Drift losses are minimized.
Procedure of condenser tube leak detection ?
If condenser tube leakage occurs, its early detection is essential to take necessary action to limit impurities in feed
water. Normal method of detecting condenser tube leakage to monitor conductivity of the condensate. Increase in
the conductivity indicates condenser tube leakage. But the increase may be due to chemical dosing
(ammonia/Hydrazine etc.). For this reason conductivity is measured after cation column which removes
ammonia/hydrazine. Further the salts are converted to acid, conductivity is also amplified which helps to confirm
the increase. For a small leakage as the raw water coming into the hot well are mixed with very high quantity of
condensate effect is very much diluted which makes it difficult to confirm. However in boiler this effect is
concentrated. TDS, conductivity SiO2 etc. all increases but phosphate decease pH may increase or decrease
depending upon the CW.

Methods of tube leakage detection-

Here are several method of condenser tube leak detection.
1) The Simple Manometer:- This is one of the offline tube leak detection method. Here a simple manometer, which
can be used for detection of tube leak. One end of the condenser tube is plugged and the manometer is inserted
into the other end. The leaking tube will suck the liquid out of glass because of the vacuum in the condenser. This
method is very effective, but can be
time consuming.
2) The Blanket Effect:- In this method the tube plate is covered by thin plastic sheeting or by foam. The leaking
tube will tend to pull the foam or sheet into it. Later foam can be traced in cooling water.
3) Sonic Detection:- As air is drawn into the leaking tube it creates a supersonic whistle. This whistle is detected by
a microphone placed in the entrance to the tube, and the resulting signal is amplified.
4) Bubbler Leak Detector :-This method can be used for on-load detection and its method of operation is similar to
the simple manometer. If one end of the tube is blocked with a bung, the vacuum of the condenser pulls air
through the bubbler when it is inserted in the other end of the tube. A more advanced type of bubbler called MEL
bubbler can be used both for on load and off-load detection and is very suitable for use with pannier and integral
condensers. , The tube to be tested is plugged, connected to a reference vessel and vacuum pump, and there the
system is evacuated. The pump is then isolated from the system and, after a short time, to ensure that the
pressure in the tube being tested and the reference vessel have equalized, the balance valve is closed. From then
on any air leaking into the tube under test will be indicated by a stream of bubbles issuing from the end of the tube
in the jar or water.
5) Flood test of condenser:- Here the condenser is filled with water up to 70 %ge through hot well makeup line .
Both side manhole are kept open. If there is any leakage water will be come out through leakage tube can be
traced near manhole door.

What is air cooled condenser (ACC) and it’s advantages?

Air Cooled Condenser (ACC) has main advantage that it does not need water to condense the process fluid and it
take a major role for water conservation of environment. In this system, exhaust steam from the turbine flows
through the tube bundles of an ACC and is condensed in parallel flow tube bundles using air flow induced by
properly designed axial fans.
the turbine exhaust enters a steam distribution manifold/header located on top of the ACC structure
Working of air cooled condenser –
Generally acc has a of ‘a” shaped structure. Heat of steam is exchanged through finned tubes. Steam discharged
from. The steam is then distributed into the fin tube heat exchangers arranged in a “roof structure” with an A-
shape configuration. The A-shape structure may be single row or multi row. Cooling fans are provided at the
bottom of a-frame. Steam Flowing down inside the tubes From common duct and steam condenses due to the
cooling effect of ambient air drawn over the external finned surface of the tubes by the fans. Condensate collected
at the bottom header of a-frame and then drains to a condensate storage tank (CST). The condensate are then
pumped from CST tank to boiler feed water circuit. Rupture disc are provided at the top header of a-frame to
protect condenser from positive pressure. Partition walls provided between fan cells to isolate operating cells from
non operating ones.
Acc operates under vacuum same like surface condenser. Air removing equipment/ejectors are provided to
remove noncondensable gasses from condenser.Fin cleaning system are provided for cleaning of tube fins to avoid
dust accumulation on tubes or for provision for proper heat transfer.

Image of acc

Equioments of ACC-
1. Air-cooled steam condenser tower.
2. Air-flow control equipment.
3. Wind and/or cell-partition walls.
4. Acc fans ,motor, gearbox.
5. Air removal equipment(Ejector).
6. Condensate storage tank.
7. Condensate pumps.
8. Steam ducts and expansion joints..

Youtube video of ACC.

