Biological Sciences
Cell Structure: A cell consists of three parts:
the cell membrane, the nucleus, and,
between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the
cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine
fibers and hundreds or even thousands of
miniscule but distinct structures called
organelles
Cell Function: The cell (from Latin cella,
meaning "small room") is the basic structural,
functional, and biological unit of all known
living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of
life that can replicate independently, and
cells are often called the "building blocks of
life". The study of cells is called cell biology.
Brain: Brain, portion of the central nervous
system contained within the skull. The brain
is the control center for movement, sleep,
hunger, thirst, and virtually every other vital
activity necessary to survival. All human
emotions—including love, hate, fear, anger,
elation, and sadness—are controlled by the
brain. It also receives and interprets the
countless signals that are sent to it from
other parts of the body and from the external
environment. The brain makes us conscious,
emotional, and intelligent
ANATOMY: The adult human brain is a 1.3-kg
(3-lb) mass of pinkish-gray jellylike tissue
made up of approximately 100 billion nerve
cells, or neurons; neuralgia (supporting-
tissue) cells; and vascular (blood-carrying)
and other tissues. Between the brain and the
cranium—the part of the skull that directly
covers the brain—are three protective
membranes, or meninges. The outermost
membrane, the dura mater, is the toughest
and thickest. Below the dura mater is a
middle membrane, 55 called the arachnoids
layer. The innermost membrane, the pie
mater, consists mainly of small blood vessels
and follows the contours of the surface of the
brain.
A -Cerebrum Most high-level brain functions
ENERGY
Energy, capacity of matter to perform work
as the result of its motion or its position in
relation to forces acting on it. Energy
associated with motion is known as kinetic
energy, and energy related to position is
called potential energy. Thus, a swinging
pendulum has maximum potential energy at
the terminal points; at all intermediate
positions it has both kinetic and potential
energy in varying proportions. Energy exists
in various forms, including mechanical (see
Mechanics), thermal (see Thermodynamics),
chemical (see Chemical Reaction), electrical
(see Electricity), radiant (see Radiation), and
atomic (see Nuclear Energy). All forms of
energy are interconvertible by appropriate
processes. In the process of transformation
either kinetic or potential energy may be lost
or gained, but the sum total of the two
remains always the same.
SOURCES AND RESOURCES OF ENERGY
The ability to do work is energy. The
significant sources of energy are coal, gas,
wood and oil. These sources area so called
the primary sources of energy. Electricity
which is regarded as a secondary source of
energy is produced by theses primary
sources. For the production of electricity the
sources of nuclear fission, sunlight and water
are also employed as the primary sources.
CONVENTIONAL AND NON CONVENTIONAL
SOURCES OF ENERGY: The sources of energy
that are used for the objective of power
generation are called conventional sources of
energy. Whereas the sources that are not
utilized for the factor of electricity generation
are included in the category of non
take place in the cerebrum. Its two large
hemispheres make up approximately 85
percent of the brain's weight. The exterior
surface of the cerebrum, the cerebral cortex,
is a convoluted, or folded, grayish layer of cell
bodies known as the gray matter. The gray
matter covers an underlying mass of fibers
called the white matter. The convolutions are
made up of ridge like bulges, known as gyri,
separated by small grooves called sulci and
larger grooves called fissures. Approximately
two-thirds of the cortical surface is hidden in
the folds of the sulci. The extensive
convolutions enable a very large surface area
of brain cortex—about 1.5 m2 (16 ft2) in an
adult—to fit within the cranium. The pattern
of these convolutions is similar, although not
identical, in all humans.
B -rebellum The cerebellum coordinates
body movements. Located at the lower back
of the brain beneath the occipital lobes, the
cerebellum is divided into two lateral (side-
by-side) lobes connected by a fingerlike
bundle of white fibers called the vermis. The
outer layer, or cortex, of the cerebellum
consists of fine folds called folia. As in the
cerebrum, the outer layer of cortical gray
matter surrounds a deeper layer of white
matter and nuclei (groups of nerve cells).
Three fiber bundles called cerebellar
peduncles connect the cerebellum to the
three parts of the brain stem—the midbrain,
the pons, and the medulla oblongata.
C -Thalamus and Hypothalamus the
thalamus and the hypothalamus lie
underneath the cerebrum and connect it to
the brain stem. The thalamus consists of two
rounded masses of gray tissue lying within
the middle of the brain, between the two
cerebral hemispheres. The thalamus is the
main relay station for incoming sensory
signals to the cerebral cortex and for
outgoing motor signals from it. All sensory
input to the brain, except that of the sense of
conventional sources. However these
categories change with time like once the
nuclear energy was considered under a non
conventional source of energy but with the
modern discoveries now it is considered to
be an important source of energy. FORMS OF
ENERGY:
COAL: Coal is considered to be an important
source of energy. Almost 30 % of world‘s
power production is dependent on this form.
It is a fossil fuel .The organic matter of plants
is buried in rocks and soils. The pressure and
heat changed this organic material to peat,
lignite and then coal.
PETROLEUM: Another essential form of
energy is the use of petroleum. It is also a
fossil fuel and a crude oil. Through the
process of fractional distillation, the
constituents of petroleum are separated
.Major oil producing countries are USA,
SAUDI ARABIA, ALGERIA and IRAN, KUWAIT
NATURAL GAS: Gas is a cheap source of
energy and is an organic matter .It is also
used for power generation and its major
constituent elements are methane, ethane,
propane and other hydrocarbons. The
natural gas is abundantly used in Pakistan
especially. H
HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION:
Falling water in the mountainous areas is
used as a source of mechanical energy to
rotate turbines and generate electricity. The
process of electromagnetic induction is used
for this purpose.
SOLAR ENERGY: The solar energy is used in
photoelectric cells. When light strike certain
heavy metals electricity is produced. Saudi
Arabia, France and other European countries
smell, connects to individual nuclei of the are utilizing this significant source of energy
thalamus. to heat buildings, power cars and other
D -Brain Stem The brain stem is communication system
evolutionarily the most primitive part of the
brain and is responsible for sustaining the
basic functions of life, such as breathing and CERAMICS
blood pressure. It includes three main Ceramics include a vast variety of inorganic,
structures lying between and below the two non-metallic materials which require high
cerebral hemispheres— the midbrain, pons, temperature heating for preparation. The
and medulla oblongata. most
famous forms of ceramic are pottery, bricks,
HEART, in anatomy, hollow muscular organ
tiles and sanitary ware. In fact the ceramics
that pumps blood through the body. The
heart, blood, and blood vessels make up the have a wide variety of usage in most sectors
circulatory system, which is responsible for especially in the industrial sector.
distributing oxygen and nutrients to the body RAW MATERIAL:
and carrying away carbon dioxide and other The raw material available for ceramic
waste products. The heart is the circulatory preparation is usually the clay which is found
system ‘s power supply. It must beat beneath the top soil This material is formed
ceaselessly because the body ‘s tissues—
through the break down process of rocks
especially the brain and the heart itself—
depend on a constant supply of oxygen and affected from the chemical proceeds and the
nutrients delivered by the flowing blood. If weather conditions. This raw material is very
the heart stops pumping blood for more than cheap and can be found in huge quantity.
a few minutes, death will result. This raw material when mixed with water can
II - STRUCTURE OF THE HEART The human be shaped and molded in any form according
heart has four chambers. The upper two
to the requirements or usage. It becomes
chambers, the right and left atria, are
receiving chambers for blood. The atria are hard at heating thus making it more durable
sometimes known as auricles. They collect and strong.
blood that pours in from veins, blood vessels KINDS:
that return blood to the heart. The heart‘s Three kinds of pottery are in use at the
lower two chambers, the right and left present times. 1. EARTHENWARE 2.
ventricles, are the powerful pumping STONEWARE 3. PORCELAIN
chambers. The ventricles propel blood into
EARTHENWARE: One of the cheapest and
arteries, blood vessels that carry blood away
from the heart. common styles of pottery is earthenware. It
A -Heart Val Four valves within the heart is easy to prepare and is heated at low
prevent blood from flowing backward in the temperature. However, it is not durable and
heart. The valves open easily in the direction is dull, porous and absorbent.
of blood flow, but when blood pushes against STONEWARE: This kind of pottery is
the valves in the opposite direction, the extremely hard and strong as is employed in
valves close. Two valves, known as
the making of heavy dishes or jugs, sanitary
atrioventricular valves, are located between
the atria and ventricles. The right
atrioventricular valve is formed from three
flaps of tissue and is called the tricuspid
valve. The left atrioventricular valve has two
flaps and is called the bicuspid or mitral
valve. The other two heart valves are located
between the ventricles and arteries. They are
called semilunar valves because they each
consist of three half-moon-shaped flaps of
tissue. The right semilunar valve, between
the right ventricle and pulmonary artery, is
also called the pulmonary valve. The left
semilunar valve, between the left ventricle
and aorta, is also called the aortic valve.
B -Myocardium Muscle tissue, known as
myocardium or cardiac muscle, wraps around
a scaffolding of tough connective tissue to
form the walls of the heart‘s chambers. The
atria, the receiving chambers of the heart,
have relatively thin walls compared to the
ventricles, the pumping chambers. The left
ventricle has the thickest walls—nearly 1 cm
(0.5 in) thick in an adult—because it must
work the hardest to propel blood to the
farthest reaches of the body.
C -Pericardium A tough, double-layered sac
known as the pericardium surrounds the
heart. The inner layer of the pericardium,
known as the epicardium, rests directly on
top of the heart muscle. The outer layer of
the pericardium attaches to the breastbone
and other structures in the chest cavity and
helps hold the heart in place. Between the
two layers of the pericardium is a thin space
filled with a watery fluid that helps prevent
these layers from rubbing against each other
when the heart beats.
D -Endocardium The inner surfaces of the
heart‘s chambers are lined with a thin sheet
of shiny, white tissue known as the
endocardium. The same type of tissue, more
broadly referred to as endothelium, also lines
the body‘s blood vessels, forming one
continuous lining throughout the circulatory
wares etc. However, it can hold liquids and is
semi virtuous and glass like unlike
earthenware.
PORCELAIN: This is the finest and the most
refined form of pottery. It is translucent and
strong light can shine through it. Porcelain is
also called chinaware as the original
technique originated from China.
PLASTICS
Plastics are man-made materials. Plastics
have taken the place of traditional materials
like woods and metals. Plastics differ from
other materials largely because of the size of
their molecules. Most materials have
molecules made up of less than 300 atoms,
plastics contain thousands of atoms. We call
them Macromolecules.
Some plastics are derived from natural
substances such as animals, insects and
plants but most are man-made. These are
named
Synthetic Plastics. Most synthetic plastics
come from crude oil but coal and natural gas
is also used.
When crude oil is refined gasses are given
off. The gasses are broken down into
Monomers. These are chemical substances
consisting of a single molecule. Thousands of
these are linked together in a process called
Polymerization to form new compounds
called Polymers.
TYPES:
There are two main types of plastics and
these are named Thermoplastics and
Thermosetting Plastics.
Thermoplastics are made up of lines of
molecules with few cross linkages. This
allows them to soften when heated and to be
bent into a variety of shapes and forms. They
become stiff and solid again when cold. This
process can be repeated many times 24
system. This lining helps blood flow smoothly
and prevents blood clots from forming inside
the circulatory system.
