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JULY
2019
Volume 20, No. 7
Features
14 Guides to Vacuum Technology

Development of In Situ Techniques for page 46
Thin Film Measurements
By Steve Hansen, Contributing Editor
27 Photonics and Microelectronics
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Columns
By Dr. Abhijit Biswas, Contributing Editor
6 Thin Film Technology
33 Characterization of Thin Films and Materials Size and Surface Coatings in
A Tutorial on Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE), 4. Magnetic Nanoparticles
Using the ‘Angle Offset’ when fitting Ellipsometric By Peter M. Martin, Executive Editor
Data
By Dhruv Shah, Dhananjay I. Patel, James N. Hilfiker,
21 Nanotechnology

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Compiled by Terrence Thompson, Technical Editor
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By Dr. Peter M. Martin, Executive Editor
Size and Surface Coatings

in Magnetic Nanoparticles
T
he basic properties of magnetic nanoparticle (MNPs): py energy of a spherical particle with diameter D, surface area S,
ferromagnetism, superparamagnetism, surface spins and and volume V, is obtained from bulk and surface contributions:
surface spin density of states were introduced last month.
Keff = KV + 6KS/D [3]
As discussed last month, as size of the MNP decreases, proper-
ties become size dependent down to a certain critical size [1]. where KV and KS are bulk and surface anisotropy energy con-
Additionally, a coating applied to the surface can either enhance stants.
or degrade magnetic properties [2,3]. Figure 3 of last month’s Keff changes when a surface is modified or adsorbs different
Column shows a graphene-coated MNP. Surface effects can lead molecules, which demonstrates the importance of surface an-
to a decrease in the magnetization of small particles, such as ox- isotropy to Keff [7]. For uncoated antiferromagnetic NPs, weak
ide NPs, compared to the bulk value. This reduction has been
associated with different mechanisms, such as the existence of
a magnetically dead layer on the particle’s surface, the existence
of canted spins, or the existence of a spin-glass-like behavior of
the surface spins [4]. Conversely, the magnetic moment for small
metallic NPs (e.g., Co) is enhanced with decreasing size [5].
To review: Figure 1 shows magnetization behavior of ferro-
magnetic and superparamagnetic NPs under an external mag-
netic field. (a) Under an external magnetic field, domains of a
ferromagnetic NP align with the applied field. The magnetic mo-
ment of single domain superparamagnetic NPs aligns with the
applied field. In the absence of an external field, ferromagnetic
NPs will maintain a net magnetization, whereas superparamag-
netic NPs will exhibit no net magnetization due to rapid reversal
of the magnetic moment. (b) Relationship between NP size and
the magnetic domain structures. Ds and Dc are the ‘superpara-
magnetism’ and ‘critical’ size thresholds.
Another surface driven effect is enhancement of the magnetic
anisotropy, Keff (see June VT&C), with decreasing particle size
[5,6], whose value can exceed the value obtained from the crys-
talline and shape anisotropy and is assumed to originate from
surface anisotropy. In a very simple approximation, the anisotro- Figure 1. Diagram of ferromagnetic and superparamagnetic NPs [6].

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when two magnetic phases are in close contact [17]. The es-
sential physics underlying this phenomenon is the exchange
interaction between the antiferromagnet and ferromagnet at
their interface, shown in Figure 4. Since antiferromagnets have
a small or no net magnetization, their spin orientation is only
weakly influenced by an externally applied magnetic field. A
soft ferromagnetic film which is strongly exchange-coupled to
the antiferromagnet will have its interfacial spins pinned. Rever-
sal of the ferromagnet's moment will have an added energetic
cost corresponding to the energy necessary to create a Neel do-
main wall (see last month’s VT&C) within the antiferromagnetic
(AFM) film. The added energy term contributes a shift in the
switching field of the ferromagnet (FM). Exchange coupling
across the interface between a ferromagnetic core and an AFM
Figure 2. TEM image of a MNP cluster with silica shell [13].
shell or vice versa, causes this effect. Exchange bias is the shift
fer-romagnetism can occur at low temperatures (Figure 4f in last of the hysteresis loop along the field axis in systems with FM/
month’s Column), and has been attributed to existence of un- AFM interfaces (Heb). This shift is induced by a unidirectional
compensated surface spins of the antiferromagnet [8-11]. Since exchange anisotropy created when the system is cooled below
this case essentially corresponds to the presence of a ferromagnet the Néel temperature of the AFM. Thus, exchange coupling can
in close proximity to an antiferromagnet, additional effects, such provide an extra source of anisotropy leading to magnetization
as exchange bias, can result (we will address this shortly). How- stabilization. This effect was measured for Co JNPs surrounded
ever, there is often no clear correlation between surface coating by an AFM CoO layer. Exchange bias has been observed in the
and magnetic properties. A silica coating, shown in Figure 2, can following systems:
be used to tune magnetic properties of NPs. Here the degree of • FM nanoparticles coated with their AFM oxides (e.g., Co/
dipolar coupling is related to the distance between particles and CoO, Ni/ NiO),
this in turn depends on the thickness of the inert silica shell [12]. • nitrides (Fe-Fe2N), and sulfides (Fe-FeS),
A thin silica layer will separate the NPs, thus preventing cooper- • ferromagnetic-antiferromagnetic (Fe3O4–CoO)
ative switching which is desirable in magnetic storage data. • ferromagnetic-ferromagnetic (TbCo-Fe20Ni80) nanoparticles
In other cases, however, the effect of a surface coating is less Single domain pure AFM NPs have also shown an exchange
clear. A precious metal layer around magnetic NPs can drive bias effect arising from uncompensated spins on the surface,
magnetic properties in both directions. For example, Au coated which results from a complicated FM surface spin structure,
Co NPs have lower magnetic anisotropy than uncoated particles, shown in Figure 3.
while Au coating of Fe particles enhances anisotropy, which was As one would expect, composites formed with metallic parti-
attributed to alloy formation with Au [14]. It was found that coat- cles have interesting properties [18]. The magnetic behavior of
ings such as Cu and Au can possess a variety of effects on the
magnetic properties of Co NPs, and that a complex interaction
between particle core and coating determines properties, and as a
result, tuning may be difficult and not predictable [15].
Organic ligands, used to stabilize magnetic NPs, can also af-
fect their magnetic properties. Ligands can modify the anisotro-
py and magnetic moment of metal atoms located at the surface
of the particles [16]. A reduction of the magnetic moment and a
large anisotropy was observed for Co colloidal particles stabi-
lized with organic ligands [15]. It was also observed that surface
bonded ligands quenched surface magnetic moments, resulting
in reduction of magnetization [15]. In the case of Ni NPs, it was
demonstrated that donor ligands, such as amines, do not alter
surface magnetism but promote formation of rods, whereas the
use of trioctylphosphine oxide led to a reduction in their magne-
tization [16]. The bottom line here is that the magnetic response
of a system to an inert surface coating is complex and system
specific, so that no firm correlations have yet been established.
Things change drastically when magnetic coatings are applied
to NPs. A magnetic coating on a MNP usually has a dramatic
influence on magnetic properties. The combination of two dif-
ferent magnetic phases leads to new magnetic nanocomposites, Figure 3. Effect on exchange bias coupling on the hysteresis loop of a
with many possible applications. Exchange bias effects occur magnetic nanoparticle coated with a magnetic material [3].

It should be emphasized, as with many composites, the mag-
netic behavior of an assembly of NPs is a result of both intrinsic
properties of the particles and interactions between them. The
distribution of the sizes, shapes, surface defects, and phase purity
are only a few of the parameters influencing magnetic properties,
which makes the investigation of magnetism in small particles
very complicated (see May VT&C). Manufacturing of an as-
sembly of monodisperse particles, with well-defined shape, con-
trolled composition, ideal chemical stability, tunable interparticle
separations, and a functionalizable surface remains one of the
great challenges. If they can be synthesized, MNPs will tremen-
dously facilitate the discrimination between finite-size effects,
interparticle interactions, and surface effects. Thus, the synthesis
of MNPs with well controlled characteristics is a very important
task, which will be described in more detail in the next sections.
We address two examples of coated MNPs:
• Co NP embedded in a paramagnetic matrix [19]
Figure 4. Hysteresis loop due to weak ferromagnetism and uncompen- • Graphene coated Fe3O4 NPs [20]
sated spins [3]. The first system consists of Co NPs embedded either in a
isolated 4 nm Co particles with a CoO shell changed dramati- paramagnetic matrix (C or Al2O3) or in an AFM matrix (CoO).
cally when, instead of being embedded in a paramagnetic ma- Samples were grown by sequentially depositing a layer of matrix
trix, they were embedded in an antiferromagnetic matrix. The material of thickness 15–20 nm followed by a layer of NPs, up to
blocking temperature of Co particles embedded in an Al2O3 or C a total of 10 layers, shown in Figure 5. Co NPs were produced
matrix, was ~10 K, however after placing them in a CoO matrix, by gas condensation of sputtered atoms in a cluster gun, inside
they remained ferromagnetic up to 290 K. Thus, coupling of fer- a conventional sputtering system. An Ar/O2 ratio of 7:1 was
romagnetic particles with an AFM matrix was a source of a large used to oxidize the surface of the NPs, forming a CocoreCoOshell
additional anisotropy. core-shell structure. This partial oxidation produced a passiva-
Figure 5. TEM micrographs and electron diffraction of CocoreCoOshell particles. a) High magnification bright field image, revealing the core-shell
structure. Inset, plan view distribution of the NPs, b) high-resolution lattice image of NP with [001]fcc crystallographic orientation, c) electron
diffraction patterns, showing fcc Co and fcc CoO reflections, d) s chematic drawing of the sample cross section, showing Co cores (black), and
surrounding CoO shell (white) and matrix (grey) [19].
tion layer, and in the samples with an AFM CoO matrix, ensured • Hysteresis loop shift along the field axis after field cooling,
formation of a continuous Cocore/CoOmatrix interface. A dispersed revealing unidirectional anisotropy.
spatial distribution of NPs was thus obtained. The matrix mate- The absence of exchange bias in the nonmagnetic matrix
rial was deposited either by conventional dc sputtering (C) or by systems was tentatively attributed to the small thickness of the
reactive sputtering with an O2 partial pressure of 0.7 mtorr (CoO AFM CoO shell. When CocoreCoOshell particles were not diluted
and Al2O3). The Figure shows that Co particles had a roughly in a paramagnetic matrix and hence in close contact with each
spherical core of dcore 3-4 nm in diameter and a fcc crystallo- other, they were found to exhibit all properties of an exchange
graphic orientation. biased system (Figure 7b)-exchange bias field of about μ0Heb
CocoreCoOshell NPs had a mean dcore + tshell < 4.7 nm. Average
in plane and out of plane interparticle distances were ~ 12 nm,
significantly larger than the diameter of the NPs. It was deter-
mined that interparticle dipolar interactions could not have been
the source of the effects described below.
Figure 6 shows the temperature dependence of the magnetic
moment m(T) under an applied magnetic field (μ0Happ = 0.01 T),
which was measured after field cooling (FC) and after zero-field
cooling (ZFC). The blocking temperature (see last month’s
Column), TB, is the temperature at which superparamagnetism
(SPM) sets in. Below TB, FC and ZFC magnetization curves
split, however, above TB, they coincide as a result of vanish-
ing remanence and coercivity. For 4-nm particles embedded in
an Al2O3 (paramagnetic) matrix, TB < 10K. Similar results were
obtained for a C matrix. Increasing particle size to about 7 nm
resulted in an enhancement of TB up to 200 K, which agreed well
with published results [21-27]. Hysteresis loops of both systems
Figure 6. Magnetic moments of 4-nm CocoreCoOshell particles. Tem-
(with Al2O3 and C matrices) measured below TB displayed a
perature dependence of the zero-field cooled (ZFC; filled symbols)
small coercivity (μ0HC = 0.02T) (Figure 7a) and no loop shift and field cooled (FC; μ0H FC = 0.01 T, open symbols) magnetic mo-
on the magnetic field axis for samples cooled in fields up to 5T. ment (m) of 4-nm CocoreCoOshell particles. Particles were embedded in a
Exchange bias at FM/AFM interfaces resulted in: paramagnetic (Al2O3) matrix (diamonds), or in an AFM (CoO) matrix
• Coercivity enhancement, revealing induced uniaxial or multi- (circles). The measuring field is μ0H = 0.01 T. The Néel temperature of
axial anisotropy, and CoO is indicated by an arrow [18].