Advantage of acc-
 Lower Pressure Drops Steam side/Airside
 Higher Thermal Efficiency
 Dead Zones Do Not Exist
 Lower Fan Power Consumption
 Lower Sound Power Level
 Lower Weight Per Face Area
 Higher Corrosion Resistance.
Design of Air-cooled condenser depends on-
 Exhaust steam flowrate.
 Exhaust steam enthalpy.
 Design exhaust pressure.
 Design ambient-air temperature.
 Maximum ambient-air temperature.
 Minimum ambient-air temperature.
 Lowest optimum turbine-exhaust pressure.
 Highest permissible turbine-exhaust pressure.
 Economic optimization of fan power usage.
What is air cooled condenser (ACC) and it’s advantages?
Air Cooled Condenser (ACC) has main advantage that it does not need water to condense the process fluid and it
take a major role for water conservation of environment. In this system, exhaust steam from the turbine flows
through the tube bundles of an ACC and is condensed in parallel flow tube bundles using air flow induced by
properly designed axial fans.
the turbine exhaust enters a steam distribution manifold/header located on top of the ACC structure
Working of air cooled condenser –
Generally acc has a of ‘a” shaped structure. Heat of steam is exchanged through finned tubes. Steam discharged
from. The steam is then distributed into the fin tube heat exchangers arranged in a “roof structure” with an A-
shape configuration. The A-shape structure may be single row or multi row. Cooling fans are provided at the
bottom of a-frame. Steam Flowing down inside the tubes From common duct and steam condenses due to the
cooling effect of ambient air drawn over the external finned surface of the tubes by the fans. Condensate collected
at the bottom header of a-frame and then drains to a condensate storage tank (CST). The condensate are then
pumped from CST tank to boiler feed water circuit. Rupture disc are provided at the top header of a-frame to
protect condenser from positive pressure. Partition walls provided between fan cells to isolate operating cells from
non operating ones.
Acc operates under vacuum same like surface condenser. Air removing equipment/ejectors are provided to
remove noncondensable gasses from condenser.Fin cleaning system are provided for cleaning of tube fins to avoid
dust accumulation on tubes or for provision for proper heat transfer.

Image of acc

Equioments of ACC-
1. Air-cooled steam condenser tower.
2. Air-flow control equipment.
3. Wind and/or cell-partition walls.
4. Acc fans ,motor, gearbox.
5. Air removal equipment(Ejector).
6. Condensate storage tank.
7. Condensate pumps.
8. Steam ducts and expansion joints..
 Youtube video of ACC.

Advantage of acc-
Lower Pressure Drops Steam side/Airside
Higher Thermal Efficiency
Dead Zones Do Not Exist
Lower Fan Power Consumption
Lower Sound Power Level
Lower Weight Per Face Area
Higher Corrosion Resistance.
Design of Air-cooled condenser depends on-
Exhaust steam flowrate.
Exhaust steam enthalpy.
Design exhaust pressure.
Design ambient-air temperature.
Maximum ambient-air temperature.
Minimum ambient-air temperature.
Lowest optimum turbine-exhaust pressure.
Highest permissible turbine-exhaust pressure.
Economic optimization of fan power usage.
What is furnace safe guard supervisory system ( FSSS) ?

Why FSSS is necessary:-

Generally, furnace oil or any kind of fuel is susceptible to explosion hazards. It has been established that the
majority of explosions occur during start-up, shut-down and low load operations. The multiplicity of operating
steps required for admitting a fuel to a furnace safely and properly. Adequacy of ignition energy is an important
factor, which should not be left to operator interpretation. For high capacity boilers where the fuel input rate is
also high, major furnace explosions can result from the ignition of unburnt fuel accumulated in the first 1 to 2
seconds. So it is most necessary to start boiler safely and FSSS is designed to ensure a safe, orderly start-up and
shutdown sequence of the fuel firing equipments to prevent errors of omission and commission during execution
of these operating sequences. This system provides safety interlocks to protect against potential emergency
situations in the event of malfunctions of fuel firing equipments and associated air systems.

FUNCTIONS OF FSSS:-
1) Prevent any fuel firing unless a satisfactory furnace purge sequence has first been completed.
2) Prevent start-up of individual fuel firing equipment unless certain permissive, interlocks have been satisfied.
3) Monitor and control proper component sequencing during start-up and shut-down of fuel firing equipment.
4) Subject continued operation of fuel firing equipment to certain safety interlocks remaining satisfied.
5) Provide component status feedback to the operator and, in some cases, to the unit control system or to the data
logger.
6) Provide flame supervision when fuel firing equipment is in service and effect an Elevation Fuel Trip or Master
Fuel Trip upon certain condition of unacceptable firing / load combination.
7) Initiate a fuel trip when certain abnormal operating conditions exist.
INTERLOCKS COVERED UNDER FSSS:-
PURGE PERMISSIVES.
HOTV OPEN/CLOSE INTERLOCKS.
HORV OPEN/CLOSE INTERLOCKS.
OIL GUNS START/STOP CYCLE.
BOILER PROTECTION LOGICS.
PA FAN INTERLOCKS COVERED UNDER FSSS.
COAL MILL START/STOP INTERLOCKS.
COAL FEEDER START/STOP INTERLOCKS.
SCANNER AIR FANS.
SEAL AIR FANS.
DAMPER INTERLOCKS.
what is D.M (Demineralization) plant and it’s process diagram?
In power plant water is known as the heart of the plant, so it is most necessary to supply salt free water for
process. The demineralization is the process of removing mineral salts from water by using ion exchange process.
The D.M water reduces the scale formation, Deposition and corrosion of tubes. It increases the life of pipes and
tubes in plant. It prevents the deposition of minerals in turbine blades. It removes Mineral salts in the form of
cations such as sodium, calcium, iron, copper and anions such as chloride, sulphate , nitrate etc.
SOURCES OF WATER
There are 3 types of sources of water-
1. Surface water ---- River water,lake water, pond water ect.
2. Ground water ---- Bore water, well water.
3. Sea water ---- Sea water.
Rain water is the purist of all sources of water. since the water having unique property of absorbing every thing on
the earth that is why water is called universal solution. As the rain water falls on the earth it will be exposed with
several gases present in the atmosphere, after falling on the earth water will be flows through several salts&
minerals on the earth. In this way water is getting contaminated.
Process diagram of DM plant