E -Coronary Arteries The heart is nourished
not by the blood passing through its
chambers but by a specialized network of
blood vessels. Known as the coronary
arteries, these blood vessels encircle the
heart like a crown. About 5 percent of the
blood pumped to the body enters the
coronary arteries, which branch from the
aorta just above where it emerges from the
left ventricle. Three main coronary arteries—
the right, the left circumflex, and the left
anterior descending—nourish different
regions of the heart muscle. From these
three arteries arise smaller branches that
enter the muscular walls of the heart to
provide a constant supply of oxygen and
nutrients. Veins running through the heart
muscle converge to form a large channel
called the coronary sinus, which returns
blood to the right atrium.
TISSUES Tissue, group of associated, similarly
structured cells that perform specialized
functions for the survival of the organism.
Animal tissues, to which this article is limited,
take their first form when the blastula cells,
arising from the fertilized ovum, differentiate
into three germ layers: the ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm. Through further
cell differentiation, or histogenesis, groups of
cells grow into more specialized units to form
organs made up, usually, of several tissues of
similarly performing cells. Animal tissues are
classified into four main groups.
II -EPITHELIAL TISSUES These tissues include
the skin and the inner surfaces of the body,
such as those of the lungs, stomach,
intestines, and blood vessels. Because its
primary function is to protect the body from
injury and infection, epithelium is made up of
tightly packed cells with little intercellular
Thermosetting Plastics are made up of lines
of molecules which are heavily cross linked. It
creates a rigid molecular structure.
They may be heated the first time and
shaped but they become permanently stiff
and solid. They cannot be reshaped again.
Plastic Memory Each time a plastic is
reheated it will attempt to return to its
original flat shape unless it has been over
heated or damaged. This is called a plastic
memory.
SEMI CONDUCTORS
Semi-conductors are materials with an
electrical conductivity that increases with
increasing temperature, a trend that is
opposite to that of metals. Semi-conductors
characteristically have a band gap between
the valence and conduction bands that is
smaller than that found in the insulators. The
reason the conductivity increases is because
as the temperature increases more electrons
become thermally excited and are able to
jump the band gap between the valence and
conduction band. An example of this is
silicon.
N-Type Conductivity:
When a foreign atom with an excess of
electrons is added to a pure semi-conductor,
the result is an n-type semi-conductor, so
named because the charge carriers are
negative. This increases the conductivity
because a donor band, which is filled with
electrons, is introduced near to the
conduction band in the band gap. This greatly
decreases the band gap which the electrons
must jump. Therefore, more electrons are
able to get to the conduction band and hence
a greater conductivity is the result. An
example of an n type semi-conductor is
germanium doped with phosphorous.
P-Type Conductivity:
substance between them. About 12 kinds of
epithelial tissue occur. One kind is stratified
squamous tissue found in the skin and the
linings of the esophagus and vagina. It is
made up of thin layers of flat, scale like cells
that form rapidly above the blood capillaries
and are pushed toward the tissue surface,
where they die and are shed. Another is
simple columnar epithelium, which lines the
digestive system from the stomach to the
anus; these cells stand upright and not only
control the absorption of nutrients but also
secrete mucus through individual goblet
cells. Glands are formed by the inward
growth of epithelium—for example, the
sweat glands of the skin and the gastric
glands of the stomach. Outward growth
results in hair, nails, and other structures.
III -CONNECTIVE TISSUES These tissues,
which support and hold parts of the body
together, comprise the fibrous and elastic
connective tissues, the adipose (fatty)
tissues, and cartilage and bone. In contrast to
epithelium, the cells of these tissues are
widely separated from one another, with a
large amount of intercellular substance
between them. The cells of fibrous tissue,
found throughout the body, connect to one
another by an irregular network of strands,
forming a soft, cushiony layer that also
supports blood vessels, nerves, and other
organs. Adipose tissue has a similar function,
except that its fibroblasts also contain and
store fat. Elastic tissue, found in ligaments,
the trachea, and the arterial walls, stretches
and contracts again with each pulse beat. In
the human embryo, the fibroblast cells that
originally secreted collagen for the formation
of fibrous tissue later change to secrete a
different form of protein called chondrion,
for the formation of cartilage; some cartilage
later becomes calcified by the action of
osteoblasts to form bones. Blood and lymph
are also often considered connective tissues.
When foreign atoms with less than 2N
electrons are added, the result is a p-type
semi-conductor, so called because the charge
carrier is a positive hole. The foreign atoms
create an acceptor band very close to the
valence band that is empty. The result is that
the band gap is deceased between a full and
empty band. Electrons are then able to easily
jump from the valence band into the
acceptor bands where they are trapped
creating positive holes in the valence band.
These positive create a means for the
electrons to move within the valence band,
thus increasing the conductivity.
Radio is based on the principle that electrical
signals have the capacity of travelling without
the wire. Radio signals are carried by
electromagnetic waves which travel through
space at a speed of light. The sound waves
enter through a microphone in which a coil, a
metal ribbon vibrates to change sound in an
electric current. This signal of sound
combines with a carrier signal which is at
higher radio frequency. The carrier is
modulated by audio frequency signal. This
modulated carrier signal get transfers to
transmitting aerial where radio waves are
emitted in all directions. The received waves
are fed into a radio frequency amplifier to
strengthen; they pass to a detector which
separates the audio frequency signal from
the carrier wave. The currents that are
obtained age identical to those that left the
microphone at the broadcasting station. They
are amplified and fed to the loudspeaker. The
loudspeaker acts like a microphone, similar
to the process that produces sounds like the
original sound.
Transmitter a set of equipment used to
generate and transmit electromagnetic
waves carrying messages or signals,
especially those of radio or television
IV -MUSCLE TISSUES These tissues, which
contract and relax, comprise the striated,
smooth, and cardiac muscles. Striated
muscles, also called skeletal or voluntary
muscles, include those that are activated by
the somatic, or voluntary, nervous system.
They are joined together without cell walls
and have several nuclei. The smooth, or
involuntary muscles, which are activated by
the autonomic nervous system, are found in
the internal organs and consist of simple
sheets of cells. Cardiac muscles, which have
characteristics of both striated and smooth
muscles, are joined together in a vast
network of interlacing cells and muscle
sheaths.
V -NERVE TISSUES These highly complex
groups of cells, called ganglia, transfer
information from one part of the body to
another. Each neuron, or nerve cell, consists
of a cell body with branching dendrites and
one long fiber, or axon. The dendrites
connect one neuron to another; the axon
transmits impulses to an organ or collects
impulses from a sensory organ
LIVER Liver, largest internal organ of the
human body. The liver, which is part of the
digestive system, performs more than 500
different functions, all of which are essential
to life. Its essential functions include helping
the body to digest fats, storing reserves of
nutrients, filtering poisons and wastes from
the blood, synthesizing a variety of proteins,
and regulating the levels of many chemicals
found in the bloodstream. The liver is unique
among the body‘s vital organs in that it can
regenerate, or grow back, cells that have
been destroyed by some short-term injury or
disease. But if the liver is damaged
repeatedly over a long period of time, it may
undergo irreversible changes that
permanently interfere with function. II -
STRUCTURE OF THE LIVER The human liver is
A-Oscillator a device for generating
oscillatory electric currents or voltages by
non-mechanical means.
B-Modulation In electronics and
telecommunications, modulation is the
process of varying one or more properties of
a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal,
with a modulating signal that typically
contains information to be transmitted.
C-Antenna In radio, an antenna is the
interface between radio waves propagating
through space and electric currents moving
in metal conductors, used with a transmitter
or receiver. ... An antenna is an array of
conductors (elements), electrically connected
to the receiver or transmitter
D-Receiver In radio communications, a radio
receiver (receiver or simply radio) is an
electronic device that receives radio waves
and converts the information carried by them
to a usable form. It is used with an antenna.
TELEVISION
The TV works through the electromagnetic
signals that are transmitted, received and
converted back to original patterns. The
sound transmission is very much similar to
radio. In picture transmission the
fundamental component is the camera which
is responsible for changing the image into
electrical impulses...The cathode ray tube at
the other end converts the pattern of
electrical impulses into visible images.
CAMERA
Equipment for taking photographs which
usually consists of a lightproof box with a
lens at one end and light-sensitive film at the
other. Photography is undoubtedly one of
the most important inventions in history -- it
has truly transformed how people conceive
of the world. Now we can "see" all sorts of
things that are actually many miles -- and
years -- away from us. Photography lets us
a dark red-brown organ with a soft, spongy capture moments in time and preserve them
texture. It is located at the top of the for years to come.
abdomen, on the right side of the body just
below the diaphragm—a sheet of muscle LASERS Laser light has several features that
tissue that separates the lungs from the are significantly different from white light. To
abdominal organs. The lower part of the rib begin with, light from most sources spreads
cage covers the liver, protecting it from out as it travels, so that much less light hits a
injury. In a healthy adult, the liver weighs given area as the distance from the light
about 1.5 kg (3 lb) and is about 15 cm (6 in) source increases. Laser light travels as a
thick. parallel beam and spreads very little.
Furthermore, laser light is monochromatic
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating and coherent. White light is a jumble of
material which is present in nearly all living colored light waves. Each color has a
organisms as the main constituent of different wavelength. If all the wavelengths
chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic but one is filtered out, the remaining light is
information. monochromatic. If these waves are all
parallel to one another, they are also
Respiratory The respiratory system is the set coherent: the waves travel in a definite phase
of organs that allows a person to breathe and relationship with one another. In the case of
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide laser light, the wave crests coincide and the
throughout the body. An example of troughs coincide. The waves all reinforce one
respiratory system is the human's nasal another. It is the mono chromaticity and
passages, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes coherency of laser light that makes it ideal.
and lungs. System
MICROSCOPES give us a large image of a tiny
Dengue fever is a painful, debilitating object. The microscopes we use in school and
mosquito-borne disease caused by any one at home trace their history back almost 400
of four closely related dengue viruses. These years. The first useful microscope was
viruses are related to the viruses that cause developed in the Netherlands between 1590
West Nile infection and yellow fever. and 1608. There is almost as much confusion
about the inventor as about the dates. Three
different eyeglass makers have been given
ENZYMES Protein molecules are built up by credit for the invention. The possible
enzymes which join together tens or inventors are Hans Lippershey (who also
hundreds of amino acid molecules. These developed the first real telescope), Hans
proteins are added to the cell membrane, to Janssen, and his son, Zacharias. Lens quality
the cytoplasm or to the nucleus of the cell. in early microscopes was often poor so the
They may also become the proteins which act images were not very clear. But even these
as 80 enzymes. Enzymes are proteins in rather crude microscopes were a great help
nature that act as catalysts. They are made in in learning more about animals and plants.
all living cells. A catalyst is a chemical
substance which speeds up a reaction but SATELLITES Satellite technology has emerged
does not get used up during the reaction, tremendously over the last 50 years since
thus, one enzyme can be used many times Arthur C. Clarke first invented it. Today,
over. Without these catalysts, which speed
the rate of chemical reactions, metabolism
would not occur at a fast enough rate to
sustain life. For instance, if starch is mixed
with water it will break down very slowly to
sugar, taking several years. In your saliva,
there is an enzyme called amylase which can
break down starch to sugar in minutes or
seconds.