Figure 8. Coercivity and remanence of 4-nm CocoreCoOshell particles.
Temperature dependence of coercivity, H C (filled symbols), and rema-
nence, mR (open symbols), after ZFC, of 4-nm CocoreCoOshell particles
embedded in different matrices.Squares, a paramagnetic (Al2O3) ma-
trix; circles, an AFM (CoO) matrix [18].
behavior similar to the one described above for CocoreCoOshell

particles was also observed.
This work thus demonstrated that magnetic coupling of FM
NPs with an AFM matrix is a source of a large effective addition-
al anisotropy, and as a result, led to a significant improvement in
the thermal stability of the moments of the FM nanoparticles.
Figure 7. Hysteresis loops at 4.2 K of 4-nm CocoreCoOshell particles em- Additionally, TB increased almost two orders of magnitude. This
bedded in different matrices. Data are shown after ZFC (dashed lines) mechanism demonstrated a way to beat the ‘SPM limit’ in isolat-
and FC (μ0H FC = 5 T; solid lines) procedures. a, Embedded in a para- ed particles. Although it is clear that the system studied here was
magnetic (Al2O3) matrix; b, compacted; and c, embedded in an AFM
(CoO) matrix [18].
< 0.92 T and enhanced coercivity (μ0HC = 0.39 T for the ZFC
case and μ0HC = 0.59 T for the FC case) at 4.2 K. The bias field
decreased as temperature increased, and vanished at about 180
K, in agreement with the classical data for CocoreCoOshell com-
pacted particles [9,10,22,24]. One significant result is that the
difference in behavior of isolated and compacted CocoreCoOshell
particles emphasized the important role of interparticle coupling
in stabilizing not only the FM of the particle core but also the
AFM of the particle shell.
The magnetic behavior of isolated CocoreCoOshell particles
changed significantly when, instead of being embedded in a
paramagnetic matrix, they were embedded in an AFM CoO ma-
trix of similar thickness. As can be seen from the ZFC-FC m(T)
curve in Figure 6, Co nanocores remained FM up to the Néel
temperature, TN, of CoO (TN < 290K), which indicates that an
extra anisotropy is induced such that KUV >> kBT, where V is the
particle volume. Here nanocore moments were prevented from
flipping over the energy barrier for all temperatures below TN
of CoO, and thus NPs remained magnetically stable below this
temperature. A hysteresis loop typical of CocoreCoOshell NPs em-
bedded in a CoO matrix is shown in Figure 8, and was typical
of an exchange biased system below TN, exhibiting an exchange
bias field of μ0Heb = 0.74 T and enhanced coercivity of μ0HC =
0.76T at 4.2 K. The magnetic stability of NPs is further demon-
strated in Figure 8, where both HC and the remanent moment,
mR remain >> 0 for T < TN. Alternately, Co NPs embedded in
a paramagnetic matrix have mR = 0 and HC for T > TB = 10K. A

Figure 9. Grafting procedure for Silane A [20].
not in itself suitable for application, the approach developed was
applicable to NPs deposited on a single AFM layer, a structure
suitable for use as a recording medium. With the right choice of
FM and AFM components, exchange anisotropy coupling could
ultimately allow magnetically stable dots only a few nm in size:
Figure 10. Generalized synthesis procedure showing how magnetic
which would surpass the storage density goal of 1 Tbit/in2, as set
nanoparticles are functionalized with a coupling agent (indicated in
by the magnetic-storage industry. red) to allow the free radical polymerization of PVP (black arrows).
Graphene coated magnetic NPs hold promise for the devel- The PVP noncovalently bonds to the graphene surface providing an
opment of carbon nanomaterials with superparamagnetic func- anchor for the nanoparticle [20].
tionality, which would allow for easy manipulation in solution
by an external magnetic field [19]. Fe3O4 NPs were coated with A coupling agent could form several different covalent bonds
pristine graphene using the chemical synthesis method summa- under these conditions. These include functionalizing more
rized in Figure 9, which grafted polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) to than one Fe3O4 NPs or reacting with other Silane A molecules.
the MNPs. Fe3O4 was modified with Silane A, a coupling agent, The PVP–Fe3O4 NPs were then used as a stabilizer to disperse
which has vinyl groups that participate in the subsequent polym- pristine graphene sheets. Figure 10 summarizes the different
Materials
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The tri-functionalized Silane stages of the NP synthesis process and stabilization of dispersed
graphene sheets.
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5. M Respaud et al., Phys Rev B 57 (1998) 2925.
6. A Akbarzadeh et al., Nanoscale Research Lett 7 (2012) 144.
7. (6)F Bødker et al., Phys Rev Lett 72 (1994) 282.
8. W S Seo et al., , Angew Chem 116 (2004) 1135;
9. T Hyeon et al., J Am Chem Soc 123 (2001)12798.
10. S I Makhlouf, J Magn Magn Mater 246 (2002) 184.
11. Y Wang et al., Adv Mater 17 (2005) 53.
12. A Homola et al., , IEEE Trans Magn 22 (2003) 716.
13. Slavko Kralj & Darko Makovec, ACS Nano. 9 (10) (2015) 9700.
14. P M Paulus et al., Eur Phys J D 9 (1999) 501.
15. J Hormes et al., J Appl Phys 97 (2005) 10R102.
16. D A van Leeuwen et al., Phys Rev Lett 73 (1994) 1432.
17. J Nogués et al., Phys Rep 422 (2005) 65
Figure 11. Comparison of hysteresis loops for Silane A modified and
graphene stabilized Fe3O4 NPs [20]. 18. Vassil Skurmyev et al., Nature 423 (2003) 850.
19. Robert J Fullerton et al., Carbon 72 (2014) 192.
Figure 11 compares hysteresis loops for Silane A modified
NPs and graphene stabilized with PVP-grafted NPs at 300 K. 20. F Luis et al., Phys Rev Lett 88 (2002) 217205.
The lack of coercivity indicated the NPs are SPM throughout 21. J Garcı´a-Otero, et al. Phys Rev Lett 84 (2000) 167.
the procedure. (Inset illustrates concepts of saturation and co- 22. E Gu et al. Phys Rev B 60 (1999) 4092.
ercivity). Recall that paramagnetic materials display coercivity 23. F Parent et al. Phys Rev B 55 (1997) 3683.
whereas SPM materials do not have this property. Figure 11 24. G Held et al.. Phys Rev B 64 (2001) 012408.
shows that Silane A modified and Fe3O4-graphene hybrids dis-
25. S I Woods et al. Phys Rev Lett 87 (2001) 137205.
played magnetic saturation of 69.3 and 9.12 emu/g respectively.
A significant change occurred in magnetization from the Silane 26. C B Murray et al. Mater Res Soc Bull 26 (2001) 985–991.
A modified NPs to the Fe3O4–graphene hybrid, a decrease of 27. S Sako et al., J Phys Soc Jpn 70 (2001) 2134.
more than 60 emu/g. The decrease in saturation was explained
by the added, nonmagnetic mass of the graphene itself since the
measurement is made on a per mass basis.
It is a significant result here that graphene stabilized SPM
properties of MNPs. In this case hybrid NPs were engineered to
combine both the SPM properties of the NPs and the interaction
between PVP and the graphene surface. Additionally, dispersed
graphene was magnetically responsive such that the dispersion
could be manipulated by an external magnetic field. This type
of novel stabilizer could potentially allow for magnetically con-
trolled deposition and patterning.
Thin film coatings applied to MNPs can thus affect SPM be-
havior in a number of ways. Ferromagnetic coatings can enhance
the magnetic anisotropy of the particles by the exchange bias
between surface magnetic moments. Nonmagnetic coatings are
used to tune the coupling between NPs and stabilize SPM prop-
erties. Metal layers can both enhance and degrade SPM prop-
erties. Additionally, magnetic NPs can be dispersed in a non-
magnetic matrix to form a SPM composite. Based on properties
addressed in this and the next Column, applications of MNPs
will be addressed.
Reference
1. Sara A Majetich et al, MRS Bulletin 38 (2013) 899.
2. R F L Evans et al, MRS Bulletin 38 (2013) 899.
3. A-H Lu et al., Angewandte Chemie International Edition 43 (33)
(2004) 4303.
4. R H Kodama, J Magn Magn Mater 200 (1999) 359.

By Steve Hansen, Contributing Editor
Development of In situ Techniques

for Thin Film Measurements
L
ast month’s column on mid-20th for opacity and has better scratch resis- by over coating the silver film with a clear
century vacuum technique briefly tance than is exhibited by thicker films. inorganic coating of a material such as
covered some of the high-lights Strong provided the relevant relationships calcium fluoride or quartz. According to
of vacuum coating history, including the with examples based on his work with Strong, the thickness of the film should be
aluminizing of the 36 and 200 inch tele- large telescope mirrors. about 1/4 of a fringe. To determine this,
scope mirrors as well as the pursuit of Much more complex was the produc- a copper plate is placed adjacent to the
high vacuum by amateurs. This period tion of partially reflecting films as used in source. The fringes are counted during
also saw the rise of various procedures for beam splitters and interferometers. Strong the deposition process. The square of the
the monitoring of film thickness. covered the use of silver and aluminum ratio of the distance to the copper to the
For items such as mirrors, the main films, noting that silver films are preferred distance to the silvered substrate
criteria were adhesion and reflectivity for Fàbry-Perot interferometers as they
(as much as possible). However, anti-re- are more stable over time. Early In situ Optical Methods
flection coatings and partially reflective Figure 1 shows the characteristics of
Emery [2] described a sampling sys-
films also rose in importance. Thin film silver films for a specific set up using
tem for optically monitoring the deposi-
optical (e.g. Fàbry-Perot) interferometers varying masses of silver. There are three
tion process. Figure 2 depicts the appa-
were also being developed. All of these transmission and three reflection curves
ratus for depositing opaque films, such as
required some level of thickness or trans- based on the color of light used (red, green
aluminum semiconductor interconnects.
parency testing or monitoring, preferably or blue).
The area below the deposition source in-
performed during the process and in situ. While silver is more stable than alumi-
cludes an area where the substrates that
This article will cover some of the tech- num, it does tarnish. That can be remedied
are to be coated are placed as well as a
niques that were developed in the 1930 to
1980s timeframe.
Early Optical Methods (1930s)

Strong [1] addressed the then current
(1930s) state of thickness measurement in
his chapter on evaporation and sputtering.
Much of this was based on calculating the
thickness of the deposited layer based on
the mass of the metal to be evaporated and
the geometry of the evaporation system.
Geometric factors included the layout of
the evaporation filaments and source to
substrate distance. For most mirrors, the
target thickness would be on the order of Figure 1. Reflection and transmission characteristics of silver films of varying thickness. Re-
100 nm. This provided enough thickness printed with the kind permission of Lindsay Publications.

Figure 3. Light transmission vs. thickness.
Illustration adapted from [2].
the quartz crystal monitoring method
(discussed in the next section) is not ap-
plicable to films of this thickness. It is also
applicable to thinner films.
Figure 4 shows an electron beam evap-
oration system with a bottom fed crucible
with a drive mechanism for the ingot. The
item being coated is a turbine blade that is
held in position by a fixed support.
The measurement device consists of a
strain gauge sensor that is attached to a
twisted cantilever beam. This restricts its
motion to the vertical plane. The pickup
Figure 2. Optical film deposition monitoring apparatus according to Emery. Illustration plate is suspended from the free end of
adapted from [2]. the beam and is parabolic in shape. The
shape provides stability in that the force
glass plate that is mounted at a 45° angle. where no light passes. The curve may be
of the impinging vapor is directed to the
The substrates might be semiconductor divided into two segments. The segment
pickup’s axis of symmetry. This provides
devices that are to receive aluminum in- A-B is the region of higher sensitivity. Be-
lateral and horizontal stability.
terconnect films. tween B and C, the sensitivity decreases
Since strain gauge sensors are tem-
A variable intensity light source deliv- until the device is no longer usable. For
perature sensitive, the sensor is mount-
ers a beam of light through the glass plate aluminum, point B is at about 125 Ång-
ed within a water cooled enclosure. The
and thence to a photocell detector. The stroms. If a film of 1250 Ångstroms is
readout is a strip chart recorder that pro-
amount of deposition is indicated by the desired, the chopper would have two 18°
vides a continuous record of the deposi-
amount of light that passes through the segments. This would reduce the deposit
tion process.
glass plate. on the glass plate to 1/10 of what is depos-
Since a deposit of aluminum that is ited on the substrates.
The Quartz Crystal Microbalance
thick enough for an interconnect layer The author notes that, for transparent
is generally opaque, the device includes films, the chopper can be placed over Piezoelectric elements, primarily cut
a rotating chopper wheel that is placed the substrates. This puts a proportionally from natural or grown quartz crystals,
between the source and glass plate. The thicker coating on the glass plate - thick have been used as radio frequency oscilla-
chopper reduces the deposit thickness by enough that an adequate reduction in in- tors and frequency standards since the ear-
an amount that is proportional to the open tensity will be produced. ly 1920s. The manufacturing process con-
area on the disc. For example, if there sists of cutting the blanks (in the proper
are two 30° openings, the deposition will A Strain Gauge Microbalance with orientation) from the raw crystal followed
be reduced to 1/6 (2 × 30°/360°) of that Pick Up Plate for Deposition by mechanical lapping. Early crystals
which is deposited on the substrates. Monitoring were adjusted by mechanical polishing
Figure 3 shows the sensitivity of the by hand, a tedious process. Once pol-
Blecherman et al. [3] have described
detector for aluminum. With the sensi- ished to a target thickness, electrodes are
a system for deposition monitoring of
tivity of the photodetector set to show applied by evaporation. At this stage, the
thicker films, on the order of 0.001 inch-
full scale with no deposition, the amount crystals are tested for the desired resonant
es and greater. The authors point out that
of transmission declines until the point