Reservoir:-Reservoir is used for water storage purpose. Water is taken from here for dm water process work.
High Rate Solid Contact Clarifier:-
This clarifier is a high rate, solid contact, sludge re-circulation type clarifier, which is minimum time and space and
using a minimum amount of Chemicals, Produces an effluent of the highest quality. it is used principally for
clarification, lime softening, silica reduction, or organics reductions of water and waste water containing
suspended solids, color and organic impurities. As such, it provides a means for chemical addition and mixing,
Flocculation and up flow clarification in a single unit.
MULTI GRADE FILTER (MGF):- It consists of vertical or horizontal pressure filters that contain multiple layer of
coarse fine sand.It reduce turbudity and TSS (<5 PPM) from water. water is passed through multi layers of filter
media consisting graded sand, pebbles and gravels layers. The contaminants in the water are captured in the
media bed and filtered water passes into the discharge manifold at the bottom of the tanks. The next and last step
is back washing, a process of effectively removal of captured contaminants from the media bed. After back-
washing the filter is rinsed with raw water and after the required quality of water is achieved the filter is put back
into service.
Ultra filter (UF):- It will remove oil, grease, and colloidal silica particles from water. It has membrane system range
from 0.01 to 0.1 micron. UF consists of Hollow Fiber Membranes are Hot Water, Chlorine & Acid/Alkali Tolerant.
These Membranes have the unique advantage of being hydrophilic nature, which results in fouling resistance. UF
Membranes also have a wide range of pH and temperature tolerance and are easily backwash able, to avoid
membrane fouling.
RO system:- here two different concentrations are separated by a semi-permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure
drives water through the membrane; the water dilutes the more concentrated solution, and the end result is
equilibrium.In RO systems, hydraulic pressure is applied to the concentrated solution to counteract the osmotic
pressure. Pure water is driven from the concentrated solution at a flow rate proportional to applied pressure and
collated downstream of the membrane.
Degasser:- Degasser is an integral part of any demineralization plant, where it is generally placed between cation
and anion exchanges and removes Carbon Dioxide, which is generated by dissociation of carbonic acid at cation
outlet water. In this Degassing processes, Degasser Tower is utilized, which is made from either FRP or Mild Steel
with rubber lined or epoxy coating. Low air pressure is generated at the bottom of the tower that drives out CO2
and the degassed water is collected in a sump beneath the tower
MIXED BED UNITS:- After passing water through cation then anion exchanger it is passed through mixed bed unit.
In mixed bed cation and anion resins are mixed and while water passes through it as it passes through thousands
of cation/anions exchanger ‘resulting final effluent of very
good quality water. It is similar to conventional ion exchanger a cylindrical steel vessel. Internally rubber lined
containing resin bed above which there is free space to allow expansion of resin when back washed. In addition to
the usual distributors, a mixed bed is fitted with a centre distribution and collection system. At the time of
regeneration the bed is back washed. This expands the resin bed and allows the heavy cation resin to sink to
bottom and lighter anion resin rises to top. After some time when back wash is stopped the resins settle without
upsetting the separation. There is a well defined interface between the cation and anion resin bed and that
interface is just at the level of centre distributors. Anion resin can be regeneration with caustic an rinsed. Spend
caustic solution and rinse water can be withdrawn through the centre distributors. After this cation resin can be
regenerated and rinsed. In that case caustic will now be acid inlet/rinse water inlet. When both the resins are
regenerated and rinsed the excess water is drained down to the surface of the bed and the resins are mixed
thoroughly, with the help of air blowing. The air is blown in through bottom distributors and out through the air
release at the top. After proper mixing the space above the bed is filled from above and unit is put into final rinse.
What is RO (Reverse Osmosis process) , How does RO works?
This is a natural and fundamental process in which a liquid is flown through a semi permeable membrane, which
blocks the transfusion of salts/solutes through this membrane.

IMAGE OF R.O SYSTEM IN D.M PLANT.

Reverse Osmosis:
“Reverse Osmosis (R.O.) is the most economical method of removing 95% to 99% of all contaminants. The
semipermeable nature of the membrane allows the water to pass much more readily than the dissolved minerals.
Since the water in the less concentrated solution seeks to dilute the more concentrated solution, the water
passage through the membrane generates a noticeable head difference between the two solutions. This head
difference is a measure of the concentration difference of the two solutions
and is referred to as the osmotic pressure difference.When a pressure is applied to the concentrated solution
which is great that the osmotic
pressure difference, the direction of water passage through the membrane is reversed and the process that refer
as reverse osmasis. That is, the membrane's ability to selectively pass water is unchanged, only the direction of the
water flow is changed.The permitted water goes to Degasser and rejected water drained to atmosphere.

