List of Tables

Table 1: Drag Force in Flow over a Body Test Sheet ………………………………………7

List of Figures

Figure 1: Balance Arm …………………………………………………………………….…4

Figure 2: Wind Tunnel and Accessories ………………………………………………….…..4

Figure 3: Rigid Rod …………………………………………………………………………..4

Figure 4: Prism ……………………………………………………………………………….5

Figure 5: Control Panel ………………………………………………………………………5

Figure 6: Drag Coefficient versus Velocity for Upstream ……………………………………8

Figure 7: Drag Coefficient versus Velocity for Downstream ………………………………...8

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INTRODUCTION

Objectives

The purpose of this experiment is to:

1. To measure the drag coefficient, CD over a range of velocities in the test section for
prism. (Open End Facing Flow and Open End Facing Down Stream)
2. To understand the uses of drag force.

Theory

In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or

fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) refers to forces acting opposite
to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This
can exist between two fluid layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike
other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are nearly independent of velocity,
drag forces depend on velocity.

Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the solid object in the
fluid's path. Example of drag include the component of the net aerodynamic or
hydrodynamic force acting opposite to the direction of movement of the solid object
relative to the Earth as for cars, aircraft and boat hulls, or acting in the same
geographical direction of motion as the solid, as for sails attached to a downwind sail
boat, or in intermediate directions on a sail depending on points of sail. In the case of
viscous drag of fluid in a pipe, drag force on the immobile pipe decreases fluid velocity
relative to the pipe.

According to http://www.grc.nasa.gov, drag is a mechanical force. It is

generated by the interaction and contact of a solid body with a fluid (liquid or gas). It
is not generated by a force field, in the sense of a gravitational field or an
electromagnetic field, where one object can affect another object without being in
physical contact. For drag to be generated, the solid body must be in contact with the
fluid. If there is no fluid, there is no drag. Drag is generated by the difference in velocity
between the solid object and the fluid. There must be motion between the object and
the fluid. If there is no motion, there is no drag. It makes no difference whether the
object moves through a static fluid or whether the fluid moves past a static solid object.

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 Drag is a force and is therefore a vector quantity having both a magnitude and
a direction. Drag acts in a direction that is opposite to the motion of the aircraft. Lift
acts perpendicular to the motion. There are many factors that affect the magnitude of
the drag. Generally, types of drag are divided into the following categories:

1. Parasitic drag, consisting of

• form drags
• skin friction
• interference drags
2. Lift-induced drag
3. Wave drag (aerodynamics) or wave resistance (ship hydrodynamics).

Mathematically, drag coefficient can be written as follow:

𝐹𝐷
𝐶𝐷 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝐴𝑉

This was derived from the equation:

1
𝐹𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴𝐶𝐷
2

where, FD = drag force

ρ = mass density of the fluid

v = velocity of the object relative to the fluid

A = reference area

CD = drag coefficient (dimensionless)

The drag coefficient depends on the shape of the object and on the Reynolds number:

𝑢𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣

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APPARATUS

Balance Arm

Figure 1: Balance Arm

Figure 2: Wind Tunnel and Accessories

Rigid rod

Figure 3: Rigid Rod

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 Figure 4: Prism

Figure 5: Control Panel

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PROCEDURE

1. Dimension of prism (Figure 4) was measured

2. The prism body was fitted to the balance arm, open end facing flow first then open end
facing down stream
3. Balance arm (Figure 1) was installed
4. The arm was balanced
5. The switch of blower fan had on and to flow velocity of 5m/s
6. The arm was balanced again and reading were taken
7. The velocity was increased for a few steps, balance the arm and not the reading.

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RESULTS AND DATA

Body base surface facing

Body base surface facing upstream
downstream
Body dimension : 2.291х10-3 m2
Rigid Body dimension : 2.291х10-3 m2
Rod
Drag Drag
Force, Net Drag Drag Drag Net Drag Drag Net Drag Coefficient,
Velocity Reynolds FD (N) Force, CD
No. Force, Coefficient, Force, Force, Coefficient,
(m/s) Number FD (N)
FD (N) CD FD (N) FD (N) CD

1 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 8 42773.48 0.022 0.156 0.134 1.492 0.0965 0.0745 0.840 0.652