inches thick. The mylar is in ribbon form
with supply and take up rolls. A motor is
used to advance the foil.
The mylar shields the reference crys-
tal from the evaporant but will expose
the crystal to the heat of the evaporation
source. Since crystal oscillators are tem-
perature sensitive, this serves to keep the
fundamental frequencies of the two crys-
tals tracking together. The exposed crys-
tal receives the deposit and the change in
its frequency serves to indicate the film
thickness. Upon completion of a deposi-
tion cycle, the mylar is advanced to ex-
pose fresh, uncoated mylar. This process
can continue until the monitoring crystal
develops too thick a coating and must be
replaced with a fresh crystal.
Today’s crystal holders are water
cooled, eliminating the necessity of hav-
ing a reference crystal in the chamber.
Crystals are disk shaped with holders that
make it a fairly simple process to swap out
the crystals. Multiple crystal holders are
Figure 4. Strain gauge microbalance of Blecherman, et al. Illustration adapted from [3]. also available where a fresh crystal can be
rapidly put into position without breaking
frequency. A final adjustment is made by account the density of the deposited film vacuum.
adding more electrode material, a process and the acoustic impedances of the quartz As will be seen in the next sections, the
which lowers the crystal’s frequency. and of the film material. QCM is often used in conjunction with
In the late 1950s, Bulova Corp. intro- Figure 5 depicts an early implementa- other monitoring methods.
duced a process for automating the final tion of a QCM measuring head according
adjustment [4]. It was only a short step to Unzucker [6]. Two crystals are mount- Combining Optical
from there to the use of a quartz crystal ed in a small box. One serves as a refer- and QCM Methods
as a microbalance to measure film thick- ence while the other receives the deposit.
ness [5]. The resulting device is the quartz The box is mounted near the substrate Holland [7] discussed a method for
crystal microbalance or QCM. holder with the crystals facing the source. deposition control that combines the use
If a rigid layer is evenly deposited on The reference crystal is covered with a of a QCM with an optical monitoring
a QCM, the resonant frequency will de- thin foil of mylar, approximately 0.00025 system. Figure 6 is a schematic of the ex-
crease proportional to the mass of the
adsorbed layer according to the Sauer-
brey equation [5]. This equation relates
the change in frequency to the resonant
frequency of the fundamental mode of
the crystal (usinally 6 MHz for deposi-
tion monitors), the mass change per unit
area, the active piezoelectric area of the
crystal, the mass change per unit area and
two mechanical properties of the crystal:
density and shear modulus. The equation
treats the film as part of the quartz resona-
tor and this is valid for thin films where
the change in frequency does not exceed
about 5%.
In actual practice, the added film cre-
ates a resonator that is a composite of the
quartz and the coating. A different equa-
tion is now generally used that takes into Figure 5. QCM measuring head according to Unzucker. Illustration adapted from [6].

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ample reactive sputtering system. Holland
noted that while optical reflectance, trans-
mission and deposited mass have been
used since the 1962 timeframe, these ele-
ments had not previously been combined.
With the QCM, it is assumed that the
mass and density of the deposited mate-
rial is constant throughout the deposition
process. Therefore, the index of refrac-
tion, n, will remain constant and the op-
tical thickness, nL, where L is the geo-
metrical thickness, will be proportional
to the mass that is deposited. In practice,
however, the deposition rate may not be
linear with time.
From the reference, Figure 7a shows
the calculated reflectance for a film depos-
ited on glass. The glass has an index of re-
fraction of 1.5 and the curves show films
with greater (2.0) and lesser (1.4) indices.
Interference creates maxima and minima
at ¼-wave intervals, so long as the film is
not thick enough to become opaque. The
corresponding transmission curves would
be the inverse of the reflectance curves.
In practice, the peaks and minima may
Figure 6. Optical and QCM approach according to Holland. Illustration adapted from [7].
vary due to deposition rate non-uniformi-
ties. An example cited would be from a
powder source where heat transfer may be
irregular.
In some cases it may be necessary to
terminate the deposition at a maximum
or minimum of transmission. This can be
hard to determine with any accuracy, es-
pecially if the peaks are of varying height.
A solution is to differentiate the reflec-
tance (or transmission) curve with respect
to the optical thickness of the film. Figure
7b shows the reflectance curve with vary-
ing min/max values.
In this computation, the QCM mea-
sures the thickness L. With the index of
refraction n basically constant, the ratio of
the differential of reflectance with respect
to the optical thickness of the film over a
given period of time can be calculated.
This differential is not dependent on the
assumption that rate of deposition is con-
stant with time and temporal fluctuations
are accommodated.
The technique can also be used for
oxide films from such metals as zirco-
nium and aluminum where the index of
refraction changes during deposition due
Figure 7. (a) Calculated reflectance for a film deposted on glass; (b) Reflectance curve with structural changes. The system will show
varying min/max values Illustration adapted from [7]. turning points as the film masses and the

optical thickness changes combine to give
maximum or minimum reflected energy.
Vapor Flux Monitoring

In some circumstances knowing the ac-
tual flux of evaporant is important. Depo-
sition monitors may not capture all of the
incident vapor as some may not stick, i.e.
re-evaporate. Often, a flux monitor will
be used in conjunction with a deposition
monitor (such as a QCM) to determine the
sticking coefficient.
Flux monitors are generally based on
low energy (100-200 eV) electron exci-
tation of the vapor molecules. Smith [8]
describes a simple system based on a
variation of the Bayard-Alpert ion gauge.
Figure 8 depicts the scenario where two
sources are used to deposit an alloy..
Here one sensor is positioned to monitor
one species and the other sensor monitors Figure 8. Vapor flux monitor using modified Bayard-Alpert ion gauges as sensors in a two-
the second species. Each of the sensors source evaporation system. Illustration based on Smith [8].
must be shielded to prevent the evaporant
a device can be made species-specific by gauges since they are directly exposed to
from accumulating on the insulating sur-
incorporating a mass spectrometer. Issues the source.
faces or on the filament. One might have a
with this approach include the deposition A related but better method is what is
chopper wheel to help discriminate back-
of films on the grids and collectors of the now termed an electron-impact emission
ground noise from the beam signal. Such
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4. Stanley A. Hirsh, Frequency adjustment
plating control, US Patent 2,906,235, is-
sued September 29, 1959.
5. G. Z. Sauerbrey, Use of quartz vibration
for weighing thin films on a microbalance,
Physik Journal, vol. 155, pp. 206–212,
1959.
6. A.E. Unzucker, Method and apparatus of
controlling thin film deposition in a vacu-
um, US Patent 3,383,238, issued May 14,
1968.
7. Leslie Holland, Control of deposition of
thin films, US Patent 4,311,725, issued
January 19, 1982.
8. Donald L. Smith, Thin Film Deposition:
Principles and Practice, McGraw Hill,
1995, pp.98-100.
9. C. Lu, M.J. Lightner and C.A. Gogol, Rate
controlling and composition analysis of
alloy deposition processes by electron im-
pact excitation spectroscopy, J. Vac. Sci.
Technol., Vol. 14, No. 1, Jan/Feb 1977, pp.
103-107.
Figure 9. Electron-impact emission spectrometer according to Lu. Illustration from [10].
10. Chih-shun Lu, Apparatus for monitoring
spectrometer (EIES). In this instrument, sition processes that operate in the high vacuum deposition processes, US Patent
the thermionic electrons excite atoms in vacuum realm. 4,036,167, issued July 19, 1977
the vapor flux causing optical emissions
that can be analyzed with a spectropho- Summary
tometer. Figure 9 illustrations such a de-
Currently there exists something over
vice as developed by Lu [9,10]. The ge-
a dozen methods for monitoring thin
ometry places the filament and collector
film thickness and deposition rates. The
outside of the path of the vapor stream.
examples cited in this article all involve
Like the aforementioned system, this
placing some sort of sensor in the actual
device uses electron excitation of the va-
vapor stream. There are also methods that
por. However, instead of monitoring the
monitor the vapor stream or the deposited
total ion current (as is the case with a con-
material in a non-intrusive manner. Ex-
ventional ion gauge), the device optically
amples of these would include ellipsome-
analyzes the light emitted by the excited
try and spectroscopic methods. Details on
vapor atoms when their electrons transi-
these and other methods will be subjects
tion back to a lower energy state.
for future columns.
This approach had been tried by mon-
itoring the ionized vapor adjacent to an
References
e-beam heated source but the density at
this point tended to fluctuate too much and 1. John Strong, Procedures in Experimental
the background noise from other sources Physics, Prentice-Hall, 1938. Reprinted by
of light made the approach unreliable. Lindsay Publications, 1986. The reprint is
The layout, as shown in the figure, is now out of print but copies are available
through Amazon resellers. Lindsay had
pretty much self-explanatory. The optical
reprinted a wide variety of old technical
output is coupled to a photometer that is publications.
located outside the chamber. The photom-
L.D. Emery, Jr., Deposition and mea-
2.
eter would be arranged as either a single
surement of layer thickness, US Patent
wavelength monochromator or as a scan- 3,063,867, issued November 13, 1962.
ning instrument. The photometry control-
3. Sol S. Blecherman, Mitchel J. Bala, Rob-
ler can also be tied into the evaporator's
ert B. Lougee, Johannes Grafwallner, Sen-
control system. sor system for a vacuum deposition appa-
A disadvantage of this specific meth- ratus, US Patent 3,570,449, issued March
od is that it is only applicable to depo- 16, 1971.

Integration of
Energy Harvesting
and Energy Storage
in a Single Device:
Nanotechnology Bringing Breakthrough
Smart Energy Systems for Portable Electronics
By Dr. Rajeev K Gupta, Dr. Narendra S Parmar, Dr. Ilker S Bayer and Dr. Abhijit Biswas,Contributing Editors
N
anotech-based research and developments in the ener- number of sensing devices that have a high energy budget de-
gy sector especially in green energy technologies have mand. In addition, the development of high-performance smart
focused lately on the integration of energy harvesting energy systems are expected to impact other global multi-billion
and energy storage in a single device. The objective is to have a dollars businesses such as electric cars, aerial vehicles, robotics,
unique energy technology platform that enables the conversion pervasive computing, human–machine interfacing and artificial
of ambient energy into electricity together with a sustainable prosthesis. On-board energy sources will significantly benefit all
power source for various electronic devices and systems appli- these technologies that have higher estimated energy budgets. To
cations [1]. There are a number of electronic devices that require this end, among other promising concepts and approaches, nan-
robust power sources for sustainable operation for an extended otech-reinforced supercapacitors are considered to provide a vi-
period of time with minimal intervention. Rechargeable batteries able route to address the energy needs in above applications [3].
are usually employed for powering electronic devices for contin- We will describe some of the recent examples of smart energy
uation of their operation. It is difficult and expensive to replace systems in this column.
the battery for individual components that especially poses prob-
lems in large scale remote applications. In addition, materials Demonstration of Flexible Self-Charging Power Pack:
that are used for manufacturing batteries can be potential health Integration of Flexible Graphene Foam-Ag-Graphene
and environmental hazard in all applications. Nanotech-enabled Sheet based Supercapacitor and Flexible Solar Cells for
self-powered energy systems that are capable to harvest energy Wearable Sensors
from their environment as well as storing the energy are con- Researchers recently demonstrated a flexible self-charging
sidered the superior choice for energy systems that can address power pack (FSPP) smart energy system for a wearable pH sen-
these issues and also for the fact that such power devices con- sor application (Figure 1). Graphene is a well-known nanoma-
sume extremely low power [2]. terial. The FSPP was developed by integrating graphene foam
It is believed that such smart energy systems that include effi- based supercapacitor (GFSC) and photovoltaic solar cells (PV)
cient energy harvesting and storage along with energy manage- along with flexible CuO nanorods in a single energy system [3].
ment components on a single platform are critically important In this work, researchers employed electrochemical dou-
to develop next generation portable electronic technologies for ble layer approach for supercapacitor based on free standing
various applications in wearable systems, defense, transporta- graphene foam as electrode that highly improves electron trans-
tion, and fashion, etc. Especially, researchers are paying atten- fer from electrode to the active material. The supercapacitor elec-
tion to the advanced technologies that are expected to impact trode structure included a highly conductive graphene sheet as a
healthcare monitoring, such as e-skin and smart coatings for a current collector and graphene foam was used as active material.