The hole structure of R.O. Membranes is much tighter than that of UF membranes. RO membranes are
capable of rejecting practically all particles, bacteria and organics >200 Dalton molecular weight (including
pyrogens) at a rate close to 99%. Natural osmosis occurs when solutions with two different concentrations are
separated by a semi-permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure drives water through the membrane; the water
dilutes the more concentrated solution, and the end result is equilibrium.
Material of RO membranes:-
RO membranes are very thin film with small pores. It has made of different material as,
i) Cellulose acetate
ii) Aromatic polyamide.
iii) Nylon polyamide.
iv) Poly sulphone.
v) Poly acrylonitrile.
Procedure for pre-treatment of water in DM plant?
 The source of water generally comes from river, pond ,sea, bore well. Natural water always contains impurities in
the form of floating solids, suspended solids, colloids, dissolved gases, liquids etc. Mode of treatment is decided as
per impurity content in water. In river water following impurity are generally found as ,Floating solids ,Suspended
solids, Colloids, Dissolved solids ,Dissolved liquids, gases etc.To avoid scale formation in water circuit it is very
necessary to removal of suspended as well as dissolved solids from water. In pre treatment Floating solids are
removed before hand at the river intake by screening. Suspended solids, colloids, organic matters are removed.
The pretreatment plant process are,
a) Screening.
b) Chlorination.
c) Aerationc.
d) Coagulation.
e) flocculation.
f) Filtration.
a) SCREENING-
Coarse screens are provided at river intake to prevent floating material of fairly large size entering the works. The
steel bar forming the screen are normally quite substantial (about 25 mm Dia) and are spaced about 100 mm
apart. They are often placed on slight inclination from the vertical to facilitadte raking. Sometimes the bars are
mounted in frames
which are duplicated so that one frame can be lifted for clearing or repair without admitting unscreened water to
the plant. The velocity of water through the screen openings should not exceeds 0.5m/s.
b) PRE CHLORINATION-
This is a practice of injecting chlorine into the raw water soon after it enters the plant, generally at a dosing rate
of 2-5mg/l. This is not only destroys the high bacterial ,count, but also ox dieses and precipitate iron and
manganese, kill algae, reduce color and
slime formation and generally assists settlement. However, if water is highly turbid the merit of pre-chlorination
declines, as chlorine absorbs without compensatory benefit.

c) AERATION-
This is commonly done by splashing the water over trays cascades to break up the stream into countless
droplets or by reversing the effect and blowing air bubbles through the water. Thus if the water is lacking in
dissolved oxygen it will pick up oxygen from the air and its taste will improve. If it has an excess of CO2 or H2S it
will tend to lose them. Certain volatile substance is liberated by algae growths or decomposing organic matter, can
be released from water by aeration. Iron and manganese in solution are also oxidizes and precipitated out. It is a
cheap and valuable means of controlling taste, odour and corrosion but not in all case complete control may be
achieved.
d) COAGULATION-
Coagulation is a process by which small particles in suspension join together to form larger agglomerate.
Coagulation is a process by which small particles in suspension join together to form larger agglomerate. Fine
suspended particles and colloids presents in water carry charges on their surface and most of the common
materials assume negative charge. The particles are join together to coagulate into large particle and settle down
quickly. The rate of this coagulation depends upon the frequency of collisions. So mixing promotes the effect but
violent agitation will break down the attraction between the particle and retard coagulation. If enough time is
given, stagnant water may coagulate sufficiently to form particles large enough to settle down, leaving the water
largely clear.
e) FLOCCULATION -
Ferric and aluminum salts when added in water forms insoluble hydroxides which comes out as floppy flocks,
whose surface carry positive charge. These positive charge flocs attach itself with the negative charged particle in
water and also attract and hold humic acid. When alum (Aluminum sulphate is known as alum in TPS) is added in
water aluminum hydroxide floc and sulphuric acid is formed. This acid reduces the pH of the
water.
Al2 (SO4)+ 6H2 O→Al(OH) 3 ↓3H2 SO4
f) CLARIFERS
Clarifiers are structure/system in which water is cleared from most of the suspended solids with or without
addition of coagulant. Types of clarifier as,
CONVENTIONAL TYPE CLARIFIER-This has the arrangement of a flash mixer, flocculation and settler in separate
compartments. The water first enters the flash mixture, where it is mixed with the chemicals by means of a high
speed agitator. The mixed water then enters the flocculate chamber, where slowly rotating paddles provide more
gentle agitation, stimulating the growth of the floc, which enmeshes the turbidity, color and other suspended
matter. About 20 to 60 minutes of retention are allowed in the flocculater. The flocculated water then is
distributed uniformly to the horizontal flow setting basin
compartment, where the floc and precipitates settle out. A slowly rotating sludge scraper makes the settled sludge
to the centre for discharge to waste. The settled clarified water flows to the outlet launder at the top, from which
it passes to the filters.

ELECTRICAL QUESTION ANSWER

<Q .What is electrical Generator .

Ans. The Generator is an electrical machine which convert mechanical energy to electrical energy . There are two
types of generator AC generator & DC generator.

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Image of A.C generator
Q. Why the transformer & generator are rated in KVA instead of KW.
Ans. Here are the following reason's.
1-The power factor of generator & transformer depend on the power factor of load , as we don't know the power
factor of load so it is rated in KVA.
2- The copper loss depend on the current & iron loss depend on the voltage so total loss depend on the volt-amp
not on the phase angle of voltage and current i.e is independent of load power factor , that is why rating of
transformer is in kva instead of kw.
Q. What is the difference between generator and alternator?
Ans. Here is the following difference are noted as.
1> Both works on the same principle of electromagnetic induction , generator generate D.C through commutator
while the alternator generates A.C through slip rings.
2> In generator the field is fixed and the armature is rotating while in alternator armature is fixed and field is
rotating.
3> Generator is used where small loads while alternator is used for large loads or large power plants.
4> Operation and flexibility of alternator is more than the generator.
Q. What are the types of winding used in electrical machine?
Ans. There are two types of winding is generally used as wave winding and lap winding . In wave winding the no of
parallel path is two, where as in lap winding the no of parallel path is equal to no of poles.
Q. What is the power factor ?
Ans. It is the cosine angle between voltage and current in an ac circuit.There are generally three types of power
factor as,
1.Active power factor = v*i*cosɸ.