ORGANISM Anatomical terminology. The
human body is the entire structure of a
human being. It is composed of many
different types of cells that together create
tissues and subsequently organ systems.
They ensure homeostasis and the viability of
the human body.
ENERGY
Energy, capacity of matter to perform work
as the result of its motion or its position in
relation to forces acting on it. Energy
associated with motion is known as kinetic
energy, and energy related to position is
called potential energy. Thus, a swinging
pendulum has maximum potential energy at
the terminal points; at all intermediate
positions it has both kinetic and potential
energy in varying proportions. Energy exists
in various forms, including mechanical (see
Mechanics), thermal (see Thermodynamics),
chemical (see Chemical Reaction), electrical
(see Electricity), radiant (see Radiation), and
atomic (see Nuclear Energy). All forms of
energy are interconvertible by appropriate
processes. In the process of transformation
either kinetic or potential energy may be lost
or gained, but the sum total of the two
remains always the same.
SOURCES AND RESOURCES OF ENERGY
The ability to do work is energy. The
satellite technology is all around us and has
become a very useful, everyday application
of modern telecommunications. Satellite
systems can provide a variety of services
including broadband communication
systems, satellite-based video, audio,
internet and data distribution networks, as
well as worldwide customer service and
support.
ANTIBIOTICS Antibiotics (Greek anti,
―against‖; bios, ―life‖) are chemical
compounds used to kill or inhibit the growth
of infectious organisms. Originally the term
antibiotic referred only to organic
compounds, produced by bacteria or molds,
that are toxic to other microorganisms. The
term is now used loosely to include synthetic
and semi synthetic organic compounds.
Antibiotic refers generally to antibacterial;
however, because the term is loosely
defined, it is preferable to specify
compounds as being anti malaria, antiviral, or
anti-protozoals. All antibiotics share the
property of selective toxicity: They are more
toxic to an invading 42 organism than they
are to an animal or human host. Penicillin is
the most well-known antibiotic and has been
used to fight many infectious diseases,
including syphilis, gonorrhea, tetanus, and
scarlet fever. Another antibiotic,
streptomycin, has been used to combat
tuberculosis.
VACCINES Immunogenic consisting of a
suspension of weakened or dead pathogenic
cells injected in order to stimulate the
production of antibodies can be defined as
vaccines. How Vaccines Work 45 Disease
causing organisms have at least two distinct
effects on the body The first effect is
exhibiting symptoms such as fever, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, rash, and many others.
the second effect generally leads to eventual
significant sources of energy are coal, gas,
wood and oil. These sources area so called
the primary sources of energy. Electricity
which is regarded as a secondary source of
energy is produced by theses primary
sources. For the production of electricity the
sources of nuclear fission, sunlight and water
are also employed as the primary sources.
CONVENTIONAL AND NON CONVENTIONAL
SOURCES OF ENERGY: The sources of energy
that are used for the objective of power
generation are called conventional sources of
energy. Whereas the sources that are not
utilized for the factor of electricity generation
are included in the category of non
conventional sources. However these
categories change with time like once the
nuclear energy was considered under a non
conventional source of energy but with the
modern discoveries now it is considered to
be an important source of energy. FORMS OF
ENERGY:
COAL: Coal is considered to be an important
source of energy. Almost 30 % of world‘s
power production is dependent on this form.
It is a fossil fuel .The organic matter of plants
is buried in rocks and soils. The pressure and
heat changed this organic material to peat,
lignite and then coal.
PETROLEUM: Another essential form of
energy is the use of petroleum. It is also a
fossil fuel and a crude oil. Through the
process of fractional distillation, the
constituents of petroleum are separated
.Major oil producing countries are USA,
SAUDI ARABIA, ALGERIA and IRAN, KUWAIT
NATURAL GAS: Gas is a cheap source of
energy and is an organic matter .It is also
recovery from the infection: the disease
causing organism induces an immune
response in the infected host. As the
response increases in strength over time, the
infectious agents are slowly reduced in
number until symptoms disappear and
recovery is complete.
Pesticide A pesticide is any chemical which is
used by man to control pests. The pests may
be insects, plant diseases, fungi, weeds,
nematodes, snails, slugs, etc. Therefore,
insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc., are
all types of pesticides. Some pesticides must
only contact (touch) the pest to be deadly.
Others must be swallowed to be effective.
The way that each pesticide attacks a pest
suggests the best way to apply it; to reach
and expose all the pests. For example, a
pesticide may be more effective and less
costly as bait, rather than as a surface spray.
Types
Insecticides: Insecticides are chemicals used
to control insects. Often the word
"insecticide" is confused with the word
"pesticide." It is, however, just one of many
types of pesticides. An insecticide may kill the
insect by touching it or it may have to be
swallowed to be effective. Some insecticides
kill both by touch and by swallowing.
Insecticides called Systemic may be
absorbed, injected, or fed into the plant or
animal to be protected. When the insect
feeds on this plant or animal, it ingests the
systemic chemical and is killed.
Matricides and Acaroids: Matricides (or
Acaroids) are chemicals used to control mites
(tiny Insecticides spider-like animals) and
ticks. The chemicals usually must contact the
mites or ticks to be effective. These animals
are so numerous and small, that great care
must be used to completely cover the area
on which the mites live. Matricides are very
similar in action to insecticides and often the
used for power generation and its major same pesticide kills both insects and mites.
constituent elements are methane, ethane, The terms "broad spectrum," "short term,"
propane and other hydrocarbons. The and "residual" are also used
Fungicides:
natural gas is abundantly used in Pakistan
Fungicides are chemicals used to control the
especially. H fungi which cause molds, rots, and plant
HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION: diseases. All fungicides work by coming in
Falling water in the mountainous areas is contact with the fungus, because fungi do
used as a source of mechanical energy to not "swallow" in the normal sense.
rotate turbines and generate electricity. The Therefore, most fungicides are applied over a
process of electromagnetic induction is used large surface area to try to directly hit every
fungus. Some fungicides may be systemic in
for this purpose.
that the plant to be protected may be fed or
SOLAR ENERGY: The solar energy is used in injected with the chemical. The chemical
photoelectric cells. When light strike certain then moves throughout the plant, killing the
heavy metals electricity is produced. Saudi fungi. to describe matricides.
Arabia, France and other European countries Herbicides:
are utilizing this significant source of energyHerbicides are chemicals used to control
to heat buildings, power cars and other unwanted plants. These chemicals are a bit
different from other pesticides because they
communication system
are used to kill or slow the growth of some
plants, rather than to protect them. Some
CERAMICS herbicides kill every plant they contact, while
Ceramics include a vast variety of inorganic, others kill only certain plants.
non-metallic materials which require high Rodenticides:
temperature heating for preparation. The Rodenticides are chemicals used to control
rats, mice, bats and other rodents. Chemicals
most
which control other mammals, birds, and fish
famous forms of ceramic are pottery, bricks, are also grouped in this category by
tiles and sanitary ware. In fact the ceramics regulatory agencies. Most rodenticides are
have a wide variety of usage in most sectors stomach poisons and are often applied as
especially in the industrial sector. baits. Even rodenticides which act by
RAW MATERIAL: contacting the pest are usually not applied
The raw material available for ceramic over large surfaces because of the hazard to
domestic animals or desirable wildlife. They
preparation is usually the clay which is found
are usually applied in limited areas such as
beneath the top soil This material is formed runways, known feeding places, or as baits.
through the break down process of rocks Nematicides: Nematicides are chemicals
affected from the chemical proceeds and the used to control nematodes. Nematodes are
weather conditions. This raw material is very tiny hair-like worms, many of which live in
cheap and can be found in huge quantity. the soil and feed on plant roots. Very few of
This raw material when mixed with water can these worms live above ground. Usually, soil
fumigants are used to control nematodes in
be shaped and molded in any form according
the soil.
to the requirements or usage. It becomes
hard at heating thus making it more durable
and strong.
KINDS:
Three kinds of pottery are in use at the
present times. 1. EARTHENWARE 2.
STONEWARE 3. PORCELAIN
EARTHENWARE: One of the cheapest and
common styles of pottery is earthenware. It
is easy to prepare and is heated at low
temperature. However, it is not durable and
is dull, porous and absorbent.
STONEWARE: This kind of pottery is
extremely hard and strong as is employed in
the making of heavy dishes or jugs, sanitary
wares etc. However, it can hold liquids and is
semi virtuous and glass like unlike
earthenware.
PORCELAIN: This is the finest and the most
refined form of pottery. It is translucent and
strong light can shine through it. Porcelain is
also called chinaware as the original
technique originated from China.
PLASTICS
Plastics are man-made materials. Plastics
have taken the place of traditional materials
like woods and metals. Plastics differ from
other materials largely because of the size of
their molecules. Most materials have
molecules made up of less than 300 atoms,
plastics contain thousands of atoms. We call
them Macromolecules.
Some plastics are derived from natural
substances such as animals, insects and
plants but most are man-made. These are
named
Synthetic Plastics. Most synthetic plastics
come from crude oil but coal and natural gas
is also used.
IMMUNIZATION, also called vaccination or
inoculation, a method of stimulating
resistance in the human body to specific
diseases using microorganisms—bacteria or
viruses—that have been modified or killed.
These treated microorganisms do not cause
the disease, but rather trigger the body's
immune system to build a defense
mechanism that continuously guards against
the disease. If a person immunized against a
particular disease.
A-Active Immunization Active
immunization is the induction of immunity
after exposure to an antigen. Antibodies are
created by the recipient and may be stored
permanently.
B -Passive Immunization: is the
administration of antibodies to an
unimmunized person from an immune
subject to provide temporary protection
against a microbial agent or toxin.
FINGERPRINTING, method of identification
using the impression made by the minute
ridge formations or patterns found on the
fingertips. No two persons have exactly the
same arrangement of ridge patterns, and the
patterns of any one individual remain
unchanged through life. To obtain a set of
fingerprints, the ends of the fingers are inked
and then pressed or rolled one by one on
some receiving surface. Fingerprints may be
classified and filed on the basis of the ridge
patterns, setting up an identification system
that is almost infallible.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT Greenhouse Effect, the
capacity of certain gases in the atmosphere
to trap heat emitted from the Earth ‘s
surface, thereby insulating and warming the
Earth. Without the thermal blanketing of the
natural greenhouse effect, the Earth ‘s
climate would be about 33 Celsius degrees
When crude oil is refined gasses are given
off. The gasses are broken down into
Monomers. These are chemical substances
consisting of a single molecule. Thousands of
these are linked together in a process called
Polymerization to form new compounds
called Polymers.
TYPES:
There are two main types of plastics and
these are named Thermoplastics and
Thermosetting Plastics.
Thermoplastics are made up of lines of
molecules with few cross linkages. This
allows them to soften when heated and to be
bent into a variety of shapes and forms. They
become stiff and solid again when cold. This
process can be repeated many times 24
Thermosetting Plastics are made up of lines
of molecules which are heavily cross linked. It
creates a rigid molecular structure.
They may be heated the first time and
shaped but they become permanently stiff
and solid. They cannot be reshaped again.
Plastic Memory Each time a plastic is
reheated it will attempt to return to its
original flat shape unless it has been over
heated or damaged. This is called a plastic
memory.