The fabricated graphene supercapacitor was then integrated
with a flexible photovoltaic cell that resulted in a flexible self-
charging power pack energy system that showed the capability
to produce a continuous DC power. This pack was successfully
utilized to power continuously a wearable CuO nanorod based
chemi-resistive pH sensor. This technology has the potential for
successful development and implementation of smart energy
systems in areas such as multi-sensing e-skin for robots and hu-
man healthcare monitoring [3].
Compact and Wearable Flexible Energy Systems for

Electronic Skin: A Range of Next Generation Application
Potentials in Robotics, Digital Health and Fashion
Recent researches conducted in various parts of the world
have shown tremendous potential of compact and wearable en-
ergy systems that include energy harvesters, energy storage de-
vices, low-power electronics and efficient/wireless power trans-
Figure 1. A Schematic illustration of flexible self-charging power pack fer-based technologies to revolutionize the global market for
(FSPP) by the integration of photovoltaic cells (PV) and graphene foam wearable systems and especially for electronic skin (e-skin). An
supercapacitor (GFSC). The resulting wearable pH sensor is displayed electronic-skin or e-skin is defined as an artificial smart skin that
[Source: Nano Energy, 51, 2018]. consists of multiple sensors distributed either along the same sur-
face or stacked as shown in Figure 2 that also shows various pro-
The graphene foam and graphene sheet were bonded together
with Ag conductive epoxy. Researchers demonstrated excellent
life cycle of graphene foam based supercapacitors with storage
retention of about 68% after 25000 charge/discharge cycles.
Thus, the process has the potential to scale-up for the industrial
production [3].
Don’t Scrap it... Rebuild it!
Your high vacuum equipment is valuable, so

Figure 2. Images showing multi-sensing and flexible electronic skin
why discard it when performance degrades? for robots and humans. A flexible e-skin with multiple electronic com-
Let Duniway put our 30 + years of high and ponents (sensors, electronics, memory, energy harvesters, etc.) that are
ultra-high vacuum experience to work for you. shown distributed (a) along the same surface or (b) stacked. The possi-
bility to power the e-skin by (c) a bulky battery or (d, e) a light-weight
Contact us today for a rebuilding quote. wearable solar cell. (f) iCub robotic body and arm covered with e-skin
(inset). The 3D reconstruction of a skin patch placed on (g) a contain-
DUNIWAY
S T O C K R O O M C O R P.
er, and (h) a KUKA LWR arm. (i) An image of the prosthetic/robotic
hand with e-skin [Source: npj Flexible Electronics, 3, Article number:
8 0 0 . 4 4 6 . 8 811 1 (2019)].
w w w . d u n i w a y. c o m

posed applications of e-skin [4]. The field of e-skin has gained lightweight and cost-effective energy systems. These include ex-
a lot of attention and is currently a matter of intensive investi- ploring new compatible ways to harvest energy and discovering
gations by the researchers worldwide due to its potentials in a new sources available in the environment [4].
number of high tech areas ranging from robotics to digital health,
fashion and internet of things (IoT). E-skin technology requires Hybridized Nanogenerators, Solar Cells, and
quite high density of several types of electronic components that Supercapacitors: A Smart Energy System for Self-Powered
include sensors, actuators and complex electronics. It is highly Textiles for Wearable Electronics
desirable that these e-skin technologies work without the need
Current research is focused on to develop wearable electronics
to power them by adding heavy batteries. This requirement has
fabricated on lightweight and flexible substrate. Such a design of
prompted nanotechnology researchers to focus on the develop-
wearable electronics is believed to have great potential for next
ment of compact flexible energy systems to realize self-powered
generation portable devices [5]. Among other challenges that
or so called energy-autonomous e-skin [4].
need to be addressed for a best-performing smart energy system,
Figure 3 gives an overview of the state-of-the art energy har-
one area is employing a photovoltaic cell for energy harvesting.
vesting and storage technologies that are being considered in
The application of solar cells can be limited at times due to fact
e-skin-like systems. It is believed that e-skin technology could
that solar cells work only under sufficient light illumination. This
strongly benefit from the latest nanotechnology research and ad-
implies that the solar energy is not always available and that is
vances in the field of energy harvesting and storage. Some of
strongly depending on the weather and working conditions. It is
them are stretchable PV cells, high capacity supercapacitors, and
therefore, reasonable to address the challenges of the intermittent
wireless power transfer etc. Researchers are addressing several
and unpredictable nature of solar energy for its use as an ener-
challenges that need to be overcome to realize the full techno-
gy harvester in wearable electronics. Researchers are exploring
logical potential of these nanotech-based materials advances that
how to scavenge alternative energy from the environment with
can enable to obtain a high-performance energy-autonomous
different types of energy harvesters that can compensate for the
e-skin. Some of these future materials challenges include tailor-
insufficient part of the solar energy [5].
ing mechanical properties of nanostructured materials, seamless
In a recent noteworthy work, researchers demonstrated a hy-
integration of various harvesting and storage technologies that
bridized self-charging power textile system that overcomes the
result in a high-performance hybrid system and also developing
shortcomings of using solar cells as the only energy harvesters.
low-power electronics to ensure positive energy budget. New
They reported an energy system that simultaneously collects
nanomaterials need to be researched and developed that enable
outdoor sunshine and random body motion energies and subse-

Figure 3. Schematic illustrations of an electronic skin empowered with a smart energy system comprising energy harvesting (light, mechanical,
chemical and thermal energy) and energy storage (batteries and supercapacitors) and examples of energy solutions for energy harvesting and
energy storage for the development of e-skin technology. [Source: npj Flexible Electronics, 3, Article number: 1 (2019)].
quently storing the harvested energies in an energy storage unit.

In this significant research on demonstrating multiple energy
harvesters and scavengers of energy to empower the smart en-
ergy system, researchers showed that both of the harvested ener-
gies can be easily converted into electricity by using fiber-shaped
dye-sensitized solar cells and fiber-shaped triboelectric nano-
generators (for random body motion energy). Subsequently, the
harvested energies can be further stored as chemical energy in
fiber-shaped supercapacitors. It was further pointed out that due
to the all-fiber shaped structure of the energy system, the hybrid-
ized self-charging textile system can be woven into electronic
textiles that can enable to fabricate smart clothes for operating
mobile or wearable electronics [5].
In their design, researchers employed three kinds of func-
tional devices that included fiber-shaped dye-sensitized solar
cell (F-DSSCs), fiber-shaped supercapacitors (F-SCs), and
fiber-shaped triboelectric generators (F-TENGs) that were in-
Figure 4. Schematic presentation of the design of a fiber-based self-
tegrated spontaneously into a conventional textile structure charging power system, which is made of a fiber-shaped triboelectric
(Figure 4). The hybridized self-charging textile can achieve nanogenerator (F-TENG), a fiber-shaped dye-sensitized solar cell
reasonable energy conversion and storage capacity and also the (F-DSSC) as an energy-harvesting fabric, and a fiber-shaped superca-
system is inexpensive and can be easily fabricated [5]. pacitor (F-SC) as an energy-storing fabric [Source: Science Advances,
2016, 2, no. 10].

Figure 5. (a) A photograph of an as-fabricated self-charging power system that includes three triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) in parallel
and three supercapacitors (SCs) in series. (b) A schematic design of a kirigami-based supercapacitor (KP-SC). (c) Fabricated convoluted power
device containing a TENG and a solid state lithium ion battery (SLB). (d) A structural scheme of the supercapacitor. Insets 1 and 2 show the basic
working component of the TENG and SC. Insets 3 and 4 are the SEM images of the graphite-based electrode for the SC and the nanostructured
FEP film for the TENG. Inset 5 shows a photograph of the as-prepared SC [Source: Nano-Micro Letters, 2019, 11:19].
Nanostructured Lithium Ion Batteries, included TiO2 nanotubes as anode, the polyethylene oxide-Li(1+x)
Supercapacitors and Nanogenerators Ti(2−x)Alx(PO4)3 (PEO–LATP) as solid electrolyte, and the LiM-
Empowered Self-Charging Energy System n2O4 nanoparticles as cathode (Figure 5) [6].
Lithium ion batteries (LIBs) and supercapacitors are com-
monly utilized as the main electrochemical energy storage de-
vices. The reported nanogenerator-enabled self-charging energy
storage devices or smart energy systems are mainly based on
LIBs and supercapacitors. These smart energy devices have been
shown to be able to collect and convert mechanical energy into
electric energy in the surrounding environment. Subsequently, it
can store the scavenged energy as chemical energy. Researchers
have shown that energy scavenging function of the devices can
be realized by piezoelectric nanogenerators or triboelectric nano-
generators. These nanogenerators are exciting discoveries as
important components of energy systems. They can effectively
scavenge mechanical energies, and they have several advantages
such as simple, small, light, low cost, no auxiliaries, and con-
venient to use. These nanogenerators can be applied to wireless
sensors and microelectronics devices [5].
Researchers have demonstrated three triboelectric nano-
generators (TENGs) connected in parallel and integrated with
three supercapacitors (SCs) connected in series to create a self-
charging energy system (Figure 5). They employed the conduc-
tive carbon paper that acted as capacitive materials, while the
PAN paper served as separator [5]. The flexible paper-based su-
percapacitor was subsequently developed using graphite, H3PO4/
PVA, and kirigami as the active material, electrolyte, and separa-
tor, respectively. Researchers also reported a convoluted power
device by internally hybridizing a TENG and a solid state lithi-
um ion battery (SLB) by sharing common electrodes. The SLB

Concluding Remarks 5. Zhen Wen, Min-Hsin Yeh, Hengyu Guo, Jie Wang, Yunlong Zi,
Weidong Xu, Jianan Deng, Lei Zhu, Xin Wang, Chenguo Hu, Lip-
Smart energy systems that include both energy harvester ing Zhu, Xuhui Sun and Zhong Lin Wang, Self-powered textile for
and energy storage units hold great promise for many exciting wearable electronics by hybridizing fiber-shaped nanogenerators,
future developments in portable and wearable electronics for a solar cells, and supercapacitors, Science Advances, 2016, 2, no. 10,
whole host of new applications in advanced technology sectors. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1600097.
Nanotechnology is poised to transform such smart energy sys- 6. Kun Zhao, Yuanhao Wang, Lu Han, Yongfei Wang, Xudong Luo,
tems. Many nanotech-enabled processes and materials are being Zhiqiang Zhang, Ya Yang, Nanogenerator-Based Self-Charging En-
implemented in enhancing the functional properties and perfor- ergy Storage Devices, Nano-Micro Letters, 2019, 11:19.
mances in energy storage and energy harvesting and scavenging
capabilities. Future of smart energy systems looks bright. We an-
ticipate many technological breakthroughs happening in the field Guest Editor
of wearable and portable electronics in the future. Dr. Rajeev K Gupta is currently a Senior Associate Professor of Physics,
School of Engineering at the University of Petroleum and Energy Studies
References for Further Reading (UPES) at Dehradun in India. UPES is India's only University to offer the
largest choice of 110+ specialization-focused undergraduate and post gradu-
1.
Gilshteyn EP, Amanbaev D, Silibin MV, Sysa A, Kondrashov ate and research programs in advanced technology areas that include Avion-
VA, Anisimov AS, Kallio T, Nasibulin AG, Flexible self-powered ics; Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning; Renewable and Green En-
piezo-supercapacitor system for wearable electronics, Nanotechnol- ergy; Logistics & Supply Chain Management; Digital Marketing; Big Data
ogy. 2018 Aug 10;29, (32):325501. and Business Analytics, just to name a few. Dr. Gupta is working in the areas
of advanced materials and surface coatings and is involved in developing
2. Wenzhuo Wu, High-performance piezoelectric nanogenerators for
a number of National and International multi-institutional and multidisci-
self-powered nanosystems: quantitative standards and figures of
plinary research proposals in nanotechnology, green energy, and functional
merit, Nanotechnology, 27, 11, 2016. devices. He has published numerous papers in these areas in top-tier interna-
3. Libu Manjakkal, Carlos García Núñez Wenting Dang Ravinder Da- tional journals. Dr. Gupta was the Head of the center of Nanotechnology at
hiya, Flexible self-charging supercapacitor based on graphene-Ag- UPES and was responsible to develop the research laboratory and expanding
3D graphene foam electrodes, Nano Energy, 51, 2018, Pages 604- the research groups in the cutting-edge material research. Dr. Gupta was also
612. the Head of the Department of Physics at UPES.
4. Carlos García Núñez, Libu Manjakkal & Ravinder Dahiya, Energy Dr. Gupta can be reached at rajeev@ddn.upes.ac.in
autonomous electronic skin, npj Flexible Electronics, 3, Article num-
ber: 1 (2019).
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Long Beach Convention Center, Long Beach, California, USA
Technical Program April 20 – 23
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Free Conference Admission on April 21 or 22
Education Program April 18 – 23
Problem solving tutorials taught by the world’s leading experts in
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26
2020 TechConProgram_6-19.indd 1
vtcmag@vtcmag.com July 2019 • Vacuum Technology & Coating
6/3/19 12:31 PM
By Dr. Abhijit Biswas, Contributing Editor
On-Chip Optical Amplifiers