Q. Causes of low power factor?

Ans.Here are the reason of low power factor ,
1.Most of A.C motor are induction type which have low lagging power factor.
2.Arc lamps,industrial heating surface, electrical discharge lamps operate at low lagging power factor.

Q .What is the classification of transformer?

Ans. The transformer is classified as,
1. According to voltage- High voltage transformer ( H.T) and low voltage transformer(L.T).
2. According to winding - Core type winding and shell type winding.
3. According to cooling – Natural oil cooling, natural oil forced air cooling, forced air forced oil cooling.

Q. What is corona effect?

Ans. It is the phenomena of hissing sound, production of ozone gas, radio interference and power loss in overhead
transmission line. At higher voltage corona loss will be found more.
Theory of corona :- Generally air contains some ionized particles due to ultraviolet radiation & cosmic rays . In
normal condition air contains free electron and + ve ions when ever the voltage increase to a certain value in
between the conductor , The potential gradient is setup in the air . Under the presence of potential gradient the
ionized air occurred more velocity and air starts conducting in between the conductor. The air starts conducting
when the potential gradient of the surface increase to 30 v/cm . More voltage more free electron available in
between the conductor hence more corona effect. Due to this result either corona will formed of spark occurred
in between the conductor.
Factors affecting corona :-
1.Atmosphere- Corona depends on the physical condition of atmosphere . In a rainy or stormy weather corona will
be more at less voltage.2.
2.Space between the conductor- Spacing between the conductor is also depend on the corona more space in
between the conductor less electrostatic effect and less corona.
3. Line voltage- Line voltage is also affect on corona, greater the line voltage more corona will be formed.
4.Surface of the conductor- Irregular and rough surface have more corona than the smooth surface.
Advantages of corona:-
1.Due to formation of corona surrounding conductors starts conducting, hence the diameter of the conductor is
increased.
2.The effect of transient produced by surges is also reduced.
Disadvantages of corona:-
1.It increase line loss and decrease transmission efficiency.
2.Non sinusoidal voltage drop across the line as the current drawn by the corona is non sinusoidal .
3.Corrosion of conductor may cause due to production of ozone gas.
Methods of reducing corona effect:-
1.By increasing conductor spacing
2.By increasing conductor size.

ELECTRICAL TRANSFORMER WORKING

Q. What is electrical Transformer?

Ans. The transformer is a static device which step up or step-down the voltage with constant frequency. Its name
is defined transformer because it transforms energy from one circuit to another circuit. Since it has no moving
parts, so it is called static device. There is no physical contact in between two winding. Transformer require less
maintenance as compared to other rotating device. When the transformer raises voltage higher than input voltage
then it is called step-up transformer and vice versa.
Construction of transformer:-
It consists a soft iron or silicon steel core and two winding name as , primary & secondary. The winding are
insulated to each other. A transformer tank is provided to support all assembly parts. The core is built up of thin
soft iron and some %ge of silicon generally 0.35 to 0.4 % is added to reduce eddy current loss.The core is
laminated each other to reduce iron loss. Electrical bushings are provided to connect winding terminals and
external wire. Protecting device are provided to protect transformer from overloading. The winding are immersed
with mineral oil its trade name known as (ASKARELS) for cooling. They are nonflammable and do not decompose
to produce inflammable gasses. External cooling finned pipes are provided to cool transformer oil. Oil indicator
provided to indicate oil level. Breather is provided to supply moisture free air to transformer tank. A conservator
tank provided to show oil level of the tank.
Image of Transformer

Types of transformer:-
i) According to construction – core type , shell type transformer.
ii) According to cooling- Natural air cooling , natural oil cooling , force oil cooling, natural oil and natural air cooling.
iii) According to voltage – Step-up and step down transformer.
iv) According to phase-Single phase and three phase transformer.
v) according to loading – Power transformer and distribution transformer.
vi) according to installation – Indoor transformer and outdoor transformer.
vii) According to connection – Star and Delta connection.
Working principle of transformer:- It work in the principle of faraday's law of electromagnetic induction that is, The
changing flux link is directly proportional to the induced EMF ( e= Mdi/dt ) . If the secondary circuit is closed, a
current flows in it thus the electrical energy is transferred from primary coil to secondary coil .The E.M.F equation
of a transformer E= 4.44ɸF N volt.

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you tube video of transformer
Transformer tests:-
i) Open circuit tests – This test of the transformer is done to determine the core loss or no load loss of the
transformer. Here low voltage winding is supplied with normal voltage and high voltage winding is kept open.
There is an ammeter, voltmeter and watt meter is connected in high voltage winding’s hen there is a normal
voltage applied to the primary of the transformer , normal flux will be setup in the core as there is no load
connected in secondary only normal iron loss recorded in the secondary by watt meter. The iron loss is two types
as iron loss as eddy current loss and hysteresis loss. Copper loss is negligible as there is very small current in
primary.
ii) Short circuit test – This test is known as impendance test is done to determine copper loss of the transformer.
This loss is used to calculate efficiency of transformer. The copper loss is directly proportional to load sometimes
called I²R loss. Here high voltage winding is supplied with 5 – 10 % of the normal primary voltage and low voltage
winding is short circuited with a thick copper conductor. There is an ammeter, voltmeter and watt meter is
connected in high voltage winding to measure power. As the supply voltage is applied very small percentage so the
flux produced is also very lo percentage hence core loss is very low , the result is that the watt meter reading
shows only copper loss or I²R loss.

