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DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

ECE: 2211 SURVEYING II NOTES

By Daniel Nyangweso

ANGLES

Angle is formed whenever two convergent lines meet at a point. The angle is different in
direction between two converging lines.

ANGLE MEASUREMENT

Horizontal and vertical angles are fundamental measurements in surveying.

The vertical angle is used in obtaining the elevation of points (trigonometric levelling) and in
the reduction of slant distance to the horizontal.
Instruments for measuring angles are Theodolites and Total Stations.

There are basically two types of theodolite, the optical mechanical type or the electronic
digital type, bothof which may be capable of reading directly to 1‘ 20”, 1”or 0.1” of arc,
depending upon the precision of the instrument. The selection of an instrument specific to the
survey tolerances of the work in hand is usually overridden by the commercial considerations
of the company and a 1” instrument may be used for all work. When one considers that 1”of
arc subtends 1 mm in 200 m, it is sufficiently accurate for practically all work carried out in
engineering.
The horizontal angle is used primarily to obtain direction to a survey control point, or to
topographic detail points, or to points to be set out.
An instrument used for the measurement of angles is called a theodolite, the horizontal and
vertical circles of which can be likened to circular protractors set in horizontal and vertical
planes. Total station is a type of instrument which combines the measurement of both angles
and distances electronically and displays the results in a dashboard or keyboard display. It
follows that, although the points observed are at different elevations, it is always the
horizontal angle and not the space angle which is measured.
OTHER EQUIPMENTS USED
Altimeter
-Measure height above the sea level
-A prism is set at optical centre to observe the ray
E.D.M
Measures both angles and linear distances

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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Level
Assists in getting difference in elevation between points.
-Used together with a graduated rod.
GNSS /GPS receivers
-Uses the world Coordinate systems.
-Used to carry out extension of control or survey of a new area
Angle types

a)Horizontal angle-angle formed by directions of two objects on a horizontal plane. Also

formed by intersection of two lines on a horizontal plane.

b)Vertical angle-angle formed by a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane. The line also
slightly raised from the horizontal plane with one point touching the plane.

Units of Measurements of Angles

1. Sexagesimal system- uses the angular notations in increaments of 60 units.

A unit called degree is used like a circle comprises 360º

This system is mostly used in many parts of the world, including the U.K, including the UK,
and measure angles in degrees(˚),minutes (’), seconds (“) of arc i.e

1º = 60 minutes

1’ = 60 seconds

And an angle is written as, say 15 º 47’ 56”

2. Centesimal system-

a circle is divided into 400 equal units = 400 grads or gons

-a grad divided by 100 gives to centesimal minute.

Example: 210 g 71c 84cc

In the centesimal system, the right angle is divided into 100 grads or gons. Each gon is
divided into 100 centesimal minutes (or centigons) and each centesimal minute into 100
centesimal seconds.

centesimal minute (c), centesimal second (cc)

units of angle measure are sometimes used in surveying .

Thus the centesimal minute equals 0.009° or 0.54 arc minute, and

the centesimal second equals 0.324 arc seconds.

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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The centesimal system is used in continental Europe

It was derived from French system

3. The MIL System

Divides the circle into 6400 equal units each called a mil. It requires a lot of precision.

4. Radian Measure

Angle subtended at circle centre by an arc of a circle equal to the radius of the circle.

2π = 360º

Tacheometry-Theodolites

It is used primarily for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It can also be used to

1) prolong a line,

2) measure distances indirectly and

3) levelling.

Theodolites can be vernier theodolites or precise optical theodolites.

Vernier theodolites are used to measure accurately the horizontal and vertical angles to 20”
vernier. The precise optical theodolites uses an optical system to read both horizontal and
vertical angles to a precision of up to 1”.

Basic definitions -1

Line of collimation-imaginary line joining the intersection of the cross hairs with the optical
centre of the objective.

Axis of the plate level-straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the plate level tube
at its centre.

Axis of the altitude level tube-straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the altitude
level at its centre.

Face left(normal condition)-when the vertical circle is on the left side of the observer.

Face right(reverse condition)-when the vertical circle is on the right side of the observer
Typical Theodolites

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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Figure 1 a and b : Typical Modern theodolites

The basic features of a typical theodolite are, with reference to Figure a and b above are as follows:

(1) The trivet stage forming the base of the instrument connects it to the tripod head.

(2) The tribrach supports the rest of the instrument and with reference to the plate bubble can be levelled
using the footscrews which act against the fixed trivet stage.

(3) The lower plate carries the horizontal circle which is made of glass, with graduations from 0° to
360° photographically etched around the perimeter. This process enables lines of only 0.004 mm thickness
to be sharply defined on a small-diameter circle (100 mm), thereby resulting in very compact instruments.

OPTICAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT-electromagnetic distance Measurement (EDM)

Distance can now be measured, easily, quickly and with great accuracy, regardless of terrain
conditions. This is made possible through use of a total station. It is an instrument that
combines the angle measurements that could be obtained with a traditional theodolite with
electronic distance measurement.