SEMI CONDUCTORS
Semi-conductors are materials with an
electrical conductivity that increases with
increasing temperature, a trend that is
opposite to that of metals. Semi-conductors
characteristically have a band gap between
the valence and conduction bands that is
smaller than that found in the insulators. The
reason the conductivity increases is because
as the temperature increases more electrons
become thermally excited and are able to
jump the band gap between the valence and
conduction band. An example of this is
silicon.
N-Type Conductivity:
(about 59 Fahrenheit degrees) cooler—too
cold for most living organisms to survive.
The greenhouse effect has warmed the Earth
for over 4 billion years. Now scientists are
growing increasingly concerned that human
activities may be modifying this natural
process, with potentially dangerous
consequences. Since the advent of the
Industrial Revolution in the 1700s, humans
have devised many inventions that burn
fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
Burning these fossil fuels, as well as other
activities such as clearing land for agriculture
or urban settlements, releases some of the
same gases that trap heat in the atmosphere,
including carbon dioxide, methane, and
nitrous oxide. These atmospheric gases have
risen to levels higher than at any time in the
last 420,000 years. As these gases build up in
the atmosphere, they trap more heat near
the Earth ‘s surface, causing Earth‘s climate
to become warmer than it would naturally.
Types of Greenhouse effect
A -Water Vapor Water vapor is the most
common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere,
accounting for about 60 to 70 percent of the
natural greenhouse effect. Humans do not
have a significant direct impact on water
vapor levels in the atmosphere. However, as
human activities increase the concentration
of other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
(producing warmer temperatures on Earth),
the evaporation of oceans, lakes, and rivers,
as well as water evaporation from plants,
increase and raise the amount of water vapor
in the atmosphere.
B -Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide constantly
circulates in the environment through a
variety of natural processes known as the
carbon cycle. Volcanic eruptions and the
decay of plant and animal matter both
release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
In respiration, animals break down food to
release the energy required to build and
When a foreign atom with an excess of maintain cellular activity. A byproduct of
electrons is added to a pure semi-conductor, respiration is the formation of carbon
the result is an n-type semi-conductor, so dioxide, which is exhaled from animals into
named because the charge carriers are the environment. Oceans, lakes, and rivers
negative. This increases the conductivity absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
because a donor band, which is filled with Through photosynthesis, plants collect
electrons, is introduced near to the carbon dioxide and use it to make their own
conduction band in the band gap. This greatly food, in the process incorporating carbon
decreases the band gap which the electrons into new plant tissue and releasing oxygen to
must jump. Therefore, more electrons are the environment as a byproduct.
able to get to the conduction band and hence C -Methane Many natural processes produce
a greater conductivity is the result. An methane, also known as natural gas.
example of an n type semi-conductor is Decomposition of carbon-containing
germanium doped with phosphorous. substances found in oxygen-free
P-Type Conductivity: environments, such as wastes in landfills,
When foreign atoms with less than 2N release methane. Ruminating animals such as
electrons are added, the result is a p-type cattle and sheep belch methane into the air
semi-conductor, so called because the charge as a byproduct of digestion. Microorganisms
carrier is a positive hole. The foreign atoms that live in damp soils, such as rice fields,
create an acceptor band very close to the produce methane when they break down
valence band that is empty. The result is that organic matter. Methane is also emitted
the band gap is deceased between a full and during coal mining and the production and
empty band. Electrons are then able to easily transport of other fossil fuels. natural
jump from the valence band into the processes produce methane, also known as
acceptor bands where they are trapped natural gas. Decomposition of carbon-
creating positive holes in the valence band. containing substances found in oxygen-free
These positive create a means for the environments, such as wastes in landfills,
electrons to move within the valence band, release methane. Ruminating animals such as
thus increasing the conductivity. cattle and sheep belch methane into the air
as a byproduct of digestion. Microorganisms
Radio is based on the principle that electrical that live in damp soils, such as rice fields,
signals have the capacity of travelling without produce methane when they break down
the wire. Radio signals are carried by organic matter. Methane is also emitted
electromagnetic waves which travel through during coal mining and the production and
space at a speed of light. The sound waves transport of other fossil fuels.
enter through a microphone in which a coil, a D -Nitrous Oxide Nitrous oxide is released by
metal ribbon vibrates to change sound in an the burning of fossil fuels, and automobile
electric current. This signal of sound exhaust is a large source of this gas. In
combines with a carrier signal which is at addition, many farmers use nitrogen-
higher radio frequency. The carrier is containing fertilizers to provide nutrients to
modulated by audio frequency signal. This their crops. When these fertilizers break
modulated carrier signal get transfers to down in the soil, they emit nitrous oxide into
transmitting aerial where radio waves are the air. Plowing fields also releases nitrous
emitted in all directions. The received waves oxide.
are fed into a radio frequency amplifier to
strengthen; they pass to a detector which
separates the audio frequency signal from
the carrier wave. The currents that are
obtained age identical to those that left the
microphone at the broadcasting station. They
are amplified and fed to the loudspeaker. The
loudspeaker acts like a microphone, similar
to the process that produces sounds like the
original sound.
Transmitter a set of equipment used to
generate and transmit electromagnetic
waves carrying messages or signals,
especially those of radio or television
A-Oscillator a device for generating
oscillatory electric currents or voltages by
non-mechanical means.
B-Modulation In electronics and
telecommunications, modulation is the
process of varying one or more properties of
a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal,
with a modulating signal that typically
contains information to be transmitted.
C-Antenna In radio, an antenna is the
interface between radio waves propagating
through space and electric currents moving
in metal conductors, used with a transmitter
or receiver. ... An antenna is an array of
conductors (elements), electrically connected
to the receiver or transmitter
D-Receiver In radio communications, a radio
receiver (receiver or simply radio) is an
electronic device that receives radio waves
and converts the information carried by them
to a usable form. It is used with an antenna.
TELEVISION
The TV works through the electromagnetic
signals that are transmitted, received and
converted back to original patterns. The
sound transmission is very much similar to
radio. In picture transmission the
fundamental component is the camera which
is responsible for changing the image into
E -Fluorinated Compounds Some of the most
potent greenhouse gases emitted are
produced solely by human activities.
Fluorinated compounds, including CFCs,
HCFCs, and HFCs, are used in a variety of
manufacturing processes. For each of these
synthetic compounds, one molecule is
several thousand times more effective in
trapping heat than a single molecule of
carbon dioxide.
F -Other Synthetic Chemicals Experts are
concerned about other industrial chemicals
that may have heat-trapping abilities. In 2000
scientists observed rising concentrations of a
previously unreported compound called
trifluoromethyl Sulphur pent fluoride.
Although present in extremely low
concentrations in the environment, the gas
still poses a significant threat because it traps
heat more effectively than all other known
greenhouse gases. The exact sources of the
gas, undisputedly produced from industrial
processes, still remain uncertain.
ANTIMATTER, matter composed of
elementary particles that are, in a special
sense, mirror images of the particles that
make up ordinary matter as it is known on
earth. Antiparticles have the same mass as
their corresponding particles but have
opposite electric charges or other properties
related to electromagnetism. For example,
the antimatter electron, or positron, has
opposite electric charge and magnetic
moment (a property that determines how it
behaves in a magnetic field), but is identical
in all other respects to the electron. The
antimatter equivalent of the charge less
neutron, on the other hand, differs in having
a magnetic moment of opposite sign
(magnetic moment is another
electromagnetic property). In all of the other
parameters involved in the dynamical
properties of elementary particles, such as
electrical impulses...The cathode ray tube at mass, spin, and partial decay, antiparticles
the other end converts the pattern of are identical with their corresponding
electrical impulses into visible images. particles.

CAMERA MAGMA INTRODUCTION: Magma, molten or

Equipment for taking photographs which partially molten rock beneath the earth‘s
usually consists of a lightproof box with a surface. Magma is generated when rock deep
lens at one end and light-sensitive film at the
underground melts due to the high
other. Photography is undoubtedly one of
the most important inventions in history -- it temperatures and pressures inside the earth.
has truly transformed how people conceive Because magma is lighter than the
of the world. Now we can "see" all sorts of surrounding rock, it tends to rise. As it moves
things that are actually many miles -- and upward, the magma encounters colder rock
years -- away from us. Photography lets us and begins to cool. If the temperature of the
capture moments in time and preserve them magma drops low enough, the magma will
for years to come.
crystallize underground to form rock; rock
LASERS Laser light has several features that that forms in this way is called intrusive, or
are significantly different from white light. To plutonic igneous rock, as the magma has
begin with, light from most sources spreads formed by intruding the surrounding rocks. If
out as it travels, so that much less light hits a the crust through which the magma passes is
given area as the distance from the light sufficiently shallow, warm, or fractured, and
source increases. Laser light travels as a if the magma is sufficiently hot and fluid, the
parallel beam and spreads very little.
magma will erupt at the surface of the earth,
Furthermore, laser light is monochromatic
and coherent. White light is a jumble of possibly forming volcanoes. Magma that
colored light waves. Each color has a erupts is called lava.
different wavelength. If all the wavelengths GREENHOUSE EFFECT Greenhouse Effect, the
but one is filtered out, the remaining light is capacity of certain gases in the atmosphere
monochromatic. If these waves are all to trap heat emitted from the Earth ‘s
parallel to one another, they are also surface, thereby insulating and warming the
coherent: the waves travel in a definite phase Earth. Without the thermal blanketing of the
relationship with one another. In the case of natural greenhouse effect, the Earth ‘s
laser light, the wave crests coincide and the climate would be about 33 Celsius degrees
troughs coincide. The waves all reinforce one (about 59 Fahrenheit degrees) cooler—too
another. It is the mono chromaticity and cold for most living organisms to survive.
coherency of laser light that makes it ideal. The greenhouse effect has warmed the Earth
for over 4 billion years. Now scientists are
MICROSCOPES give us a large image of a tiny growing increasingly concerned that human
object. The microscopes we use in school and activities may be modifying this natural
at home trace their history back almost 400 process, with potentially dangerous
years. The first useful microscope was consequences. Since the advent of the
developed in the Netherlands between 1590 Industrial Revolution in the 1700s, humans
and 1608. There is almost as much confusion have devised many inventions that burn
about the inventor as about the dates. Three fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
different eyeglass makers have been given Burning these fossil fuels, as well as other
credit for the invention. The possible activities such as clearing land for agriculture
inventors are Hans Lippershey (who also or urban settlements, releases some of the
developed the first real telescope), Hans same gases that trap heat in the atmosphere,
Janssen, and his son, Zacharias. Lens quality including carbon dioxide, methane, and
in early microscopes was often poor so the nitrous oxide. These atmospheric gases have
images were not very clear. But even these risen to levels higher than at any time in the
rather crude microscopes were a great help last 420,000 years. As these gases build up in
in learning more about animals and plants. the atmosphere, they trap more heat near
the Earth ‘s surface, causing Earth‘s climate
SATELLITES Satellite technology has emerged to become warmer than it would naturally.