What is regulation of transformer:- This is known as change in terminal voltage from no load to full load =V2-V1 .
When the transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage, t he secondary voltage decrease because of its
internal resistance and leakage reactance. Lesser is the regulation more stable of the transformer and more
efficient.
%ge regulation is defined as V2-V1/V2 *100.
Whereas v2 secondary voltage and V1 primary voltage.
Transformation ratio of transformer:-
This is the voltage transformation ratio of the transformer is defined as,
K= v2/v1 * n2/n1 * i1/i2 .
K is known as transformation ratio.
Efficiency of the transformer:- The efficiency of the transformer in particular and power factor is defined as the
output divided to input .The transformer is highly efficient because there is very small loss and there is no rotary
part. generally the efficiency of transformer is designed 98 %
Efficiency = output/input or Output/output +loss .
Condition of maximum efficiency –
The condition of transformer maximum efficiency is Copper loss = Iron loss.
ELECTRICAL QUESTION & ANSWER

Q. What is corona effect?

Ans. It is the phenomena of hissing sound, production of ozone gas, radio interference and power loss in overhead
transmission line. At higher voltage corona loss will be found more.
Theory of corona:- Generally air contains some ionized particles due to ultraviolet radiation & cosmic rays. In
normal condition air contains free electron and + ve ions whenever the voltage increase to a certain value in
between the conductor, The potential gradient is setup in the air . Under the presence of potential gradient the
ionized air accrue more velocity and air starts conducting in between the conductor. The air starts conducting
when the potential gradient of the surface increase to 30 v/cm . More voltage more free electron available in
between the conductor hence more corona effect. Due to this result either corona will formed of spark occur in
between the conductor.
Factors affecting corona:-
1. Atmosphere- Corona depends on the physical condition of atmosphere. In a rainy or stormy weather corona will
be more at less voltage.2.
2.Space between the conductor- Spacing between the conductor is also depend on the corona more space in
between the conductor less electrostatic effect and less corona.
3. Line voltage- Line voltage is also affect on corona, greater the line voltage more corona will be formed.
4. Surface of the conductor- Irregular and rough surface have more corona than the smooth surface.
Advantages of corona:-
1.Due to formation of corona surrounding conductors starts conducting, hence the diameter of the conductor is
increased.
2. The effect of transient produced by surges is also reduced.
Disadvantages of coron:-
1. It increase line loss and decrease transmission efficiency.
2. Non sinusoidal voltage drop across the line as the current drawn by the corona is non sinusoidal .
3. Corrosion of conductor may cause due to production of ozone gas.
Methods of reducing corona effect:-
1. By increasing conductor spacing
2.By increasing conductor size.

Q. What is the advantage of star delta starter than the DOL starter?
Ans. In star-delta starter the staring current is reduced 3-4 times than the DOL starter. At the time of starting the
motor starts with star connection and after some time it switches to delta. The voltage during star is reduced to
root (3) times of normal voltage. It increases the life of the motor. Starting torque is also increased in star-delta
starter.
Q. What happen if D.C voltage is applied to an A.C induction motor?
Ans. If we apply D.C voltage to ac induction motor first thing is that the motor will not rotate and second thing is it
will born the motor winding because the reactance of the motor winding will be zero . The reactance of the coil is
given as XL= 2*π*f*l as the frequency is zero in D.C supply so total reactance will be zero and the motor takes
heavy current. The reason for motor not rotating is as we apply D.C supply it produce constant flux hence no E.M.F
is induced in the rotor conductor.
Q. Why the A.C supply is preferred than the D.C supply?
Ans. Here is the following advantages of using ac supply,
1. The voltage can be easily step up or step down as per requirement.
2. A.C equipment and circuit breaker is cheap.
3. A.C substation is cheap and easy for installation.
4. Maintenance cost of A.C substation is less as compared to D.C substation.
Q. What are the advantages of D.C transmission system?
Ans.
1. There are two conductor required in D.C transmission system.
2. There is no skin effect on D.C transmission line.
3. There is no inductance and surge impedance in D.C transmission line.
4. Due to less impedance there is less voltage drop in line.
5. Less interference in communication system.
6. The speed control is easy in D.C system.
7. D.C system is stable for high power transmission line.
8. There is less corona loss in D.C transmission line.
Q. what is the disadvantage of D.C transmission line?
ANS.
1>Electric power can’t be generated in high voltage.
2>There is limitation of D.C switches and circuit breakers.
3>The maintenance cost of D.C equipment is high.
4> D.C voltage can't be step up or step down as per requirement.
ELECTRICAL QUESTION ANSWER.