3 10 53466.85 0.026 0.236 0.210 1.497 0.149 0.123 0.877 0.620

4 12 64160.22 0.041 0.332 0.291 1.440 0.218 0.177 0.876 0.564

5 14 74853.59 0.060 0.486 0.426 1.549 0.312 0.252 0.916 0.633

6 16 85546.96 0.092 0.606 0.514 1.431 0.399 0.307 0.855 0.576

7 18 96240.33 0.109 0.801 0.692 1.522 0.531 0.422 0.928 0.594

8 20 106933.70 0.132 0.991 0.859 1.530 0.639 0.507 0.903 0.627

Table 1 : Drag Force in Flow over a Body Test Sheet

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 Drag Coefficient Upstream against Velocity
1.8

1.6

1.4
Drag Coefficient, CD

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Velocity (m/s)

Figure 6: Drag Coefficient versus Velocity for Upstream

Drag Coefficient Downstream against Velocity

1
0.9
0.8
Drag Coefficient, CD

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Velocity (m/s)

Figure 7: Drag Coefficient versus Velocity for Downstream

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SAMPLE CALCULATION
Constant value:

• Dynamic viscosity, 𝜇 = 1.81 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 ∙ 𝑠

• Density, 𝜌 = 1.225kg/m3
• Length of body, 𝐿 = 0.079m
• Body dimension A = 2.291 x 10-3 m2

Calculation at velocity = 12 m/s

⍴𝑉𝐿
Reynolds Number, 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇

1.225×12× 0.079
= 1.81×10−5

= 64 160.22

For velocity body base surface facing upstream:

Rod drag force = 0.041N, Drag force = 0.332N

Net drag force = Drag Force of Prism – Drag Force of Rigid Rod

= 0.332N – 0.041N

= 0.291N

𝐷
Drag Coefficient, 𝐶𝑑 = ⍴𝐴𝑣 2 /2

0.291
= (1.225)(2.291х10−3)(12)2
( )
2

= 1.440

For velocity body base surface facing downstream:

Rod drag force = 0.041N, Drag force = 0.218N

Net drag force = Drag Force of Prism – Drag Force of Rigid Rod

= 0.218N – 0.41N = 0.177N

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 𝐷
Drag Coefficient, 𝐶𝑑 = ⍴𝐴𝑣 2 /2

0.177
= (1.225)(2.291х10−3)(12)2
( )
2

= 0.876

Net Drag Coefficient, CD = Drag Coefficient of Prism (upstream) – Drag Coefficient of Prism
(downstream)

= 1.440 – 0.876

= 0.564

Calculation at velocity = 14 m/s

⍴𝑉𝐿
Reynolds Number, 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

1.225×14× 0.079
= 1.81×10−5

= 74 253.59

For velocity body base surface facing upstream:

Rod drag force = 0.060N, Drag force = 0.486N

Net drag force = Drag Force of Prism – Drag Force of Rigid Rod

= 0.486N – 0.060N

= 0.426 N

𝐷
Drag Coefficient, 𝐶𝑑 = ⍴𝐴𝑣 2 /2

0.426
= (1.225)(2.291х10−3)(14)2
( )
2

= 1.549

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For velocity body base surface facing downstream:

Rod drag force = 0.060N, Drag force = 0.312N

Net drag force = Drag Force of Prism – Drag Force of Rigid Rod

= 0.312N – 0.060N = 0.252N

𝐷
Drag Coefficient, 𝐶𝑑 = ⍴𝐴𝑣 2 /2

0.252
= (1.225)(2.291х10−3)(14)2
( )
2

= 0.916

Net Drag Coefficient, CD = Drag Coefficient of Prism (upstream) – Drag Coefficient of Prism
(downstream)

= 1.549 – 0.916

= 0.633

Calculation at velocity = 16 m/s

⍴𝑉𝐿
Reynolds Number, 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

1.225×16× 0.079
= 1.81×10−5

= 85 546.96

For velocity body base surface facing upstream:

Rod drag force = 0.092N, Drag force = 0.606N

Net drag force = Drag Force of Prism – Drag Force of Rigid Rod

= 0.606N – 0.092N

= 0.514 N

𝐷
Drag Coefficient, 𝐶𝑑 = ⍴𝐴𝑣 2 /2

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 0.514
= (1.225)(2.291х10−3)(16)2
( )
2