tremendously over the last 50 years since Types of Greenhouse effect
Arthur C. Clarke first invented it. Today, A -Water Vapor Water vapor is the most
satellite technology is all around us and has common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere,
become a very useful, everyday application accounting for about 60 to 70 percent of the
of modern telecommunications. Satellite natural greenhouse effect. Humans do not
systems can provide a variety of services have a significant direct impact on water
including broadband communication vapor levels in the atmosphere. However, as
systems, satellite-based video, audio, human activities increase the concentration
internet and data distribution networks, as of other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
well as worldwide customer service and (producing warmer temperatures on Earth),
support. the evaporation of oceans, lakes, and rivers,
as well as water evaporation from plants,
ANTIBIOTICS Antibiotics (Greek anti, increase and raise the amount of water vapor
―against‖; bios, ―life‖) are chemical in the atmosphere.
compounds used to kill or inhibit the growth B -Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide constantly
of infectious organisms. Originally the term circulates in the environment through a
antibiotic referred only to organic variety of natural processes known as the
compounds, produced by bacteria or molds, carbon cycle. Volcanic eruptions and the
that are toxic to other microorganisms. The decay of plant and animal matter both
term is now used loosely to include synthetic release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
and semi synthetic organic compounds. In respiration, animals break down food to
Antibiotic refers generally to antibacterial; release the energy required to build and
however, because the term is loosely maintain cellular activity. A byproduct of
defined, it is preferable to specify respiration is the formation of carbon
compounds as being anti malaria, antiviral, or dioxide, which is exhaled from animals into
anti-protozoals. All antibiotics share the the environment. Oceans, lakes, and rivers
property of selective toxicity: They are more absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
toxic to an invading 42 organism than they Through photosynthesis, plants collect
are to an animal or human host. Penicillin is carbon dioxide and use it to make their own
the most well-known antibiotic and has been food, in the process incorporating carbon
used to fight many infectious diseases, into new plant tissue and releasing oxygen to
including syphilis, gonorrhea, tetanus, and the environment as a byproduct.
scarlet fever. Another antibiotic, C -Methane Many natural processes produce
streptomycin, has been used to combat methane, also known as natural gas.
tuberculosis. Decomposition of carbon-containing
substances found in oxygen-free
VACCINES Immunogenic consisting of a environments, such as wastes in landfills,
suspension of weakened or dead pathogenic release methane. Ruminating animals such as
cells injected in order to stimulate the cattle and sheep belch methane into the air
production of antibodies can be defined as as a byproduct of digestion. Microorganisms
vaccines. How Vaccines Work 45 Disease that live in damp soils, such as rice fields,
causing organisms have at least two distinct produce methane when they break down
effects on the body The first effect is organic matter. Methane is also emitted
exhibiting symptoms such as fever, nausea, during coal mining and the production and
vomiting, diarrhea, rash, and many others. transport of other fossil fuels. natural
the second effect generally leads to eventual processes produce methane, also known as
recovery from the infection: the disease natural gas. Decomposition of carbon-
causing organism induces an immune containing substances found in oxygen-free
response in the infected host. As the environments, such as wastes in landfills,
response increases in strength over time, the release methane. Ruminating animals such as
infectious agents are slowly reduced in cattle and sheep belch methane into the air
number until symptoms disappear and as a byproduct of digestion. Microorganisms
recovery is complete. that live in damp soils, such as rice fields,
produce methane when they break down
Pesticide A pesticide is any chemical which is organic matter. Methane is also emitted
used by man to control pests. The pests may during coal mining and the production and
be insects, plant diseases, fungi, weeds, transport of other fossil fuels.
nematodes, snails, slugs, etc. Therefore, D -Nitrous Oxide Nitrous oxide is released by
insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc., are the burning of fossil fuels, and automobile
all types of pesticides. Some pesticides must exhaust is a large source of this gas. In
only contact (touch) the pest to be deadly. addition, many farmers use nitrogen-
Others must be swallowed to be effective. containing fertilizers to provide nutrients to
The way that each pesticide attacks a pest their crops. When these fertilizers break
suggests the best way to apply it; to reach down in the soil, they emit nitrous oxide into
and expose all the pests. For example, a the air. Plowing fields also releases nitrous
pesticide may be more effective and less oxide.
costly as bait, rather than as a surface spray. E -Fluorinated Compounds Some of the most
Types potent greenhouse gases emitted are
Insecticides: Insecticides are chemicals used produced solely by human activities.
to control insects. Often the word Fluorinated compounds, including CFCs,
"insecticide" is confused with the word HCFCs, and HFCs, are used in a variety of
"pesticide." It is, however, just one of many manufacturing processes. For each of these
types of pesticides. An insecticide may kill the synthetic compounds, one molecule is
insect by touching it or it may have to be several thousand times more effective in
swallowed to be effective. Some insecticides trapping heat than a single molecule of
kill both by touch and by swallowing. carbon dioxide.
Insecticides called Systemic may be
absorbed, injected, or fed into the plant or
animal to be protected. When the insect
feeds on this plant or animal, it ingests the
systemic chemical and is killed.
Matricides and Acaroids: Matricides (or
Acaroids) are chemicals used to control mites
(tiny Insecticides spider-like animals) and
ticks. The chemicals usually must contact the
mites or ticks to be effective. These animals
are so numerous and small, that great care
must be used to completely cover the area
on which the mites live. Matricides are very
similar in action to insecticides and often the
same pesticide kills both insects and mites.
The terms "broad spectrum," "short term,"
and "residual" are also used
Fungicides:
Fungicides are chemicals used to control the
fungi which cause molds, rots, and plant
diseases. All fungicides work by coming in
contact with the fungus, because fungi do
not "swallow" in the normal sense.
Therefore, most fungicides are applied over a
large surface area to try to directly hit every
fungus. Some fungicides may be systemic in
that the plant to be protected may be fed or
injected with the chemical. The chemical
then moves throughout the plant, killing the
fungi. to describe matricides.
Herbicides:
Herbicides are chemicals used to control
unwanted plants. These chemicals are a bit
different from other pesticides because they
are used to kill or slow the growth of some
plants, rather than to protect them. Some
herbicides kill every plant they contact, while
others kill only certain plants.
Rodenticides:
Rodenticides are chemicals used to control
rats, mice, bats and other rodents. Chemicals
which control other mammals, birds, and fish
are also grouped in this category by
regulatory agencies. Most rodenticides are
F -Other Synthetic Chemicals Experts are
concerned about other industrial chemicals
that may have heat-trapping abilities. In 2000
scientists observed rising concentrations of a
previously unreported compound called
trifluoromethyl Sulphur pent fluoride.
Although present in extremely low
concentrations in the environment, the gas
still poses a significant threat because it traps
heat more effectively than all other known
greenhouse gases. The exact sources of the
gas, undisputedly produced from industrial
processes, still remain uncertain.
ANTIMATTER, matter composed of
elementary particles that are, in a special
sense, mirror images of the particles that
make up ordinary matter as it is known on
earth. Antiparticles have the same mass as
their corresponding particles but have
opposite electric charges or other properties
related to electromagnetism. For example,
the antimatter electron, or positron, has
opposite electric charge and magnetic
moment (a property that determines how it
behaves in a magnetic field), but is identical
in all other respects to the electron. The
antimatter equivalent of the charge less
neutron, on the other hand, differs in having
a magnetic moment of opposite sign
(magnetic moment is another
electromagnetic property). In all of the other
parameters involved in the dynamical
properties of elementary particles, such as
mass, spin, and partial decay, antiparticles
are identical with their corresponding
particles.
MAGMA INTRODUCTION: Magma, molten or
partially molten rock beneath the earth‘s
surface. Magma is generated when rock deep
underground melts due to the high
temperatures and pressures inside the earth.
stomach poisons and are often applied as
baits. Even rodenticides which act by
contacting the pest are usually not applied
over large surfaces because of the hazard to
domestic animals or desirable wildlife. They
are usually applied in limited areas such as
runways, known feeding places, or as baits.
Nematicides: Nematicides are chemicals
used to control nematodes. Nematodes are
tiny hair-like worms, many of which live in
the soil and feed on plant roots. Very few of
these worms live above ground. Usually, soil
fumigants are used to control nematodes in
the soil.
IMMUNIZATION, also called vaccination or
inoculation, a method of stimulating
resistance in the human body to specific
diseases using microorganisms—bacteria or
viruses—that have been modified or killed.
These treated microorganisms do not cause
the disease, but rather trigger the body's
immune system to build a defense
mechanism that continuously guards against
the disease. If a person immunized against a
particular disease.
A-Active Immunization Active
immunization is the induction of immunity
after exposure to an antigen. Antibodies are
created by the recipient and may be stored
permanently.
B -Passive Immunization: is the
administration of antibodies to an
unimmunized person from an immune
subject to provide temporary protection
against a microbial agent or toxin.
FINGERPRINTING, method of identification
using the impression made by the minute
ridge formations or patterns found on the
fingertips. No two persons have exactly the
same arrangement of ridge patterns, and the
patterns of any one individual remain
unchanged through life. To obtain a set of
Because magma is lighter than the
surrounding rock, it tends to rise. As it moves
upward, the magma encounters colder rock
and begins to cool. If the temperature of the
magma drops low enough, the magma will
crystallize underground to form rock; rock
that forms in this way is called intrusive, or
plutonic igneous rock, as the magma has
formed by intruding the surrounding rocks. If
the crust through which the magma passes is
sufficiently shallow, warm, or fractured, and
if the magma is sufficiently hot and fluid, the
magma will erupt at the surface of the earth,
possibly forming volcanoes. Magma that
erupts is called lava.
JABIR BIN HAYAN:
Introduced experimental research in
chemical science which immensely added its
rapid development and made him the Father
of
Chemistry. He devised methods for
preparation of important chemicals like
hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and white lead.
Jabir's work also deal with the refinement of
metals ,preparation of steel, dyeing of cloth
and leather, use of magnese dioxide in glass
making, distillation of vinegar to concentrate
acetic acid.
Jabir also explained scientifically two
principle functions of chemistry, i.e.,
calcination, and reduction and registered a
marked
improvement in the methods of evaporation,
sublimation, distillation and crystallization
He wrote more than 100 books which are
one of the most outstanding contributions in
the field of science especially the chemical
science.
fingerprints, the ends of the fingers are inked
and then pressed or rolled one by one on
some receiving surface. Fingerprints may be
classified and filed on the basis of the ridge
patterns, setting up an identification system
that is almost infallible.
MUHAMMAD BIN MUSA AL KHWARZIMI:
Made lasting contributions in the fields of
Mathematics, Astronomy, Music, Geography
and History. He composed the oldest works
on
Arithmetic and on Algebra. The oldest
Mathematic book composed by him is "Kitab
ul jama wat tafriq"
He is the first person who used zero and
wrote"Hisab ul jabr Wal Muqabla" which is
conceived to be an outstanding work on the
subject
which included analytical solutions of linear
and quadratic equations.
In the field of Astronomy he compiled his
own tables which formed the basis of later
astronomical pursuits in both East and West.
He
also contributed in the field of geographical
science by writing a noteworthy book KItab ul
Surat al ard. In Arabic.
His book ―kitab al Tarik" is also a memorable
work regarding history.
AL BERUNI:
Born in Afghanistan Beruni made original
important contributions to science. He is
conceived to be the most prominent
scientists of the
Islamic world who wrote around 150 books
on various significant subjects concerning
human existence. These subjects include
Mathematics, History, Archeology, Biology,
Geology, Che m is try, Religion etc.
ABDUL HASSAN IBN AL HAITHAM:
One of the most outstanding
Mathematicians, Physiologists, and Opticians
of Islam. He contributed to the realms of
medicine and
philosophy. He wrote more than 200
scientific works on diverse subjects.