<Q. How can we change the direction of rotation of a single phase induction motor?
A.We can change the direction of rotation of motor either by interchanging the terminal of winding or by changing
the terminal of capacitor.
Q. what is the speed control method of induction motor?
A. We can vary the speed by
1. By varying the voltage.
2. By varying the current.
3. By varying the frequency.
4. By changing the no of poles of motor.
The most effective method from the above is variable frequency control method. Now a days most industries used
variable frequency drives for speed control of induction motor.
Q. What is the working principle of orifice plate used for flow measurement?
A. It is a device used to measuring flow rate by reducing pressure or restricting flow. it works in the Bernoulli’s
principle , as per this theory the pressure of the fluid is inversely proportional to the velocity of the fluid means if
the velocity of the fluid increase then the pressure will be decrease. It is a thin plate with a hole which is placed at
the center of the pipeline. When fluid passes through the orifice there is a presser difference in between before
and after of the orifice. By taking the pressure difference across upstream and downstream the flow rate can be
obtained.
Q. What is the load curve used in transmission line?
A. It is the measurement of variation of load on the transmission line with respect to time. The load in a power
station/ transmission line is never constant it varies according to time ,so it is recorded hourly or half –hourly on
the graph. The curve obtain is known as daily load curve and show the variation of load on the whole day. It is
observed that the load on a Power Station is maximum in 6 P.M evening and minimum at 12 A.M midnight. The
load curve can be calculated ad monthly load curve and yearly load curve.
Importance of load curve:-
a) The load curve shows the maximum demand of the station.
b) The load curve helps the Power Station staffs to calculate peak load demand of station.
c) It helps to observe the variations of load in Power Station during different hours of the day.
d) It helps to calculate the average load of station on that day.
Average load = Area in daily load curve in (KWH) / 24 hours.

Q. What is difference between load factor and demand factor of Power Station?
A. The load factor is defined as :- The ratio of average load to maximum demand during a defined period. Load
factor=Average load/Max. demand.
The demand factor is defined as:- The ratio of maximum demand to connected load of the Power Station .Demand
factor = Maximum demand/connected load.
Q. What is tariff in a Transmission system?
A. It is the rate at which the electrical power is supplied to the consumer is known as tariff. It include the cost of
producing power and profit. It is used to calculate the capital investment in transmission & distribution system
with profit earned in that system.
Types of tariff:-
a) Simple rate tariff:- This type of tariff , the price is constant per unit .It does not depend on the increased or
decreased consumers energy demand.
b) Flat rate tariff:- In this type of tariff the consumers are charged different per unit rate. In this system the
consumer are charged with different groups such as lighting load and power load. A charge is applied for lighting
load and another price is set for power load.
c) Block rate tariff: - Here the energy is divided with different blocks and the price is charged as per the specific
block. For example, the first 50 units is charged with 1 rupees and the next 30 unit may be charge for 80 paise .This
tariff give a relief to large consumer.
d) Two part tariff: - In two part tariff the unit is charged with the maximum targeted demand of the consumer to
the actual energy consumed by the consumer. Here the tariff divided into two part as fixed charge and running
charge.
Q. What is the method used for improvement of power factor?
A. As most of the power load is inductive so it is necessary to install power factor correction equipment in the
system. The power factor correction device are draw the leading current from the circuit and improve power
factor. Here is the following power factor correction equipments used for power factor correction,
a) Static capacitor:- This is a device which is connected in parallel with the circuit , draws leading current and
improve power factor. It consists of two parallel plate with dielectric in between the plates. In three phase circuit
the capacitor can be connected star or delta. They have easily installed and require less maintenance.
b) Synchronous condenser:- Here a synchronous motor is connected in parallel with the circuit. It consists a rotor
and stator same as construction of A.C slip ring induction motor. The stator is supplied with three phase ac supply
where as the rotor is supplied with D.C supply. The motor require initial rotation through eternal rotating device,
when it reaches to synchronous speed then D.C supply is switched on and the motor starts rotating at synchronous
speed. By varying the excitation of rotor the power factor can be adjusted. An over excited synchronous motor act
as a condenser. It has the disadvantage that it requires high maintenance cost and more loss.
c) Phase advancer:- This is a device used improve the power factor of the induction motor. It is mounted in the
same shaft of the motor. It improves the power factor of the motor by providing extra ampere turns. Its terminal is
connected in series with the rotor circuit .We can say this is a simple A.C exciter. By providing extra ampere turns it
operates on leading power factor as an over excited synchronous motor.
ELECTRICAL QUESTION & ANSWER