and Light Sources on Silicon Platform
Can Take the Hybrid Photonic Integrated
Circuits to the Next Level
I
n modern optoelectronics, silicon integrated photonics tech- Use of Atomic Layer Deposition for On-Chip Amplification:
nology is continuing with its much anticipated progress to Possibilities of CMOS-Compatible Large-Scale Integration
develop hybrid photonic integrated circuits. The field of pho- of Active Functionalities on Silicon
tonic integrated circuits is an emerging sub-topic in photonics. It
In recent years, researchers have paid a lot of attention in de-
offers many exciting possibilities for the future consumer and de-
veloping a number of passive monolithic building blocks that
fense technologies. Hybrid Photonic integrated circuits are con-
include couplers, splitters, and resonators for silicon integrated
sidered the advanced version of the silicon photonics technology.
photonics. The current R&D is focused on some of the essential
It is believed that this hybrid technology would transform many
active on-chip functionalities, for example, light emission and
areas that include consumer electronics, high speed communica-
amplification. It is believed that developing efficient and reliable
tions, healthcare diagnostics, processing industry, mobility, safe-
on-chip optical amplifiers and light sources would pave the way
ty and security, and agro-food, just to name a few sectors.
to major breakthroughs in realizing versatile integration of vari-
Researchers have shown that the best possible cost-effective
ous active functionalities on the silicon platform. However, real-
and high-performance technology goals in the next generation
izing these on-chip functionalities is a challenging task due to the
of hybrid integrated circuits could be achieved by combining a
indirect band gap nature of silicon [1].
number of electrical and optical functions integrated on the sili-
In a significant breakthrough research, the applications of
con platform [1]. The possible route that is suggested to overcome
atomic layer deposition (ALD) were recently shown in inte-
the challenges and achieve the goals is to develop cost-effective
grated photonics. Researchers demonstrated ultra-high on-chip
mass production methods for complementary-metal-oxide-semi-
optical gain in erbium-based hybrid slot waveguides (Figure
conductor ‘CMOS’ compatible devices and to enable microelec-
1). They employed a monolithic, CMOS-compatible and scal-
tronic technologies by incorporating optical functionalities on
able ALD process that resulted in layer-by-layer nature of ALD.
the integrated circuit chips. To this end, R&D efforts are being
Researchers demonstrated atomic scale engineering of the gain
undertaken by major electronic corporations in the world to re-
layer properties and straightforward integration with silicon inte-
place metallic interconnects in the microchips with optical inter-
grated waveguides [1].
connects that result in more energy efficient with faster response
Figure 2 shows the layer-by-layer deposition of the Er:Al2O3
time and wider transmission bandwidth circuits [1, 2]. In this col-
gain layer and the resulting device layer. The employed ALD
umn, we describe some of the most recent major breakthroughs
process involved initialization by pulsing erbium tris(2,2,6,6-te-
in advancing photonic integrated circuits.
tramethyl-3,5-heptanedionate) ≡ Er(thd)3 onto the hydroxyl-ter-

Figure 2. A schematic presentation of the atomic layer deposition
process for the Er2O3–Al2O3 supercycle with Er(thd)3 pulsing on the
Figure 1. Schematic illustrations present the design of the silicon ni- preprocessed Si3N4 slot waveguide (1), resulting device layer (2),
tride waveguide chip. The length of the waveguide chip is 7 mm that in- Trimethylaluminum pulsing on the Er2O3–Si3N4 surface and the result-
cludes several waveguide channels with different dimensions [Source: ing device layer (4). The colors represent individual atoms/molecules
Nature Communications 10, 432 (2019)].
[Source: Nature Communications 10, 432 (2019)].
minated surface of the silicon nitride waveguide [1]. Subse-
of additional germanium use in the process. To overcome these
quently, the remaining organic ligands were removed or burnt
challenges, researchers have recently paid attention to the emerg-
via oxygen plasma and the resulting surface was a submonolayer
ing two-dimensional transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDs)
of Er2O3. In the final step of ALD process, a submonolayer of
that can offer a CMOS-compatible promising route for optical
Al2O3 was resulted, where some of the cationic sites were sub-
interconnect components for integration with silicon photonics.
stituted by the Er-ions (Figure 2) [1]. The reported methodolo-
In a breakthrough research on the topic, researchers demonstrat-
gy and results present significant advances in realizing efficient
ed a silicon waveguide-integrated light source and photodetector.
on-chip amplification that open up a promising route to large-
Their approach was based on a p–n junction of bilayer MoTe2, a
scale integration of various active functionalities on silicon for
TMD semiconductor with an infrared bandgap.
the next generation hybrid circuits. Importantly, this study shows
The demonstrated state-of-the-art fabrication technology re-
the potential of boosting of a light signal extendable to all kinds
ported in a recent publication provides new opportunities for in-
of structures of a microchip that is not limited to a specific type.
tegrated optoelectronic systems [3]. The silicon waveguide-inte-
Further, the results demonstrate that the ALD process which has
grated light source and photodetector were shown to be capable
largely been previously employed in electronic applications, can
to perform in the infrared range, where silicon does not absorb
also be extended to photonic applications and can be a promising
light [3]. This study shows that the employed approach is com-
method for developing microchip photonic processes [1].
pletely compatible with Si-CMOS technology and thus, has sig-
nificant potential in the integrated photonic circuits for on-chip
Silicon Waveguide-Integrated Light Source and
optical communications with much higher performance along
Photodetector: Transition-Metal Dichalcogenides Based
with a broader spectrum of functionalities [3].
Promising Avenues for Hybrid Optoelectronic Circuits
In a back-to-back related work, another research group
In the silicon photonic process, germanium has been employed demonstrated the integration of an ultrasensitive MoS2 photo-
for integrating photodetectors. However, these most advanced detector with a silicon nitride photonic circuit by efficient light
photodetectors are not cost-effective because of the requirement absorption and photocurrent generation on integrated devices

Figure 3. Design and fabrication scheme of MoS2-based photodetector integrated in a photonic circuit. (a) Cross-sectional schematic illustration
of the photodetector. (b) Calculated TE field magnitude |E| for the Si3N4 waveguide. (c) Schematic illustrations of light coupling by focusing a
647 nm CW laser on the diffraction grating, where light propagates through the Si3N4 waveguide (WG). (d) Optical image of the fabricated MoS2
photodetector integrated in the photonic structure with insets show a photoluminescence image of monolayer MoS2 after transfer and scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) image of the WG [Source: npj 2D Materials and Applications 3, 14 (2019)].
(Figure 3) [4]. Further, researchers demonstrated significantly 2. Zhechao Wang, Amin Abbasi, Utsav Dave, Andreas De Groote, Su-
improved speed of the photodetector by fabricating an alterna- lakshna Kumari, Bernadette Kuner et. al. Novel Light Source In-
tive device where the MoS2 semiconducting channel that was tegration Approaches for Silicon Photonics, Laser Photonics Rev.
combined with a hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) substrate. They 2017, 11, 1700063.
3. Ya-Qing Bie, Gabriele Grosso, Mikkel Heuck, Marco M. Furchi,
also achieved low power operation. These results have signifi-
Yuan Cao, Jiabao Zheng, Darius Bunandar, Efren Navarro-Moratal-
cant potentials for future TMD-based integrated optoelectronic
la, Lin Zhou, Dmitri K. Efetov, Takashi Taniguchi, Kenji Watanabe,
devices [4]. Jing Kong, Dirk Englund, Pablo Jarillo-Herrero, A MoTe2-based
light-emitting diode and photodetector for silicon photonic integrat-
Concluding Remarks ed circuits, Nature Nanotechnology volume 12, pages 1124–1129
(2017).
Silicon integrated photonics technology is making unprece-
4. Juan Francisco Gonzalez Marin, Dmitrii Unuchek, Kenji Watanabe,
dented advances that are anticipated to impact almost all areas
Takashi Taniguchi, Andras Kis, MoS2 photodetectors integrated with
of consumer technologies and specialized defense technologies photonic circuits, npj 2D Materials and Applications 3, Article num-
in the future. New state-of-the-art fabrication methods such as ber: 14 (2019).
atomic layer deposition have shown promise the take the inte-
grated photonics on the silicon platform to the next level. In the
energy conscious world today, low power devices are required,
and silicon photonics and its high-end form of hybrid technology
fulfill the requirement.
References for Further Reading

1. John Rönn, Weiwei Zhang, Anton Autere, Xavier Leroux, Lasse
Pakarinen, Carlos Alonso-Ramos, Antti Säynätjoki, Harri Lipsanen,
Laurent Vivien, Eric Cassan & Zhipei Sun, Ultra-high on-chip opti-
cal gain in erbium-based hybrid slot waveguides, Nature Communi-
cations 10, Article number: 432 (2019).

By Dr. Megha Agrawal and Dr. Shyamasri Biswas, Contributing Editors
Chemical Vapor Deposition

Offers Exciting Possibilities
to Create Functional Biotech Grade
Surfaces and Devices
G
eneration of functional biotech grade surfaces has at- Surface Engineering and Patterning
tracted a lot of attention in recent R&D in biotechnology for Creating Biological Microenvironment
and biomedicine that allows developing rational design
of biomedical devices with biomimetic functions, specific cel- As we mentioned in the beginning, it is important to have the
lular responses, or tissue-mediated biomolecular recognition. ability to manipulate or tailor biological interfaces and systems
Such biomedical devices are required for many next generation for biomedical applications. Researchers have shown surface
advanced biomedical applications that include therapeutics for chemical modifications that are often required to mimic biologi-
complex diseases, biosensors, precise drug delivery system, bio- cally relevant or compatible environment that is called biological
logical microelectrochemical systems (BioMEMS)), tissue engi- microenvironment. To understand the biological microenviron-
neering for regenerative medicine, and biopassivating and anti- ment, we first need to understand the dynamics of extra cellular
microbial coating deposition on clinically important biomaterials matrix. Complex organisms in the extra celullar matrix involve
[1]. All these areas of R&D offer huge promise to enable the transmission of cellular signaling between neighboring biomol-
ever growing global multi-billion dollars market for biomedical ecules at a very small scale of the dimensions of nanometers.
and pharmaceutical industry. To this end, vacuum technologists, On the other hand, the dimensions involved in controlling the
biomedical coating experts and biotechnologists and medical cell-cell interactions and tissue architecture are at the micrometer
professionals are working together to address the challenges es- level. Thus, it is of technological interest to develop micropat-
pecially in the fabrication of functional biotech grade surfaces. In terning tool for surface biochemical modification that involves
this regard, recent advances in chemical vapor deposition (CVD) the spatial manipulation and deposition of biomolecules with the
technology have shown promise in patterning and shaping func- required ultra-small length-scale precision. Advances in CVD
tional bio-surfaces. These surfaces are especially important for enabled micropatterning have impacted the engineering of bi-
their integration on different types of substrates and spatially ological microenvironments for a number of applications that
resolved bio-devices at room temperature without altering the include tissue engineering, micro total analysis systems (biosen-
mechanical properties of the bulk materials [1]. CVD allows the sors, microfluidics and microarrays), and fundamental biophysi-
translation of its capabilities for direct application in device fab- cal studies [2]. In this regard, CVD technique has been employed
rication. Some of the CVD surface modification techniques that for surface chemical modification via surface coatings to create
are currently being applied in biomedicine and biotechnology biocompatible or biologically active surfaces for drug delivery
include plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), vapor-phase polym- systems, biomedical implants and prostheses. Researchers have
erization (VPP), initiated CVD (iCVD), oxidative CVD (oCVD) shown that these surface coatings with suitable biomaterial such
etc. It is widely believed that the applications of CVD in biomed- as parylene can be applied that contains chemical functionalities
icine can impact significantly to expand the new generation of that are suitable for immobilising proteins, drugs or anti-coagu-
functional bioactive surfaces and medical devices [1]. lant agents [2].