Haitham examined the refraction of light rays
through transparent objects including air and
water.
Infact he was the first scientist to elaborate
two laws of reflection of light
He made a number of monumental
discoveries in the field of optics ,including
one which locates retina as the seat of vision.
His book
on optics "Kitab Al Manazir" vividly shows his
grip on the subject.
He constructed a pinhole camera and studied
formation of images .Due to his noteworthy
contributions he is regarded as one of the
prolific Muslim scientists of all times.
OMAR AL KHAYAM:
He was an outstanding Mathematician and
Astronomer. He was also known as a poet,
philosopher and a physician. He travelled to
the
great centers of learning of the era i.e.
Samrakund, Bukhara, and Ispahan.He
classified many algebraic equations based on
their
complexity and recognized thirteen different
forms of cubic equation. He also classified
algebraic theories of parallel lines. On the
invitation of Sultan Jalal-ud- Din, he
introduced the Jilali calendar which has an
error of one day in 3770 years. He also
developed
He discussed the behavior of earth, moon,
and planets in his book "Qanoon Almasudi"
which is also considered as an outstanding
astronomical encyclopedia. He also
discovered seven different ways of finding
the directions of north and south and
discovered
mathematical techniques to determine
exactly the beginning of the seasons.
Another notable discovery he made was that
the speed of light is faster than sound .His
wide range of scientific knowledge is also
revealed through his books" kitab al saidana"
and "kitab al jawahar" dealing with medicine
and the types of gems their gravity
respectively.
He was a prolific writer whose works showed
his versatility as a scientist.
AL RAZI:
The famous philosopher and a notable
surgeon of the Muslim world, Zakriya Al Razi
was born in Ray near modern Theran Iran.
His
eagerness for knowledge lead him to the
study of Alchemy and Chemistry, philosophy,
logic, Mathematics and Physics. He was a
pioneer in many areas of medicine and
treatment of health sciences in general, and
in particular he worked alot in the fields of
paeditrics, obsterics and ophthalmology.
Al razi was the first person to introduce the
use of Alcohol for medical purposes and
opium for the objective of giving anesthesia
to his
patients.
In the field of ophthalmology too Al razi gave
an account of the operation for the
extraction of the cataract and also the first
accurate methods for determination of
gravity
as a poet too, he is known for his Rubaiyat.He
made great contributions in the development
of mathematics and analytical
geometry which benefitted Europe several
years later.
NASIR UD DIN TUSI:
Al tusi was one of the greatest scientists,
Mathematicians, Astronomers, Philosophers,
Theologians and physicians of his time. He
was a
prolific writer and wrote many treatises on
varied subjects like Algebra, Arithmetic,
Trignometry, Geometery, Logic, Met aphy
sics,
medicine, ethics and Theology.
He served as a minister of Halaku Khan and
persuaded him to establish an observatory
and library after the destruction of
Baghdad. He worked at the observatory and
prepared precise tables regarding the motion
of the planets. These are also known as
"Tables of Khan"
ZIA UD DIN IBN BAITAR:
Was a famous botanist and pharmacopeias of
middle ages. Because of his intensive travels,
he was able to discover many plant
species. He wrote many bo
General Science
Universe: all existing matter and space
considered as a whole; the cosmos. The
universe is believed to be at least 10 billion
light years in diameter and contains a vast
number of galaxies; it has been expanding
since its creation in the Big Bang about 13
billion years ago.
Cosmology and astronomy: is the study of
whle univrs including theris abt its orign to
scientist to discover the effect of the
intensity of light on the eye. The modern
studies confirm his understanding on the
subject thus
making him a great physician of all the times.
ABU ALI IBN E SINA:
Endowed with great powers of absorbing and
retaining knowledge this Muslim scholar also
made valuable contributions to the field
of science. He is considered to be the
founders of Medicine and also added his
great efforts to the fields of Mathematics,
Astronomy,
Medicinial Chemistry, Philosophy, Palae
ontology and Music.
His most famous book is "Al Qannun" which
brings out the features of human physiology
and medicine.
Sina is also considered as a father of the
science of Geology on account of his
invaluable book on mountains in which he
discussed matters relating to earth's crust
and gave scientific reasons for earthquakes.
He is the author of 238 books which are fine
instances of his thoughts regarding various
subjects in diverse ways.
Atmosphere Pollution
the introduction of particulates, biological
molecules, or other harmful materials into
Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases, death
to humans, damage to other living organisms
such as animals and food crops, or the
natural or built environment.
Sources
Stationary sources :include smoke
stacks of power plants
Mobile sources: include motor vehicles
Controlled burn :practices in agriculture
and forest management
evoltn strctr n futre.Astronmy:is a study of th
univrs n celestial bodis,gas n dust withn it
Early cosmlogcl theris:mesopotim>earth is a
centr of univrs,Nicolaus>plnts revolvs arnd
the sun whch he belv to be the centr of the
universe
Hubble’s Law:Americn astromnr, the univrs
is expndng,caring galaxies awy frm ech othr
in al directns.
Red shift: a shif towrd longr wavlngths of the
spctrl lins emitd by a celestial objct tht is
causd by th objct mvng away frm th earth.
Doopler Effect: Aparnt chang in th frquncy of
ligt wves r sound wavs due to th rlativ mtion
of th obsrvr n th sourc of th wavs
Age of the univrs:range b/w 7-20 billion
years, few have opion 16 billion yers.
Static and spending models of the
universe:the fate of the friedmall said:univrs
dpnds on the avrg density of the mattr in the
univrs.
Study state theory:Hermann Bondi,Thomas
Gold, Sir Fred Hoyle said tht decrease un the
density of th univrs causd by its expsnion is
blncd by the continus cretion of mattr.
Big Bang Throy: th thory tht th unvrs my hve
ben cratd in a hug explsin at least 12 bilon
yars ago r is a sucsful cmedy sries cratd by
Chuck Lorre in 2007 abt 4 geeky scientists
and a waitress neighbr.
Evoltion of the universe: k pta ni universe wil
expnd forvr r contrct agin.
Black Hole: a region of spce hving a
gravitational field so intns tht no mater r
rdiatin can escap.
Galaxy: a sysm of milins r blions of strs, togtr
wid gas n dust, held tgthr by gravitational
atrctin.
Milkyway: the spiral glxy contnig our slar
systm .Wid th nakd eye it is obsrvd as a faint
luminous band strtching acros the heavns,
compsd of aproximtly a trilion stars,mst of
which are too distnt to b seen indvdualy.
Fumes: from paint, hair
spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other
solvents
Waste deposition: in landfills, which
generate methane
Military resources: such as nuclear weapons
Causes Of Atmosphere pollution
Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide
emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels
like coal, petroleum and other factory
combustibles is one the major cause of air
pollution.
Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very
common by product from agriculture related
activities and is one of the most hazardous
gases in the atmosphere.
Exhaust from factories and industries:
Manufacturing industries release large
amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
organic compounds, and chemicals into the
air thereby depleting the quality of air
Mining operations: Mining is a process
wherein minerals below the earth are
extracted using large equipments. During the
process dust and chemicals are released in
the air causing massive air pollution.
Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning
products, painting supplies emit toxic
chemicals in the air and cause air pollution.
Effects of Atmosphere Pollution
Respiratory and heart problems: The effects
of Air pollution are alarming. They are known
to create several respiratory and heart
conditions along with Cancer, among other
threats to the body. Several millions are
known to have died due to direct or indirect
effects of Air pollution.
Global warming: Another direct effect is the
immediate alterations that the world is
witnessing due to Global warming.
Morphology: the study of the forms of
things, in particular(Three Types)
i.ellipticals: is derivd frm the oval shpe knwn
as an ellipse. Mny comets hve an elipticl orbit
arund the Sun tht brngs thm clser at sme
tyms nd frther away at othrs.
ii.spirals: spirals galxy resemble spiriling pin
wheels though the stars and other visible
material contain in a such a galaxy lie mostly
on a plane.
iii.irregulars:the solar system compromising
and the sun and its planter system of 8
planets as well as number of satellites
moons.found 4.6 billion years ago.
Solar System: the colection of 8 plants and
their moons in orbit rund the sun, tgther wiid
smaler bodies in the form of asteroids,
meteoroids, and comets.
The sun and solar wind: A stream of particls
(mostly protons) emitd by the sun and
permeating the solar systm. Particulrly strong
bursts of particls can penetrate the uper
atmsphre and disrupt radio comunicatins on
Earth.
Major Planets:8 plants r divded into froups
i.inner planets(mercury,venus,earth,n
mars)ii.outer plants(Jupiter,Saturn,Uranus, n
Neptune)
othr orbiting objcts:Asteriods thounds of
small rocky objcts in orbits mostly b/w mars
n jupitr.Meteoroids objcts tht intersct erth’s
orbitr cald meteoroids.
Sun: the star tht is the centrl body of the
solar sys, arond whch the plants rvlve n frm
whch they recv lght n heat: its mean distnc
frm the erth is abt 93 milon mils (150 mlin
km), its diamtr abt 864,000 miles (1.4 mlion
km), n its mas abt 330,000 tims tht of the
eath; its perid of surfac rottin is abt 26 days
at its equator bt longr at highr latitudes.
Charchts of sun: The sun lies at the heart of
the solar sys, whr it is by far the lrgst objet. It
holds 99.8 % of the solar sys’s mas(1.989x 10
30th kg ) n is roughly 109 tims the diameter of
Acid Rain: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides the Earth - abot 1 milion Erths cud fit insde
and sulfur oxides are released into the the sun-distnce 4rm earth(93 miln mils).
atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels.Role in the solar sys: Our Sun is the
Eutrophication: Eutrophication is a condition gravitational 'anchor' that keeps planets,
where high amount of nitrogen present in asteroids, comets, and so forth orbiting
some pollutants gets developed on sea’s around it. It is near the center of the Solar
surface and turns itself into algae and and system. It provides heat, light, cosmic
adversely affect fish, plants and animal particles, and so forth that foster life. Our
species. Sun is a very small, minor star out near the
Effect on Wildlife: Just like humans, animals edge of our 'Milky Way' galaxy. There are
also face some devastating affects of air billions of other galaxies. Our Sun is
pollution. Toxic chemicals present in the air unbelievably far away from being the center
can force wildlife species to move to new of any universe - it is unbelievably far from
place and change their habitat. even being the center of our Galaxy.The Sun
Depletion of Ozone layer: Ozone exists in is the centre of this solar system. All the
earth’s stratosphere and is responsible for planets orbit around the Sun and it provides
protecting humans from harmful ultraviolet them with light and heat
(UV) rays. Earth’s ozone layer is depleting The sun’s place in the milkyway Our local
due to the presence of chlorofluorocarbons, Orion Arm of the Milky Way is some 3,500
hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the light years across. It's approximately 10,000
atmosphere. light years in length. Our sun, the Earth, and
all the other planets in our solar system
Water Pollution reside within this Orion Arm. We're located
Water pollution is the contamination of close to the inner rim of this spiral arm,
water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, about halfway along its length.
aquifers and groundwater). This form of Composition if the sun sun is mostly
environmental degradation occurs when composed of the elements hydrogen (H) and
pollutants are directly or indirectly helium (He). By mass the composition of the
discharged into water bodies without sun is 75 percent hydrogen and 25 percent
adequate treatment to remove harmful helium. Various metals make up less than 0.1
compounds. percent of the mass of the sun.