= 1.431

For velocity body base surface facing downstream:

Rod drag force = 0.092N, Drag force = 0.399N

Net drag force = Drag Force of Prism – Drag Force of Rigid Rod

= 0.399N – 0.092N = 0.307N

𝐷
Drag Coefficient, 𝐶𝑑 = ⍴𝐴𝑣 2 /2

0.307
= (1.225)(2.291х10−3)(16)2
( )
2

= 0.855

Net Drag Coefficient, CD = Drag Coefficient of Prism (upstream) – Drag Coefficient of Prism
(downstream)

= 1.431– 0.855

= 0.576

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DISCUSSION

This experiment is conducted to measure the drag coefficient, C D over a range of velocities in
the test section of prism which are body base surface facing upstream and body base surface
facing downstream. In a controlled environment (wind tunnel), we can set the velocity and area
to measure the drag produces. The velocity is varying from 8 m/s to 20 m/s by the increment
of 2 m/s. The values of the drag force are recorded for body face surface facing upstream and
downstream to calculate the values of drag coefficient, C D.

The values of drag coefficient, CD for upstream are higher than values of drag
coefficient, CD for downstream. Besides, the value for the net drag coefficient for each velocity
can be obtained by subtracting the drag coefficient of upstream with drag coefficient of
downstream. The value of Reynolds number and drag force, FD increases when the velocity
increases.

Moreover, the graphs of drag coefficient, CD versus velocity for upstream and
downstream were plotted. For upstream, the velocity increases, the drag coefficient, C D
increases rapidly at first and then more slowly. The value of drag coefficient, C D increases
rapidly from 0 to 1.492 because of the increment of velocity from 0 m/s to 8 m/s. Then, the
value of CD increases slowly until 1.530 because the increment of velocity only 2 m/s each.

Besides, for downstream, the velocity increases, the velocity increases, the drag
coefficient, CD increases rapidly at first and then more slowly. The value of drag coefficient,
CD increases rapidly from 0 to 0.840 because of the increment of velocity from 0 m/s to 8 m/s.
Then, the value of CD increases slowly until 0.903 because the increment of velocity only 2 m/s
each.

Percentage error, % of Drag Coefficient for body base facing upstream

CD theoretical = 0.82 CD experimental = 1.494 (average)
𝐶𝐷 𝑒𝑐𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙− 𝐶𝐷 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
Percentage error, % = | | x 100%
𝐶𝐷 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
1.494−0.82
=| | x100%
0.82
= 82.19 %

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Percentage error, % of Drag Coefficient for body base facing downstream
CD theoretical = 0.82 CD experimental = 0.885 (average)
𝐶𝐷 𝑒𝑐𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙− 𝐶𝐷 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
Percentage error, % = | | x 100%
𝐶𝐷 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
0.885−0.82
=| | x100%
0.82
= 4.27 %

The value of percentage error for upstream is 82.19 % while for downstream is 4.27%.
The percentage error for upstream is higher than downstream. Because of some realistic factors,
these data have some errors including air resistance, temperature change and impact of human
operations. The experiment can be repeated as it could reduce random error occur for
improvement. Students also have to ensure the eye level perpendicular with the measurement
scale to ensure the reading was taken is correct.

The application for drag force over a flow body is for airplane. The designer of airplane
should design the air wing smoother and more streamlined to the fluid flow in order to reduce
the aerodynamic drag pressure acting on the wings. Besides, it can be applied into automotive
industry. The fluid flow around the car engine also determines the efficiency and stability of
the car.

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CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the experiment shows how to measure the drag coefficient over a range
of velocities in the test section for body prism (body base surface facing upstream and body
base surface facing downstream). The objective of this experiment was achieved. Student
understood how to measure the drag coefficient using formulae. When the velocity increases,
the drag coefficient increases rapidly and then slowly. The value of drag coefficient for
upstream is higher than downstream. The value of Reynolds number and drag force increase
when the velocity increases.

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REFERENCES

Yunus A. Cengel & John M.Cimbala (2018), Fluid Mechanis Fundamentals and Applications

Fourth Edition Mc GrawHill

Drag Force, (2009-2019). Retrieved from https://www.real-world-physics-

problems.com/drag-force.html

Nancy Hall (2015), What is Drag. Retrieved from https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-

12/airplane/drag1.html

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APPENDICES

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