Figure 1. A schematic illustration of a typical CVD based polymerization of parylene-C. In this process, the precursor is first introduced
into the sublimation zone maintained at 175 °C. Subsequently, the sublimed form of the precursor gets transported into the furnace (690 °C)
for pyrolysis. The reactive monomer is then polymerized into parylene when allowed to cooling in the deposition chamber (25 °C) [Source:
Materials 2010, 3, 1803].
Parylene is considered a relatively new biomaterial for effec- functionalized themselves by anchoring drugs or proteins direct-
tive surface engineering. The potential of parylene as a biomate- ly to their structure. In this regard, the preparation of thin phar-
rial of choice for surface engineering in the field of biomedicine maceutical films is of particular interest. In addition, researches
and biotechnology is huge. Figure 1 shows a typical CVD based have focused on dosage forms like patches that can allow for
polymerization of parylene-C. In this CVD process, initially the perpetual therapeutic action along with the convenience to apply
dimer precursor [2.2]paracyclophane (or di-para-xylylene) is or remove from the application area easily [3].
introduced to the chamber for vaporization which subsequently To this end, initiated chemical vapor deposition (iCVD) has
undergoes vacuum pyrolysis at temperatures above 550 °C to emerged a promising technology to deposit functional biopoly-
yield the reactive monomer. The monomer then adsorbs to the mer for a number of applications and development of biomedical
substrate surface and polymerizes at room temperature to form devices. In iCVD technique, the synthesis of functional biopoly-
the structure consisting of linear, high molecular weight parylene mer thin film is done directly from monomers in vapor phase.
films [2]. The advantage of iCVD comes from the fact that substrate sur-
Researchers have demonstrated surface micropatterning us- faces can be functionalized directly from the iCVD polymer film.
ing parylene-C “for patterning proteins and cells on a bioactive The process can also help selectively gain functionality through
surface to create biological microenvironment. Further, it has chemical reactions between functional molecules and conjugate
been shown that the cytocompatibility of parylene supports reactive groups on the substrate surface [4].
cell growth and cell cultures. Previous studies demonstrated the Researchers employed iCVD polymer coatings that were
applications of parylene “peel-off” based approach to generate applied on thin indomethacin films to modify the drug release.
directed neuronal cell growth and spatio-temporal control of cell- Hydrogel-forming co-polymers of 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate
cell interactions for tumor angiogenesis studies [2]. and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate were prepared directly on top
of solution cast indomethacin thin films by iCVD. Researchers
Initiated Chemical Vapor Deposited Hydrogel Films demonstrated different drug release behaviors that were achieved
for Tailored Drug Release: A significant Potential by depositing iCVD polymers on top of thin crystalline films of
for Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology the drug indomethacin with the release time frames spanning
several orders of magnitude. The process of this vapor-based
Current pharmaceutical research and developments are fo-
polymer synthesis method allowed for direct preparation of the
cused on the screening of new active pharmaceutical ingredients
coating on top of the drug layer (Figure 2). This ensured a de-
along with identification and optimization of different drug ad-
fined drug-polymer interface [3]. Further, the ability to adjust the
ministration routes and alternative dosage forms. Such efforts are
release behavior was demonstrated to enable individual thera-
directed to enhance efficiency of existing medication and at the
peutic actions. Such a process is advantageous as it helps in short
same time to develop new therapeutic options for currently un-
term pain relief that might necessitate a large therapeutic input.
treatable and complex medical conditions [3]. It has been shown
Similarly, chronical problems (e.g. rheumatic disorder) could
that certain biotech grade polymers can be employed for polymer
also be addressed by making use of retarded drug liberation by
therapeutics for various crucial functions in drug formulations
means of small but continuous dosage, as provided from thin
and providing protection against premature release. Biopolymer
film patches. This opens up a new pharmaceutical technology
based therapeutics can also be extended to stabilizing specific
pathway for tailored drug release [3].
solid state forms and enabling site-specific drug activity or being

Figure 3. Schematic illustration showing the treatment process. (a)
Catheters treated with trichloro (1H, 1H, 2H, 2H-perfluorooctyl) si-
lane (TPFS) through chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and liquid
Figure 2. Sample structure is shown with indomethacin drug layers phase deposition (LPD) and forming the self-assembled monolayers
on glass substrates encapsulated by an iCVD polymer layer (top left) (SAM). (b) Chemical structure of TPFS and surface functionalization
[Source: Scientific Reports 8, 7134 (2018)]. for plasma treated catheters with TPFS [Source: Scientific Reports 7,
Chemical Vapor Deposited Coating of Hydrophobic 11639 (2017)].
Organosilanes Attenuating Clotting on Catheter Concluding Remarks
Surfaces: Preventing Thrombosis on Blood-Contacting
Medical Devices Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method has proven to be
very versatile and effective for surface engineering and tailor-
There are a number of blood-contacting medical devices such ing of biotech applicable surfaces. It can be employed to coat
as catheters, heart valves and vascular grafts that are widely used bioactive surfaces with biocompatible and functional materials
in many critically important medical and clinical procedures. that can enhance the functional properties of biomedical devic-
Due to the blood associated with these devices, blood clotting es. CVD-assisted devices are expected to play important roles in
or thrombosis can happen to these devices and that can eventu- next generation of biomedical technologies that can significantly
ally lead to thromboembolic complications and device failure. impact the future pharmaceutical sector.
Typical examples of such blood-containing devices are central
venous catheters for cancer patients. These devices are often References for Further Reading
implanted for venous access and for parenteral delivery of che-
1. Anna Maria Coclite, CVD Polymer Surfaces for Biotechnology
motherapy, antibiotics and nutrition. It is common to observe
and Biomedicine, Editor(s): Karen K. Gleason. Wiley-VCH Verlag
catheter thrombosis in these cancer patients and such compli- GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527690275.
cations can often lead to deep-vein thrombosis and pulmonary ch14.
embolism, which eventually prolong treatment with increase 2. Christine P. Tan and Harold G. Craighead, Surface Engineering and
healthcare costs. Thus it is of current research focus to develop Patterning Using Parylene for Biological Applications. Materials
methods that reduce catheter thrombosis [5]. 2010, 3(3), 1803-1832; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma3031803.
Researchers employed the versatile CVD method for coating 3. Paul Christian, Stephan Tumphart, Heike M. A. Ehmann, Hans
catheters with an antithrombotic, omniphobic lubricant-infused Riegler, Anna Maria Coclite & Oliver Werzer, Controlling Indo-
coating of hydrophobic fluorine-based organosilanes (Figure 3) methacin Release through Vapor-Phase Deposited Hydrogel Films
[5]. They compared with uncoated catheters and observed that by Adjusting the Cross-linker Density. Scientific Reports 8:7134,
CVD coated catheters significantly attenuated thrombosis via the 2018.
4. Sandra Kalveram, Initiated Chemical Vapor Deposition Advances
contact pathway of coagulation. They also compared with the
for Device Applications. Advanced Science News, 2017. https://
commonly used technique of liquid phase deposition (LPD) of www.advancedsciencenews.com/initiated-chemical-vapor-deposi-
fluorine-based organosilanes, and concluded that CVD method tion-advances/
was more efficient and reproducible that resulted in less disrup- 5. Maryam Badv, Iqbal H. Jaffer, Jeffrey I. Weitz & Tohid F. Didar. An
tion of the outer polymeric layer of the catheters and produced omniphobic lubricant-infused coating produced by chemical vapor
greater antithrombotic activity (Figure 3). This method has the deposition of hydrophobic organosilanes attenuates clotting on cath-
potential for applications in preventing thrombosis on blood-con- eter surfaces. Scientific Reports 7:11639, 2017.
tacting medical devices [5].

By Dhruv Shah,1 Dhananjay I. Patel,1 James N. Hilfiker,2 Blaine D. Johs,3 and Matthew R. Linford1;
1
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah USA;
2
J.A. Woollam Co., Inc., Lincoln, NE USA; 3Film Sense LLC, Lincoln, NE USA
A Tutorial on
Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE), 4.
Using the ‘Angle Offset’ when fitting Ellipsometric Data
T
his article is part of a series of short tutorials on spectro- light is minimized, which implies that the ellipsometric “Psi”
scopic ellipsometry (SE). The first was an introduction to parameter is also minimized. For an ideal transparent dielectric
the technique.1 The second described a method for deter- surface, the p-polarized reflection goes to zero at the Brewster
mining thicknesses of thin oxide layers on semiconductor sub- angle. For absorbing substrates or substrates with films, the
strates.2 The third explained the Cauchy model, which is a com- p-polarized reflection does not go completely to zero, and the
mon dispersion equation used to model transparent materials.3 angle at which the p-polarized reflection is minimized is known
The fourth article focused on surface roughness, a feature that is as the principle angle.
often present on thin films.4 In this article we discuss the ‘angle Since ellipsometric measurements are very sensitive to the an-
offset’, which is a feature that is often overlooked or misunder- gle of incidence, this angle can also be used as a fit parameter
stood in SE data analysis. In general, the angle offset is not used in data analysis. For some samples, a small change in this angle
too much in ex situ SE, but it is very important for in situ SE. can lead to significant changes in the overall fit and thickness
Ellipsometry measures the change in the polarization state of of a film. We demonstrate this phenomenon using the data in
light when it reflects from or is transmitted through a sample sur- Figure 2, which was obtained from a native oxide coated silicon
face.5-7 For most samples, i.e., materials that are optically isotro- wafer that was in a sputter deposition chamber with windows
pic, this change in polarization state requires measurements at an nominally oriented at 70° relative to the sample surface. We can
oblique angle of incidence. At normal (or near-normal) angles, fit this data with a standard model incorporating known optical
the p- and s- polarization modes become degenerate, i.e., they constants for both the silicon substrate and the native oxide in
are the same, and the polarization state of the reflected beam is
essentially unaltered. At oblique angles, p- and s- polarized light
reflect differently from samples, which causes a change in po-
larization upon reflection. Therefore, an oblique angle of inci-
dence is required for ellipsometric measurements (see Figure 1),
and accurately knowing the angle of incidence is important for
ellipsometric data analysis. To provide additional ellipsometric
characterization of a sample it may be probed at different an-
gles of incidence. This technique is referred to as Variable Angle
Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (VASE).5, 8
In most cases, ellipsometric measurements are done close
to the Brewster angle, as the change in polarization state for
light reflected from a sample is maximized near this angle.9 Figure 1. Simplified model of an ellipsometer. Reprinted with permis-
The Brewster angle occurs where the reflection of p-polarized sion from reference [6]. Copyright (2016) Momentum Press.

Figure 2. Analysis of a ‘native oxide’ film on a silicon shard using the ‘NTVE_JAW’ model. The angle offset was fixed at 0.00°. For this model,
the thickness of the film was 1.38 nm and the MSE for the fit was 7.78.
much the manner described in our second article. While the The actual angle of incidence is then determined by acquiring
nominal angle is defined, the window alignment is not perfect the ellipsometric data on a known sample (typically a native
and the actual measurement beam deviates somewhat from this oxide terminated silicon wafer), and fitting for the “Angle” pa-
angle. When we model the data using our nominal angle of 70°, rameter using an analysis model with known optical constants
we get a decent fit with a mean squared error (MSE) of 7.78 and (this is shown in Figure 4). Note that in the optical model, tem-
the thickness of the native oxide film is determined to be 1.38 perature-dependent optical constants are required for the Si sub-
nm (see Figure 2). However, when we fit the angle of incidence strate,12 as the ALD process occurs at an elevated temperature.
using the ‘angle offset’ feature in the software, we get a better To minimize correlation between the substrate temperature and
match to the data with an MSE of 2.30 and a native oxide thick- the angle of incidence fit parameters, the temperature was fixed
ness of 1.49 nm (see Figure 3). Even though the angle offset is a at the nominal value of 300 °C (as reported by the thermocouple
few tenths of a degree, it has a significant impact on the MSE and in the substrate heater block). In this case, the angle of incidence
therefore the overall fit quality. Once the angle of incidence has was determined to be 70.394°, which is reasonably close to the
been resolved for the chamber, it can be fixed for future measure- nominal design angle (70°) for the ellipsometer viewports.
ments of samples where the optical constants are unknown. This Once the in situ angle of incidence is determined, it should be
is a common “calibration” procedure to determine an accurate fixed at this value for subsequent data analysis. Figure 5 demon-
angle of incidence. strates the analysis of the thickness and index of refraction of
We have access to an FS-1 in situ ellipsometer, which can col- the alumina film after the deposition (the data for this analysis
lect data while a thin film is being deposited in our atomic layer is selected near t = 55 min). To simplify the optical model, a
deposition (ALD) system.10, 11 In the FS-1 software, we can also “Pseudo” layer was used for the substrate. The FS-1 Pseudo lay-
fit the angle of incidence at which the data is collected. This is er directly inverts the ellipsometry Psi and Delta values (at the
a very important feature for in situ measurements, since it is not specified time) into “n&k” values, using Equation 1. Note that
generally possible to directly measure the angle of the ellipsome- Equation 1 requires the angle of incidence, θ, which should be
ter beam with respect to the sample when the optics are mounted fixed in the model to avoid parameter correlation.
on the chamber. Again, ellipsometer viewports will be mounted
on the chamber at a nominal angle, but the actual angle of in-
(1)
cidence depends on the height and tilt of the internally mount-
ed sample. The in situ alignment procedure accommodates the
position of the sample by tilting the source and detector optics The Pseudo layer combines the substrate and native oxide layer
such that the beam reflected from the sample is centered on the into a single “effective” substrate. This is an approximation, but
detector aperture, and the detector optics are aligned to the beam. it is valid for many applications, and provides multiple advan-

Figure 3. Analysis of a ‘native oxide’ film on a silicon shard using the ‘NTVE_JAW’ model. In this case, the ‘Angle Offset’ was allowed to vary
to match the actual measurement angle for an ellipsometer attached to a sputter deposition chamber. With an angle offset of -0.240°, the thickness
of the film is now 1.49 nm and the MSE for the fit is 2.30.
tages, e.g., (i) the optical model is simplified, (ii) temperature gle of incidence must be determined and fixed before using the
dependent optical constants are not required for the substrate, Pseudo layer to determine the effective optical constants for the
and (iii) small residual errors in the ellipsometric parameters are substrate. Using the Pseudo layer in the example of Figure 5
cancelled. However, it is important to emphasize that the an- resulted in an excellent data fit, as quantified by the low Fit Diff
Figure 4. Determination of an in situ angle of incidence. We are fitting a data point just before the alumina deposition starts in an ALD run (near
t = 4 min). Here, the angle and native oxide layer are fit parameters, and the Si substrate temperature is fixed at the nominal value of 300 °C.