TYPES Sun’s Atmosphere: Atmosphere of the Sun:
Nutrients Pollution Photosphere, Chromosphere & Corona. The
Some wastewater, fertilizers and sewage atmosphere of the sun is composed of
contain high levels of nutrients. If they end several layers, mainly the photosphere, the
up in water bodies, they encourage algae and chromosphere and the corona
weed growth in the water. This will make the i.photosphere: the luminous visible surface
water undrinkable, and even clog filters. Too of the sun, being a shallow layer of strongly
much algae will also use up all the oxygen in ionized gases.
the water, and other water organisms in the ii.Sunspots: are temporary phenomena on
water will die out of oxygen starvation the photosphere of the Sun that appear
Surface water pollution visibly as dark spots compared to
Surface water includes natural water found surrounding regions. They correspond to
on the earth's surface, like rivers, lakes, concentrations of magnetic field flux that
lagoons and oceans. Hazardous substances
coming into contact with this surface water,
dissolving or mixing physically with the water
can be called surface water pollution..
Oxygen Depleting
Water bodies have micro-organisms. These
include aerobic and anaerobic organisms.
When to much biodegradable matter (things
that easily decay) end up in water, it
encourages more microorganism growth, and
they use up more oxygen in the water. If
oxygen is depleted, aerobic organisms die,
and anaerobic organism grow more to
produce harmful toxins such as ammonia and
sulfides.
SOURCES
There are many causes for water pollution
but two general categories exist: direct and
indirect contaminant sources.
Direct sources include effluent outfalls from
factories, refineries, waste treatment plants
etc.. that emit fluids of varying quality
directly into urban water supplies. In the
United States and other countries, these
practices are regulated, although this doesn't
mean that pollutants can't be found in these
waters.
Indirect sources include contaminants that
enter the water supply from
soils/groundwater systems and from the
atmosphere via rain water. Soils and
groundwaters contain the residue of human
agricultural practices (fertilizers, pesticides,
etc..) and improperly disposed of industrial
wastes. Atmospheric contaminants are also
derived from human practices (such as
gaseous emissions from automobiles,
factories and even bakeries).
Causes of Water Pollution
inhibit convection and result in reduced
surface temperature compared to the
surrounding photosphere.
iii. chromospheres: a reddish gaseous layer
immediately above the photosphere of the
sun or another star which, together with the
corona, constitutes its outer atmosphere.
iv. corona: the rarefied gaseous envelope of
the sun and other stars. The sun's corona is
normally visible only during a total solar
eclipse, when it is seen as an irregularly
shaped pearly glow surrounding the
darkened disc of the moon.
Food Sciences
Nutrition is the science that interprets the
interaction of nutrients and other substances
in food (e.g. phytonutrients, anthocyanins,
tannins, etc.) in relation to maintenance,
growth, reproduction, health and disease of
an organism.
Essential Nutrition: An essential nutrient is a
nutrient required for normal body
functioning that can not be synthesized by
the body. Categories of essential nutrient
include vitamins, dietary minerals, essential
fatty acids and essential amino acids.
Water:
Carbohydrates: are one of the main types of
nutrients. They are the most important
source of energy for your body. Your
digestive system changes carbohydrates into
glucose (blood sugar). Your body uses this
sugar for energy for your cells, tissues and
organs.
Energy:
Functions Of Nutrients
Protein: any of a class of nitrogenous organic
compounds which have large molecules
composed of one or more long chains of
amino acids and are an essential part of all
living organisms, especially as structural
components of body tissues such as muscle,
hair, etc., and as enzymes and antibodies.
Sewage Fats: a natural oily substance occurring in
With billions of people on the planet, animal bodies, especially when deposited as
disposing of sewage waste is a major a layer under the skin or around certain
problem. According to 2013 figures from the organs
World Health Organization, some 780 million Minerals:A naturally occurring, homogeneou
people (11 percent of the world's population) s inorganic solid substance having a definite c
don't have access to safe drinking water, hemical composition andcharacteristic crystal
while 2.5 billion (40 percent of the world's line structure, color, and hardness.
population) don't have proper sanitation Calcium: a substance that is found in most
(hygienic toilet facilities); although there plants and animals and that is especially
have been great improvements in securing important in people for strong healthy bones
access to clean water, relatively little Phosphours: the chemical element of atomic
progress has been made on improving global number 15, a poisonous, combustible non-
sanitation in the last decade. Sewage disposalmetal which exists in two common allotropic
affects people's immediate environments forms, white phosphorus, a yellowish waxy
and leads to water-related illnesses such as solid which ignites spontaneously in air and
diarrhea that kills 760,000 children under five
glows in the dark, and red phosphorus, a less
each year. [3] (Back in 2002, the World reactive form used in making matches.
Health Organization estimated that water- Vitamin: any of a group of organic
related diseases could kill as many as 135 compounds which are essential for normal
million people by 2020.) In developed growth and nutrition and are required in
countries, most people have flush toilets thatsmall quantities in the diet because they
take sewage waste quickly and hygienically cannot be synthesized by the body.
away from their homes. Vitamin A Vitamin A plays a vital role in bone
growth, vision and cell division. It promotes
good vision and helps to maintain healthy
bones, teeth, skin, and soft tissues. Sources
synthetic organic chemicals of Vitamin A include both animal and plant
Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs) are sources. Beef Eggs Chicken
organic (carbon based) chemicals that are Vitamin B Group Vitamin B complex includes
less volatile than VOLATILE ORGANIC B 1 or thiamine, B2 or riboflavin, B3 or
COMPOUNDS. SOCs are used as pesticides, nicotinic acid, B6 or pyridoximine, B12 or
defoliants, fuel additives and as ingredients cobalamin, and folate folic acid. Vitamin B
for other organic compunds. They are all man complex helps in cell repair, digestion, and
made and do not naturally occur in the metabolism, and boosts the immune system.
environment Some of the best food sources of vitamin B
Nutrients include:Bananas Broccoli Dates
Suitably treated and used in moderate Vitamin C Vitamin C is vital for growth and it
quantities, sewage can be a fertilizer: it boosts the immune system, thereby
returns important nutrients to the preventing many ailments such as high
environment, such as nitrogen and cholesterol, high blood pressure,
phosphorus, which plants and animals need malabsorption of iron, etc. We already know
for growth. The trouble is, sewage is often that citrus fruits are rich in vitamin C;
however, apart from citrus fruits, other foods
released in much greater quantities than the that are high in vitamin C include Green
natural environment can cope with. pepper Peas Potatoes Lemons Strawberries
Vitamin D Vitamin D is vital for healthy bones
Waste water and teeth. It helps to absorb calcium and
A few statistics illustrate the scale of the maintain the level of calcium and
problem that waste water (chemicals washed phosphorus. Sun is the best source for
down drains and discharged from factories) vitamin D. However, several food sources are
can cause. Around half of all ocean pollution also available. Some of the best food sources
is caused by sewage and waste water. Each of Vitamin D include: Breakfast cereals like
year, the world generates perhaps 5–10 corn flakes Mashed potatoes Dairy products
billion tons of industrial waste, much of Dark green leafy vegetables
which is pumped untreated into rivers, Vitamin E Vitamin E is an antioxidant and
oceans, and other waterways. [8] In the helps in the production of red blood cells.
United States alone, around 400,000 Foods that are rich in vitamin E include
factories take clean water from rivers, and Avocado Tomato Watercres
many pump polluted waters back in their Vitamin K Vitamin K plays a vital role in the
place blood clotting process in the body and helps
chemical waste to maintain strong bones. The best food
Chemical waste is a waste that is made from sources of Vitamin K include: Liver Egg yolk
harmful chemicals (mostly produced by large Whole grain
factories). Chemical waste may fall under Vitamin P, also known as bioflavonoids, helps
regulations such as COSHH in the United in blood circulation by strengthening the
Kingdom, or the Clean Water Act and capillaries. People whose diet includes fruits
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act in and vegetables, automatically can fulfill
the United States. vitamin P requirement, as brightly colored
Radioactive waste fruits and vegetables are good sources of
Radioactive waste is waste that contains vitamin P. The best food sources of vitamin P
radioactive material. Radioactive waste is include: Fruits such as oranges, lemons
usually a by-product of nuclear power Fiber: dietary material containing substances
generation and other applications of nuclear such as cellulose, lignin, and pectin, that are
fission or nuclear technology, such as resistant to the action of digestive enzymes.
research and medicine. Bioavailability of Nutrients refers to the
Oil pollution proportion of a nutrient that is absorbed
An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum from the diet and used for normal body
hydrocarbon into the environment, especially functions.1,2 The components describe the
marine areas, due to human activity, and is a different steps of the metabolic pathway
form of pollution. The term is usually applied where changes in nutrient bioavailability may
to marine oil spills, where oil is released into occur1: release of the nutrient from the
the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may physicochemical dietary matrix effects of
also occur on land digestive enzymes in the intestine binding
and uptake by the intestinal mucosa transfer
Effects of water pollution across the gut wall (passing through the cells,
Death of aquatic (water) animals in-between them or both) to the blood or
Disruption of food-chains lymphatic circulation, systemic distribution,
Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as systemic deposition (stores),metabolic and
well functional use ,excretion (via urine or feces)
Diseases Food Appearance 96% like fresh fruits, 94%
Destruction of ecosystems taste, 66%use for nutritive purpose..two
Ecosystems (the interaction of living things infactors effect purchase decision i.compettion
a place, depending on each other for life) can of diffrnt item display ii.standard of the item.
be severely changed or destroyed by water Food texure: is defined as those properties of
pollution. a food that are sensed by touch in the mouth
and with the hands. We use many words to
Drinking water quality standards describe food texture—foods can be soft or
Drinking water quality standards describes hard, mushy or crunchy, or smooth or lumpy.
the quality parameters set for drinking water. Food Flavor: flavor is the essential oil,
Despite the truism that every human on this oleoresin, essence or extractive, protein
planet needs drinking water to survive and hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of
that water may contain many harmful roasting, heating or enzymolysis, which
constituents, there are no universally contains the flavoring constituents derived
recognized and accepted international from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or
standards for drinking water.Even where vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud,
standards do exist, and are applied, the root, leaf.
permitted concentration of individual Freezing food preserves it from the time it is
constituents may vary by as much as ten prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early
times from one set of standards to another times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have
preserved their game and produce in
Range of standards unheated buildings during the winter season.
Although drinking water standards frequently Preservatives: Frozen products do not
are referred to as if they are simple lists of require any added preservatives because
parametric values, standards documents also microorganisms do not grow when the
specify the sampling location, sampling temperature of the food is below −9.5 °C (15
methods, sampling frequency, analytical °F), which is sufficient on its own in
methods, and laboratory accreditation AQC. preventing food spoilage.
In addition, a number of standards Packaging: Frozen food packaging must
documents also require calculation to maintain its integrity throughout machine
determine whether a level exceeds the filling, sealing, freezing, storage,
standard, such as taking an average. Some transportation, thawing, and often cooking.
standards give complex, detailed Quality: The speed of the freezing has a
requirements for the statistical treatment of direct impact on the size and the number of
results, temporal and seasonal variations, ice crystals formed within a food product's
summation of related parameters, and cells and extracellular space. Slow freezing
mathematical treatment of apparently leads to fewer but larger ice crystals while
aberrant results. fast freezing leads to smaller but more
numerous ice crystals.