Q. What is the advantage of star delta starter than the DOL starter?
Ans. In star-delta starter the staring current is reduced 3-4 times than the DOL starter. At the time of starting the
motor starts with star connection and after some time it switches to delta. The voltage during star is reduced to
root (3) times of normal voltage. It increases the life of the motor. Starting torque is also increased in star-delta
starter.
Q. What happen if D.C voltage is applied to an A.C induction motor?
Ans. If we apply D.C voltage to ac induction motor first thing is that the motor will not rotate and second thing is it
will born the motor winding because the reactance of the motor winding will be zero . The reactance of the coil is
given as XL= 2*π*f*l as the frequency is zero in D.C supply so total reactance will be zero and the motor takes
heavy current. The reason for motor not rotating is as we apply D.C supply it produce constant flux hence no e.m.f
is induced in the rotor conductor.
Q. Why the A.C supply is preferred than the D.C supply?
Ans. Here is the following advantages of using ac supply,
1. The voltage can be easily step up or step down as per requirement.
2. A.C equipment and circuit breaker is cheap.
3. A.C substation is cheap and easy for installation.
4. Maintenance cost of A.C substation is less as compared to D.C substation.
Q. What are the advantages of D.C transmission system?
Ans.
1. There are two conductor required in D.C transmission system.
2. There is no skin effect on D.C transmission line.
3. There is no inductance and surge impedance in D.C transmission line.
4. Due to less impedance there is less voltage drop in line.
5. Less interference in communication system.
6. The speed control is easy in D.C system.
7. D.C system is stable for high power transmission line.
8. There is less corona loss in D.C transmission line.
Q. what is the disadvantage of D.C transmission line?
ANS.
1.Electric power can’t be generated in high voltage.
2.There is limitation of D.C switches and circuit breakers.
3.The D.C voltage can’t be change easily.
Q. How can we change the direction of rotation of a single phase induction motor?
Ans. We can change the direction of rotation of motor either by interchanging the terminal of winding or by
changing the terminal of capacitor.single phase induction motors usually have2 windings, a run winding connected
all the time and a start or auxiliary winding that is only connected for a few seconds at start up. to Reverse a single
phase induction motor the flow of current in one of the windings needs to be reversed not both so reversing the
supply will not work. As both windings are effectively in parallel when supply is switched on.
Q. what is the speed control method of induction motor?
Ans. We can vary the speed by
1. By varying the voltage.
2. By varying the current.
3. By varying the frequency.
4. By changing the no of poles of motor.
The most effective method from the above is variable frequency control method. Now a days most industries used
variable frequency drives for speed control of induction motor.
Q. What is the working principle of orifice plate used for flow measurement?
Ans.It is a device used to measuring flow rate by reducing pressure or restricting flow.it works in the Bernoulli’s
principle , as per this theory the pressure of the fluid is inversely proportional to the velocity of the fluid means if
the velocity of the fluid increase then the pressure will be decrease. It is a thin plate with a hole which is placed at
the center of the pipeline. When fluid passes through the orifice there is a presser difference in between before
and after of the orifice. By taking the pressure difference across upstream and downstream the flow rate can be
obtained.
What is a servo motor ?
Ans.
A Servo is a small device that incorporates a three wire DC motor, a gear train, a potentiometer,an integrated
circuit, and an output shaft bearing .It has three wires that stick out from the motor casing, one is for power, one is
for ground, and one is a control input line. The shaft of the servo can be positioned to specific angular positions by
sending a coded signal. As long as the coded signal exists on the input line, the servo will maintain the angular
position of the shaft. If the coded signal changes, then the angular position of the shaft changes.
Servos come in different sizes but use similar control schemes and are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are
small and are extremely powerful for their size. It also draws power proportional to the mechanical load. A lightly
loaded servo, therefore, doesn’t consume much energy.

A very common use of servos is in Radio Controlled models like cars, airplanes, robots, and puppets. They are
also used in powerful heavy-duty sail boats. Servos are rated for Speed and Torque. Normally there are two servos
of the same kind, one geared towards speed (sacrificing torque), and the other towards torque (sacrificing speed).

Servos are constructed from three basic pieces; a motor, a potentiometer (variable resister) that is connected to
the output shaft, and a control board. The potentiometer allows the control circuitry to monitor the current angle
of the servo motor. The motor, through a series of gears, turns the output shaft and the potentiometer
simultaneously. The potentiometer is fed into the servo control circuit and when the control circuit detects that
the position is correct, it stops the motor. If the control circuit detects that the angle is not correct, it will turn the
motor the correct direction until the angle is correct. Normally a servo is used to control an angular motion of
between 0 and 180 degrees. It is not mechanically capable (unless modified) of turning any further due to the
mechanical stop build on to the main output gear.The amount of power applied to the motor is proportional to the
distance it needs to travel. So, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full speed. If it needs
to turn only a small amount, the motor will run at a slower speed. This is called proportional control.

Working principle of servomotor ?

Servos are controlled by sending them a pulse of variable width. The control wire is used to send this pulse. The
parameters for this pulse are that it has a minimum pulse, a maximum pulse, and a repetition rate. Given the
rotation constraints of the servo, neutral is defined to be the position where the servo has exactly the same
amount of potential rotation in the clockwise direction as it does in the counter clockwise direction. It is important
to note that different servos will have different constraints on their rotation but they all have a neutral position,
and that position is always around 1.5 milliseconds (ms).
The angle is determined by the duration of a pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is called Pulse width
Modulation. The servo expects to see a pulse every 20 ms. The length of the pulse will determine how far the
motor turns. For example, a 1.5 ms pulse will make the motor turn to the 90 degree position (neutral position).
When these servos are commanded to move they will move to the position and hold that position. If an external
force pushes against the servo while the servo is holding a position, the servo will resist from moving out of that
position. The maximum amount of force the servo can exert is the torque rating of the servo. Servos will not hold
their position forever though; the position pulse must be repeated to instruct the servo to stay in position.

When a pulse is sent to a HS-311 that is less than about 0.6 ms the servo does not rotates to any position and
holds its output shaft at zero degree. If the pulse is wider than 0.6 ms the servo rotates. For example, if pulse width
is equal to 1,5 ms HS-311 will rotate 90 degrees and for pulse width is equal or greater than 2 ms, HS-311 will make
rotation of 180 degrees. The minimal width and the maximum width of pulse that will command the servo to turn
to a valid position are functions of each servo. Different brands, and even different servos of the same brand, will
have different maximum and minimums. Generally the minimum pulse will be about 1 ms wide and the maximum
pulse will be 2 ms wide.

Use of ac servomotor:-