Figure 5. Analysis of an ALD alumina film using the FS-1 software. The Angle is fixed at the value determined from the model in Figure 4. The
substrate “Pseudo” optical constants are determined from the data acquired immediately before the deposition is started (near t = 4 min). The
alumina film thickness and Cauchy parameters for the index of refraction are selected as fitting parameters.
value of 0.0005, with alumina film thickness and index values of Ellispsometryn (VASE), Part 1: Basic Theory and Typical Applica-
8.59 nm and 1.62, respectively. tions. Crt. Rev. Opt. Sci. Technol. 2000, 72, 1-24.
6. Tompkins, H. G.; Hilfiker, J. N., Spectroscopic Ellipsometry: Prac-
Conclusions tical Application to Thin Film Characterization. Momentum Press:
New York, 2016.
Angle offset can be a useful and important fit parameter 7. Fujiwara, H., Spectroscopic Ellipsometry: Principles and Applica-
when analyzing ellipsometric data. In fact, it is required when tions. John Wiley & Sons: New York, 2008; Vol. 1.
determining the actual angle of incidence for in situ ellipsome- 8. Johs, B.; Woollam, J. A.; Herzinger, C. M.; Hilfiker, J. N.; Synowic-
try measurements. However, unless the optical constants of the ki, R. A.; Bungay, C. L., Overview of variable-angle spectroscopic
substrate are known, it is often best to leave the angle fixed at ellipsometry (VASE): II. Advanced applications. SPIE: 1999; Vol.
10294.
its nominal value.
9. Zalczer, G.; Gurfein, V., Spectroscopic ellipsometry near the Brew-
ster angle on transparent substrates. Review of Scientific Instru-
References ments 1992, 63 (4), 2132-2134.
1. Johnson, B. I.; Hilfiker, J. N.; Linford, M. R., Some Fundamen- 10. Shah, D.; Patel, D. I.; Avval, T. G.; Allen, N.; Johs, B. D.; Linford,
tals of Spectroscopic Ellipsometry. Vacu. Technol. Coating 2019, M. R., Installation of an FS-1 ellipsometer on ana Atomic Layer
March, 31-36. Deposition (ALD) system. Part 1. Hardware Considerations. Vacu.
2. Avval, T. G.; Johnson, B. I.; Hilfiker, J. N.; Linford, M. R., A Tu- Technol. Coating 2019, Jan 2019, 32-34.
torial on Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE), 1. Determination of the 11. Shah, D.; Patel, D. I.; Avval, T. G.; Allen, N.; Johs, B. D.; Linford,
Thicknesses of Thin Oxide Layers on Semiconductor Substrates. M. R., Installation of an FS-1 in situ ellipsometer on an Atomic
Vacu. Technol. Coating 2019, April 29-33. Layer Deposition (ALD) system. Part 2. Software Considerations.
3. Shah, D.; Patel, D. I.; James N. Hilfiker; Linford, M. R., A Tutorial Vacu. Technol. Coating 2019, Feb 2019, 33-36.
on Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE), 2. The Cauchy Model. Vacu. 12. Jellison, G. E.; Modine, F. A., Optical functions of silicon at ele-
Technol. Coating 2019, May, 29-33. vated temperatures. Journal of Applied Physics 1994, 76 (6), 3758-
4. Patel, D. I.; Shah, D.; James N. Hilfiker; Johs, B.; Linford, M. R., 3761.
A Tutorial on Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE), 3. Surface Rough-
ness. Vacu. Technol. Coating 2019, June, 32-35.
5. Woollam, J. A.; Johs, B.; Herzinger, C. M.; Hilfiker, J. N.; Synowic-
ki, R.; Bungay, C. L., Overview of Variable Angle Spectroscopic

Thin-Film Deposition
Rate Monitor & Controller
Compiled by Terrence Thompson, Technical Editor
email: tethompson@aol.com
Product Descriptions
This product showcase describes thin-film deposition rate and thickness monitors, optical monitors,
etch monitors, deposition controllers, quartz crystals sensors, and related components and products.
New 4 Rate/Thickness Monitors tors in stainless steel and copper in our 2019 Catalog. In-
from Fil-Tech in our 2019 Catalog troducing our Bakeable Sensor Heads to 300°C and our 6
Fil-Tech’s newest rate/thickness monitor, QPM60 is a

2-channel monitor featuring as standard 0.01Hz high reso-
lution and 6 programmable analog outputs for rate/thickness
recording. Our SQM-220 controls up to 8 shutters and up
to 2 multi-crystal heads and features 6 channels for sensor Quartz Crystal Changer. We custom manufacture sensors
inputs with 2 channel inputs for active vacuum gauges. We and feedthroughs. Fil-Tech offers multi-film rate/thickness
also offer the SQM-160 and SQM-200. Fil-Tech manufac- monitors including the QPM60, SQM-220, SQM-160, and
tures 6MHz and 5MHz SQM-200. We supply electron beam emitter assemblies and
Quality Quartz Crystals parts for Temescal and Telemark guns including filaments,
coated Gold, Longer Life insulators, beam formers, anodes, electromagnetic coils, and
Gold®, Stress Relieving OFHC copper crucibles and covers from stock. Fil-Tech
Alloy®, Extreme Tem- supplies replacement parts for Veeco Commonwealth Mark
perature Crystals® and I and II and Ion Tech, and Satisloh ion sources including
Liquid Plating Crystals. filaments, insulators, gas distributors, anodes, and cathode
We manufacture all styles of single and dual sensor heads, tips. Fil-Tech manufactures Quality Crystals® in 6MHz and
feedthroughs on 1” bolts and 2-¾” flanges, and custom hard- 5MHz styles with Gold, Longer Life Gold®, Stress Reliev-
ware. Try our sensor heads in copper for superior cooling. ing Alloy®, Liquid Plating Crystals and Introducing Ex-
Introducing Fil-Tech’s NEW 6 Quartz Crystal Changer. Fil- treme Temperature Crystals that operate to 200°C. Online
Tech also supplies electron beam gun replacement parts, cru- ordering at www.filtech.com or call 1-617-227-1133 for our
cible liners, ion source parts, Krytox and hydrocarbon fluids 2019 Catalog.
for pumps, FT704 and FT705, ion and thermocouple gaug-
es, and Alcatel and Varian style leak detector filaments. For
2019 Catalog, call 1-617-227-1133, email paula@filtech. Extreme Temperature Crystals™
com, or visit www.filtech.com for online ordering. from Fil-Tech in our 2019 Catalog
Fil-Tech announces NEW Extreme Temperature Crystals

Sensor Heads and Feedthroughs in our 2019 Catalog that are stable in 200°C range. Our Extreme Temperature
Crystals operate in the 200°C range with fewer rate spikes
Fil-Tech has a complete line of vacuum hardware includ- that are caused by high temperature processes. Our Extreme
ing single and dual feedthroughs, single and dual sensor Temperature can be used with standard film monitors and
heads with shutters, and sputter heads with internal oscilla- controllers and are available in Gold, Silver and Stress Re-

lieving Alloy® coatings. Extreme Easy Rate™ Quartz Crystal Sensor
Temperature crystals are ideal for
processes utilizing excessive heat, The new INFICON Easy Rate single and dual quartz crystal
including VD, OVPD and ALD. sensors provide a cost-effective solution to high-accuracy thick-
Contact Fil-Tech for samples. We ness monitoring for short optical and batch coating processes.
have a complete line of AT-cut With a low initial investment and low total cost of ownership,
6MHz and 5MHz Quality Crys- Easy Rate sensors minimize production costs. Additionally, the
tals® in Gold, Longer Life Gold®, long-lasting sensors require less maintenance which maximizes
and Stress Relieving Alloy® to availability during your process. To keep your process running
measure your thin films. Gold offers low contact resistance and smoothly, Easy Rate Single and Dual Sensors are in stock for fast
high chemical stability. Stress Relieving Alloy crystals dissipate
stresses from deposited dielectrics to offer longer, jump free os-
cillation. We also manufacture sensor head hardware including
single and dual feedthroughs on 1” bolts or 2-3/4” flanges, sin-
gle and dual sensor heads, and sputter heads in stainless steel
and copper.
delivery. INFICON Easy Rate sensors are available with stan-
dard (waterlines parallel) or right angle (waterlines perpendicu-
Quality Crystals and Sensor Hardware lar) orientations for installation flexibility. They are offered with
from Fil-Tech in our 2019 Catalog a 2.54 cm (1 in.) bolt feedthrough, a CF40 (2.75 in.) Conflat®
flange feedthrough, or without a feedthrough. The feedthrough
Fil-Tech manufactures 6MHz and 5MHz Quality Crystals® connection can be easily welded on-site or made with bored-
in Gold, Longer Life Gold®, Stress Relieving Alloy®, Advanced through union fittings for easy adjustability without the need for
Adhesion Alloy®, Extreme Temperature Crystals, and Liquid brazing or welding. Sensor tube length can be cut to meet the
Plating Crystals. Gold offers low contact resistance and high needs of the chamber, allowing the length inside the vacuum sys-
chemical stability while Stress Re- tem to be customized and the feedthrough to be attached easily
lieving Alloy dissipate stresses from and quickly. Easy Rate sensors are supported by our worldwide
deposited dielectric materials to expert applications support team, ready to help you with your
offer longer, jump free oscillation. particular requirements. For maximum performance, couple
Try our New Extreme Temperature Easy Rate sensors with INFICON quartz monitors crystals for
Crystals that operate in the 200°C high accuracy applications and with Maxtek® quartz monitor
range. We manufacture a complete crystals for cost sensitive applications. See our complete line of
line of sensor head hardware includ- deposition controllers, monitors and accessories at inficon.com.
ing single and dual feedthroughs on
1” bolts or 2-3/4” flanges, single and
dual sensor heads, and sputter heads in stainless steel or cop- IC6 Thin Film Deposition Controller
per. Introducing our Bakeable Sensor Heads to 300°C and our 6
Quartz Crystal Changer. Fil-Tech also stocks parts for Temescal Protect and grow your profit with precision control and max-
and Telemark electron beam guns, including filaments, insula- imum reproducibility for optical processes. Complex, multiple
tors, beam formers, anodes, electromagnetic coils, and OFHC layer coating processes require accuracy, uniformity, and repeat-
copper crucibles and covers. Fil-Tech supplies graphite, molyb- ability. The INFICON IC6 ModeLock measurement system,
denum and titanium crucible liners. We also have replacement with industry-leading rate resolution of 0.00433 Å/s every 1/10
parts for Commonwealth and Ion Tech ion sources, including fil- second, provides the highest resolution, most stable thickness
aments, insulators, gas distributors in graphite, stainless steel and and rate measurement possible. Multiple sensor averaging and
titanium, anodes, and cathode tips. We stock FT704 and FT705 Auto-Z calculations further enhance thickness accuracy and re-
diffusion pump fluids and Krytox mechanical pump fluids. producibility. Flexible instrument configuration consisting of up
to 8 sensors, up to 12 outputs for recorder or source control, and
up to 28 digital inputs
Fil-Tech, Inc. and outputs, provides
Boston, MA the ability to configure
www.filtech.com IC6 for your specific
Contact: Paula L. Becker application needs. The
Tel: 1-617-227-1133 or 1-800-743-1743
powerful I/O includes
Email: paula@filtech.com
logic event and action functions for flexibility in integrating IC6
into simple or complex systems. No other quartz crystal control-
ler has the performance, quality, and features of IC6. INFICON,

the technology leader in thin film deposition controllers, offers of curvature, stress and thin-film
a broad selection of thin film controllers, sensors, feedthroughs, growth rate. Reflected intensi-
and crystals for all your thin film deposition needs. INFICON, ty oscillations recorded during
an ISO-certified company, provides high-quality products and growth provide accurate growth
expert worldwide support allowing you to control your profit by rate and optical constant deter-
making excellence repeatable. See our complete line of deposi- mination using our proprietary
tion controllers, monitors and accessories at inficon.com. algorithm. Stress measurements
are performed by monitoring the
substrate curvature with an array
SQC-310 Thin Film Deposition Controller of parallel laser beams and a CCD
area detector. Since the technique
Minimize system integration and development cost with is optically based, it is compati-
flexibility and ease-of-use at a very affordable price. The ble with most thin-film deposition processes, including CVD/
INFICON SQC-310 series offers full feature controllers for either MOCVD, sputtering, and MBE, provided that optical access is
sequential deposition (SQC-310) or co-deposition (SQC-310C). available to the substrate. Real-time analysis and display of film
For sequential deposition, SQC-310 features two sensor inputs, thickness, stress, substrate curvature, stress-thickness product, or
two source outputs, and eight digital inputs/outputs. An optional mean differential spot spacing make the kSA MOS an ideal tool
expansion card adds an for process control systems in both production and research en-
additional eight digital inputs/ vironments. To learn more about MOS, visit http://www.k-space.
outputs. For co-deposition com/products/mos/.
applications, the SQC-310C
controller monitors up to four
quartz crystal sensors, with k-Space Associates, Inc.
four PID control outputs, 16 Dexter, MI
digital inputs, and 16 relay www.k-space.com
outputs. SQC-310 and SQC-310C both have logic event and Tel: 1-734-426-7977
Email: requestinfo@k-space.com
action processing enabling further integration flexibility. Ease-
of-use is facilitated with the included application software and
with English and Chinese language support. INFICON, the
technology leader in thin film deposition controllers, offers a
broad selection of thin film controllers, sensors, feedthroughs,
and crystals for all your thin film deposition needs. We are an
Thin Film Deposition Controller
ISO-certified company providing high-quality products and
expert worldwide support. Our products enable you to maximize
The Kurt J. Lesker Company®’s (KJLC®) FTC-2800 depo-
your tool quality and reliability, allowing you to start profiting
sition controller provides an economical way of doing sequen-
sooner with flexible and low-cost integration, development and
tial deposition. This affordably priced controller comes standard
control. See our complete line of deposition controllers, monitors
with (2) Sensor Inputs, (2) Source Outputs, (8) Digital I/O, RS-
and accessories at inficon.com.
232 and USB Serial Ports, a bright 1/4 VGA Active Matrix Color
LCD Display. Included with
INFICON each package is user friend-
East Syracuse, NY ly Windows® Software,
http://www.inficon.com Power Cord, RS-232 Cable,
Tel: 1-315-434-1100 I/O Connector and User’s
Email: reachus@inficon.com Manual. Features include:
a bright 1/4 VGA active
matrix color LCD display
– available in English or Chinese. Standard RS-232 and USB
(with Ethernet option). Easy setup and operation with a “Quick
Setup” Menu. Windows® program for developing, testing, and
kSA Multi-beam Optical Sensor In Situ Curvature, downloading processes, and for logging instrument data to your
Stress & Deposition Monitoring System PC. Accurate process control, especially for low deposition rates,
with ±0.03 Hz resolution at 10 readings/second. Storage capacity
The kSA Multi-beam Optical Sensor (MOS) is an extreme- for up to 100 processes, 1,000 layers and 50 films. Monitoring of
ly sensitive laser-based system for in situ, real-time monitoring source material with a single sensor or with multiple sensors to
provide accurate source distribution monitoring.