Parametric values Food additives are substances added to food
A parametric value in this context is most to preserve flavor or enhance its taste and
commonly the concentration of a substance, appearance. Some additives have been used
e.g. 30 mg/l of Iron. It may also be a count
such as 500 E. coli per litre or a statistical
value such as the average concentration of
copper is 2 mg/l. Many countries not only
specify parametric values that may have
health impacts but also specify parametric
values for a range of constituents that by
themselves are unlikely to have any impact
on health. These include colour, turbidity,
pH, and the organoleptic (aesthetic)
parameters (taste and odour)
Australian standards
Drinking water quality standards in Australia
have been developed by the Australian
Government National Health and Medical
Research Council (NHMRC) in the form of the
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. These
guidelines provide contaminant limits
(pathogen, aesthetic, organic, inorganic, and
radiological) as well as guidance on applying
limits for the management of drinking water
in Australian drinking water treatment and
distribution.
World health Organisation
The World Health Organisation (WHO)
guidelines include the following
recommended limits on naturally occurring
constituents that may have direct adverse
health impact: Arsenic 10μg/l Barium 10μg/l
Boron 2400μg/l Chromium 50μg/l Fluoride
1500μg/l Selenium 40μg/l Uranium 30μg/l
Land pollution
is the deterioration (destruction) of
the earth's land surfaces, often directly or
indirectly as a result of man's activities and
their misuse of land resources.
waste management.
noun. the processes involved in dealing with
thewaste of humans and organisms,
for centuries; for example, preserving food
by pickling (with vinegar), salting, as with
bacon, preserving sweets or using sulfur
dioxide as with wines
food preservatives: A preservative is a
substance that is added to products such as
foods, pharmaceuticals, paints, biological
samples, cosmetics, tires, wood, beverages,
and many other products to prevent
decomposition by microbial growth or by
undesirable chemical changes.
Antioxidants: The oxidation process spoils
most food, especially those with a high fat
content. Fats quickly turn rancid when
exposed to oxygen. Antioxidants prevent or
inhibit the oxidation process. The most
common antioxidant additives are ascorbic
acid (vitamin C ) and ascorbates
food deterioration: Spoilage is the process in
which food deteriorates to the point in which
it is not edible to humans or its quality of
edibility becomes reduced. Various external
forces are responsible for the spoilage of
food. Food that is capable of spoiling is
referred to as perishable food.
food deterioration causes There are three
types of microorganisms that cause food
spoilage -- yeasts, moulds and bacteria.
Yeasts growth causes fermentation which is
the result of yeast metabolism. There are two
types of yeasts true yeast and false yeast.
Adulterated food: "Adulteration" is a legal
term meaning that a food product fails to
meet federal or state standards. Adulteration
is an addition of another substance to a food
item in order to increase the quantity of the
food item in raw form or prepared form,
which may result in the loss of actual quality
of food item. These substances may be other
available food items or non-food items.
Among meat and meat products some of the
items used to adulterate are water or ice,
carcasses, or carcasses of animals other than
the animal meant to be consumed
including minimization, handling, processing,
storage, recycling, transport, and final
disposal. Dictionary.com's 21st Century
Lexicon.
Waste Management Types
Landfill
The Landfill is the most popularly used
method of waste disposal used today. This
process of waste disposal focuses attention
on burying the waste in the land.
Incineration/Combustion
Incineration or combustion is a type disposal
method in which municipal solid wastes are
burned at high temperatures so as as to
convert them into residue and gaseous
products
Recovery and Recycling
Resource recovery is the process of taking
useful discarded items for a specific next use.
These discarded items are then processed to
extract or recover materials and resources or
convert them to energy in the form of
useable heat, electricity or fuel.
Plasma gasification
Plasma gasification is another form of waste
management. Plasma is a primarily an
electrically charged or a highly ionized gas.
Composting
Composting is a easy and natural bio-
degradation process that takes organic
wastes i.e. remains of plants and garden and
kitchen waste and turns into nutrient rich
food for your plants.
Waste to Energy (Recover Energy)
Waste to energy(WtE) process involves
converting of non-recyclable waste items
into useable heat, electricity, or fuel through
a variety of processes.
Avoidance/Waste Minimization
The most easier method of waste
management is to reduce creation of waste
materials thereby reducing the amount of
waste going to landfills.
IT
Hardware: Hardware represents the physical
and tangible components of a computer i.e.
the components that can be seen and
touched.
H.Components: Input devices -- keyboard,
mouse etc. Output devices -- printer,
monitor etc. Secondary storage devices --
Hard disk, CD, DVD etc. Internal components
-- CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.
Software - Computer programs and related
data that provide the instructions for telling
computer hardware what to do and how to
do it
general purpose application software
General purpose application software is a
type of application that can be used for a
variety of tasks. It is not limited to one
particular function. For example a word
processor could be classed as general
purpose software as it would allow a user to
write a novel, create a restaurant menu or
even make a poster
Special purpose application software
Special purpose application software is a type
of software created to execute one specific
task. For example a camera application on
your phone will only allow you to take and
share pictures. Another example would be a
chess game, it would only allow you to play
chess
Data storage: A data storage device is a
device for recording (storing) information
(data). Recording can be done using virtually
any form of energy, spanning from manual
muscle power in handwriting, to acoustic
vibrations in phonographic recording, to
electromagnetic energy modulating magnetic
tape and optical discs
.
Hydrosphere:
A hydrosphere is the total amount of water
on a planet. The hydrosphere includes water
Environmental Sciences
Atmosphere:
Composition : Air is mainly composed of
nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, which together
constitute the major gases of the
atmosphere. Water vapor accounts for
roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass.
The concentration of water vapor (a
greenhouse gas) varies significantly from
around 10 ppmv in the coldest portions of
the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume
in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations
of other atmospheric gases are typically
provided for dry air without any water vapor.
The remaining gases are often referred to as
trace gases, among which are the
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered
air includes trace amounts of many other
chemical compounds. Many substances of
natural origin may be present in locally and
seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols
in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of
mineral and organic composition, pollen and
spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various
industrial pollutants also may be present as
gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental
or in compounds), fluorine compounds and
elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds
such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide
(SO2) may be derived from natural sources or
from industrial air pollution.
Atmosphere Structure :
Principal layers
In general, air pressure and density decrease
with altitude in the atmosphere. However,
temperature has a more complicated profile
with altitude, and may remain relatively
constant or even increase with altitude in
some regions (see the temperature section,
below). Because the general pattern of the
temperature/altitude profile is constant and
recognizable through means such as balloon
soundings, the temperature behavior
that is on the surface of the planet,
underground, and in the air. A planet's
hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice. On
Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in
the form of oceans, lakes and rivers.
Water cycle: The hydrological cycle transfers
water from one state or reservoir to another.
Reservoirs include atmospheric moisture
(snow, rain and clouds), oceans, rivers, lakes,
groundwater, subterranean aquifers, polar
icecaps and saturated soil. Solar energy, in
the form of heat and light (insolation), and
gravity cause the transfer from one state to
another over periods from hours to
thousands of years. Most evaporation comes
from the oceans and is returned to the earth
as snow or rain Sublimation refers to
evaporation from snow and ice. Transpiration
refers to the expiration of water through the
minute pores or stomata of trees.
Evapotranpiration is the term used by
hydrologists in reference to the three
processes together, transpiration,
sublimation and evaporation
Biosphere:
The biosphere is the biological component of
earth systems, which also include the
lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and
other "spheres" (e.g. cryosphere,
anthrosphere, etc.). The biosphere includes
all living organisms on earth, together with
the dead organic matter produced by them.
Major Biosphere For this list, if a word is
followed by a number, it is usually referring
to a specific system or number. Thus:
 Biosphere 1, the planet Earth.
 Biosphere 2, laboratory in Arizona,
United States, which contains 3.15
acres (13,000 m2) of closed
ecosystem.
 BIOS-3, a closed ecosystem at the
Institute of Biophysics in Krasnoyarsk,
Siberia, in what was then the Soviet
Union.
provides a useful metric to distinguish
between atmospheric layers. In this way,
Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called
atmospheric stratification) into five main
layers. Excluding the exosphere, Earth has
four primary layers, which are the
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and
thermosphere.[7] From highest to lowest,
the five main layers are:
Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200
miles) The exosphere is the outermost layer
of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of
the atmosphere). It extends from the
exobase, which is located at the top of the
thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km
above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200
mi; 33,000,000 ft). The exosphere merges
with the emptiness of outer space, where
there is no atmosphere.
Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440
miles) The thermosphere is the second-
highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It
extends from the mesopause (which
separates it from the mesosphere) at an
altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft)
up to the thermopause at an altitude range
of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–
3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause
varies considerably due to changes in solar
activity.Because the thermopause lies at the
lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also
referred to as the exobase. The lower part of
the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres
(50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains
the ionosphere
Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of
Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region
above the stratosphere and below the
thermosphere. It extends from the
stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31
mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80–85
km (50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft) above
sea level.
 Biosphere J (CEEF, Closed Ecology
Experiment Facilities), an experiment
in Japan
Lithosphere:
The lithosphere is the solid outer section of
Earth, which includes Earth's crust (the "skin"
of rock on the outer layer of planet Earth), as
well as the underlying cool, dense, and rigid
upper part of the upper mantle. The
lithosphere extends from the surface of Earth
to a depth of about 44–62 mi (70–100 km).
lithosphere minerals
The lithosphere contains rocks, minerals, and
soils. It is made up with more than 100
chemical elements, but most of them are
rare. Only eight elements—oxygen (O),
silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), calcium
(Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and
magnesium (Mg)—constitute more than 99%
of its volume.
lithosphere rocks
It is like an eggshell compared to the Earth's
total radius (the distance from the Earth's
core to the surface). The lithosphere is solid
rock. Sedimentary rocks are the most
abundant rock only on the surface of the
Earth, but igneous and metamorphic are
abundant deeper into the mantle
Rock Types
IGNEOUS ROCK = hot rocks or melted rocks
(ask students to think of hot areas) are
found:
volcanoes
inside the Earth (not near the center, more
toward the outside, within the crust)
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS = cool, wet, or fossil
rocks (ask students to think of water) are
found:
Rivers oceans lakes
Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles) The METAMORPHIC ROCK = changed, squished,
stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of or "rhinestone" rocks (ask students to think
Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the of squishing) are found:
troposphere and is separated from it by the inside the Earth (not near the center, within
tropopause. This layer extends from the top the lithosphere and upper mantle)
of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; Plate tectonics
39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's
stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to 55 outer shell is divided into several plates that
km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft). glide over the mantle, the rocky inner layer
Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles) The
above the core. The plates act like a hard and
troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's
atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface rigid shell compared to Earth's mantle. This
to an average height of about 12 km, strong outer layer is called the lithosphere
although this altitude actually varies from
about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km
(56,000 ft) at the equator,[9] with some
variation due to weather. The troposphere is
bounded above by the tropopause, a
boundary marked in most places by a
temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of
relatively warm air above a colder one), and
in others by a zone which is isothermal with
height