Multi-Channel Quartz Crystal Monitor Leak Testing, as well as SolidWorks designs and drawings for
your critical custom requirements.
The KJLC® FTM-2400 deposition monitor is an easy to use
instrument for applications where manual control of the depo-
sition process is adequate. This monitor comes standard with McVac Manufacturing Co. Inc.
(2) Sensor Inputs, (2) Digital Inputs, (4) Relay Outputs, Analog East Syracuse, NY
Outputs for Rate & Thickness. Each package includes: User www.mcvac.com
friendly Windows® Software, Power Cord, RS-232 Cable, I/O Contact: Joseph A. McAllister Sr.
Tel: 1-315-432-9257
Connector and User’s
Email: sales@mcvac.com or joe@mcvac.com
Manual. Features of the
FTM-2400 include: 2
measurement channels
standard, (additional 4
optional), and a large,
bright LED display.
Crystal Feedthroughs, Sensors and Deposition Monitors
Windows® Software is easy to use and save process data in Ex-
cel® format. Analog outputs for rate/thickness recording. High
Nor-Cal Products’ deposition monitors measure film thick-
accuracy option: 0.03Hz at 10 readings/sec. RS-232 standard,
ness or rate using crystals as the sensor device. Independent
USB or Ethernet optional. Two recorder outputs provide analog
channels monitor dif-
rate and thickness signals. User may press the Xtal Life button
ferent films or aver-
at any time to view the remaining crystal life. “Etch Mode” sets
age different sensors
deposition rate negative for measuring etch rate.
together to provide a
more uniform depo-
sition measurement.
Kurt J. Lesker Company®
Jefferson Hills, PA The CM-2 model will
www.lesker.com monitor one or two
Tel: 1-412-387-9200 or toll-free 1-800-245-1656 sensor inputs, while
Email: salesus@lesker.com the CM-6 will monitor
up to six sensor inputs.
These monitors are
Class 1 Equipment CE
approved. Included are a RS-232 cable and Windows software.
This software will allow you to change the monitor’s parame-
Instruments & Components for the Vacuum Coating ters, save process readings in Excel formatted files, and oper-
and Thin Film Deposition ate the monitor remotely. Mounting brackets are included and
rack-mount extenders are available on request. Nor-Cal Products
McVac Mfg. is celebrating 30 years of Quality, Innovation, also provides crystal sensors which are either single with or with-
and Consistency in the Vacuum and Vacuum coating industries. out water cooling, or dual with a pneumatically actuated shut-
Our Quartz Crystal Sensors, Vacuum Feedthroughs, Crystal ter and water cooling. Single sensors are also available with an
Oscillators, and Coax Cables are all manufactured at our East integrated 2.75 CF feedthrough flange or separate feedthroughs
Syracuse Facility. Cou- are available with 1 inch bolt, 1.33 CF or 2.75 CF flanges sizes.
pled with the industry Feedthroughs, cables, oscillators and replacement crystals round
leading Brands of Thick- out the product offering. Our complete product line includes vac-
ness Monitors and Con- uum chambers, isolation and pressure control valves and other
trollers, there is no need components for the thin film deposition market.
to shop anywhere else
for your Coating Instru-
ment requirements. We Nor-Cal Products Custom Chambers and Weldments
also manufacture very
versatile Rotary Multiple Nor-Cal Products, now a division of Pfeiffer Vacuum, is
Crystal Sensors as well. No other company in the world offers as widely recognized as a foremost provider of high-quality welded
many different styles of both standard, and custom, Quartz Crys- stainless steel and aluminum vacuum chambers. We offer cham-
tal Sensors, Feedthroughs, and accessories as McVac. We also ber manufacturing in rapid prototype or production quantities on
provide precision T.I.G. welding and Helium Mass Spectrometer designs built from sketches, 3D Models, or standard engineering
prints. Our vacuum chamber bodies can be spherical, cylindrical
or rectangular, with single-wall, double-wall or channeled con-

struction. Participating in TM13 and TM14 Thickness Monitors for
customer design reviews Any Coating or Deposition Process
early in a project enables us
to deliver value-engineered The Princeton Scientific TM13 and TM14 thickness monitors
chamber designs for im- are complete with quartz oscillator, frequency measuring system
proved manufacturability.
This reduces cost while in- Power Supply 5V DC
creasing chamber reliabil- Current Consumption max 500 mA
ity and performance. Our TM13 TM14
perspective on manufactur- Thickness resolution 0.1 Å 0.01 Å
ing quality starts with chamber welds; all welds are reviewed Rate resolution 0.1 Å/s 0.01 Å/s
for vacuum integrity, structural strength, heat resistance, and Frequency resolution 0.1 Hz 0.01 Hz
flange distortion, to minimize or eliminate secondary machin- Frequency stability 0.5 ppm
ing. Other in-house capabilities include XRF, RGA/Outgassing Number of measurements 0.5; 1; 2; 4; 10
analysis, portable and in-situ CMM inspections, electropolish, per second 4 (selectable)
chemical cleaning, and clean-room packaging. A final thermal Communication Interface RS232
and vacuum characterization can be performed before a system Dimensions [mm] 80.0 × 50.0 × 27.0 mm
is leak-checked, blanked off and clean-room packaged. Nor-Cal (W × H × D)
Products is ISO 9001:2015 and ASME BPV U Stamp certified. Weight (approx.) 0.1 kg
Download 3D Models and shop online at www.n-c.com. Send
inquiries to ncsales@n-c.com or call 1-800-824-4166. and communication in-
terface. It is connected
to the input element of
Nor-Cal Products Vacuum Line Hardware a quartz resonator. The
and Components measurement results are
transmitted via RS232 to
Nor-Cal Products, now a division of Pfeiffer Vacuum, stocks the master device: either
an extensive selection of stainless steel vacuum line hardware. a PC or TMC13 controller.
We offer in excess of 2,500 standard flanges, fittings, adapters,
and transitions, and have the ability to provide value-added, cus-
tom-made vacuum line assemblies in a variety of configurations TMC13 Thickness Monitor Controller
and sizes. Flange types in- for Any Coating or Deposition Process
clude NW (ISO-KF), ISO,
CF (Conflat), ASA, and Princeton Scientific’s TMC13 thickness monitor controller
wire seal, as well as chain contains the newest technology electronics designed for moni-
clamps and aluminum toring and controlling any coating
seals for converting NW and deposition processes. Up to
and ISO flanges from high six channel inputs and two ad-
vacuum to UHV. Our flexi- ditional vacuum gauge channels
ble hose and couplings can together with 7-inch TFT display
act to dampen vibrations, makes this unit user-friendly and
work as expansion joints between various pieces of vacuum universal. Sensor inputs can be
equipment, and compensate for unusual geometries. For appli- assigned to different materials
cations that benefit from heating, Nor-Cal Products can provide with individual parameters as well. High speed and high accu-
heaters for any of our valves or vacuum line components. racy measuring process controlled by DSP processor improves
the film quality and repeatability. It brings also the features of
accuracy, stability and instrument configuration.
Nor-Cal Products, Inc. – A Pfeiffer Vacuum Company
Yreka, CA
www.n-c.com Princeton Scientific Corp.
Tel: 1-800-824-4166 Easton, PA
Email: ncsales@n-c.com www.princetonscientific.com
Contact: Magdalena Banko
Tel: 1-609-924-3011
Email: magdalena@princetonscientific.com

Deposition Controller/Monitor Ellipsometry for Vacuum Roll-Coating Equipment
Telemark’s Model 861 Deposition Controller is a drop-in re- ULVAC offers in-situ ellipsometry for roll-to-roll or static
placement for the Maxtek 360/Telemark 860 units, as well as an vacuum deposition systems. Using the optical elements from the
excellent choice for new evaporation systems. All new innova-
tive crystal oscillator design for outstanding stability and noise
immunity operates with 5 MHz or 6 MHz crystals. The 861

includes an extensive materials library and also allows for user UNECS series, compact, high-speed, spectroscopic ellipsometer,
definable materials. The Color LCD touch screen for graphical it is now possible to make very fast and accurate measurements
and numerical display has an intuitive and user-friendly operator of multilayer films on either moving or static substrates, in-situ.
interface. The Touch screen capabilities include In-process pa- The sensor, light source, control unit and cables can be mounted
rameter modification; Process and Layer editor; I/O status and in OEM equipment, inside of the vacuum chamber. It is possible
control. The Model 851 Deposition Monitor has comparable to measure a multi-layer film thickness of up to 6-layers. The
features. snapshot method of measurement using high order wave plates
makes high-speed (min. 20ms) measurement possible.
Telemark
Battle Ground, WA ULVAC Technologies, Inc.
www.telemark.com Methuen, MA
Tel: 1-360-723-5360 www.ulvac.com
Email: sales@telemark.com Tel: 1-978-686-7550
Email: sales@us.ulvac.com
VTCMAG.COM BANNER POSITION & SPECIFICATIONS
For more information contact Gregg Hutchings

Phone: 1-203-606-5773 • E-mail: Gregg@vtcmag.com
www.vtcmag.com
ONLINE
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the #1 choice in thin film deposition equipment
dual chamber systems magnetron sputtering systems
Sputter/e-Beam right angle Dual Chamber Depostion System with Compact UHV Sputtering System with (10) 1.5” Sputtering Sources.
Common load-lock.
compact sputtering systems magnetron sputtering systems
orion-5-UHV Sputtering System, accomodates up to 5 magnetron atC Sputtering System with con-focal magnetrons with in-situ tilting
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hybrid deposition systems hv e-beam systems
atC-1800 Hybrid includes con-focal and normal incidence sputtering, atC-2030-e electron Beam evaporation System with (6) pocket 15cc
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It’s time to say goodbye
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The all New FerroVac Vacuum Controller
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Whatever electron beam evaporation system you’re
currently using, you can transform it into an automated FerroVac is an ideal upgrade for Temescal’s Versavac
system with Ferrotec’s new FerroVac controller. The FerroVac and Auto Pump Sequencer
controller integrates automated vacuum control with gauge

reading functionality. When combined with the Temescal
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you can update your legacy deposition workhorse with Integrates with the TemEBeam and
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Find out more. Contact Ferrotec at 1-925-371-4170.
© 2017 Ferrotec (USA) Corporation. All rights reserved.

Temescal is a registered trademark and Auratus is a trademark of Ferrotec (USA) Corporation.

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THIN FILM DEPOSITION • PLASMA PROCESSING • VACUUM INSTRUMENTATION

Crucible Liners Electron Beam

4 vtcmag@vtcmag.com  July 2019 • Vacuum Technology & Coating

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Development of In situ Techniques

Early Optical Methods (1930s)

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We continue to advance our industry-leading tools and technology

J.A. Woollam is the undisputed leader in providing

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■ Very high gas throughput for all process gases

18.06.01_VTC_ATH-M_Turbopumpen_177,8x123,825mm_EN_USA.indd 1 01.06.18 15:22

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Compact and Wearable Flexible Energy Systems for

Don’t Scrap it... Rebuild it!

Your high vacuum equipment is valuable, so

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quently storing the harvested energies in an energy storage unit.

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62nd Annual SVC Technical Conference • April 27 - May 2, 2019

Technology Exhibit April 21 – 22

On-Chip Optical Amplifiers

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References for Further Reading

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Chemical Vapor Deposition

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Fil-Tech’s newest rate/thickness monitor, QPM60 is a

Fil-Tech announces NEW Extreme Temperature Crystals

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