For engineering surveys, Total stations contain algorithms for reducing the slope distance to
its horizontal and vertical components.

Total Stations enable:-

1) Traversing over great distances with much greater control of swing errors.

2) The inclusion of many more measured distances into control networks, rendering
classical triangulation obsolete. This results in much greater control of scale error.

3) Setting out and photogrammetric control, over large areas by polar coordinates from
single baseline

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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4) Deformation monitoring to sub-millimetre accuracies using high precision EDM, such

as the Mekometre ME5000 This instrument has a range of 8km and accuracy of
±0.2mm ±0.2mm/km of the distance measured ignoring un modelled refraction
effects.

Total stations are also used extensively in surveying, civil engineering and construction
because they can measure both distances and angles.

The appearance of the total station is similar to that of an electronic theodolite, but the
difference is that it is combined with a distance measurement component which is fitted into
the telescope.

Because the instrument combines both angle and distance measurement in the same unit, it is
known as an integrated total station which can measure horizontal and vertical angles as well
as slope distances.

Using the vertical angle, the total station can calculate the horizontal and vertical distance
components of the measured slope distance. As well as basic functions, total stations are able
to perform a number of different survey tasks and associated calculations and can store large
amounts of data.

As with the electronic theodolite, all the functions of a total station are controlled by its
microprocessor, which is accessed thought a keyboard and display.

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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Typical Total station

Figure 2: Typical Total Station, Leica 1200 series Model

To use the total station, it is set over one end of the line to be measured and some reflector is
positioned at the other end such that the line of sight between the instrument and the reflector
is un-obstructed.

-The reflector is a prism attached to a detail pole

-The telescope is aligned and pointed at the prism

-The measuring sequence is initiated and a signal is sent to the reflector and a part of this
signal is returned to the total station

-This signal is then analysed to calculate the slope distance together with the horizontal and
vertical angles.

-Total stations can also be used without reflectors and the telescope is pointed at the point
that needs to be measured

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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-Some instruments have motorised drivers and can be use automatic target recognition to
search and lock into a prism

– this is a fully automated process and does not require an operator.

-Some total stations can be controlled from the detail pole, enabling surveys to be conducted
by one person

Other precise modern instruments for angle and distance measurement include the list shown
below.

A total station is levelled and centred in the same way as a theodolite.

Most total stations have a distance measuring range of up to a few kilometres, when using a
prism, and a range of at least 100m in reflector less mode and an accuracy of 2-3mm at short
ranges, which will decrease to about 4-5mm at 1km.

Although angles and distances can be measured and used separately, the most common
applications for total stations occur when these are combined to define position in control
surveys.

As well as the total station, site surveying is increasingly being carried out using GPS
equipment. Some predictions have been made that this trend will continue, and in the long
run GPS methods may replace other methods.

Although the use of GPS is increasing, total stations are one of the predominant instruments
used on site for surveying and will be for some time.

Developments in both technologies will find a point where devices can be made that
complement both methods.

Electromagnetic distance measurement

Distance measurement

When a distance is measured with a total station, am electromagnetic wave or pulse is used
for the measurement – this is propagated through the atmosphere from the instrument to
reflector or target and back during the measurement.

Distances are measured using two methods: the phase shift method, and the pulsed laser
method.

Phase shift method

This technique uses continuous electromagnetic waves for distance measurement . Although
these are complex in nature, electromagnetic waves can be represented in their simplest from
as periodic waves.

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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Figure 3: Sinusoidal wave motion(a) a s a function of distance or time (b) A function of phase
angle(ɸ).

The wave completes a cycle when moving between identical points on the wave and the
number of times in one second the wave completes the cycle is called the frequency of the
wave. The speed of the wave is then used to estimate the distance.

Pulsed laser distance measurement

In many total stations, distances are obtained by measuring the time taken for a pulse of laser
radiation to travel from the instrument to a prism (or target) and back. As in the phase shift
method, the pulses are derived an infrared or visible laser diode and they are transmitted
through the telescope towards the remote end of the distance being measured, where they are
reflected and returned to the instrument.

Since the velocity v of the pulses can be accurately determined, the distance D can be
obtained using 2D = vt, where t is the time taken for a single pulse to travel from instrument
– target – instrument.

This is also known as the timed-pulse or time-of-flight measurement technique.

The transit time t is measured using electronic signal processing techniques.

Although only a single pulse is necessary to obtain a distance, the accuracyobtained would be
poor. To improve this, a large number of pulses (typically 20,000 every second) are analysed
during each measurement to give a more accurate distance.

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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The pulse laser method is a much simpler approach to distance measurement

than the phase shift method, which was originally developed about 50 years ago.

Slope and horizontal distances

Both the phase shift and pulsed laser methods will measure a slope distance L

from the total station along the line of sight to a reflector or target. For most

surveys the horizontal distance D is required as well as the vertical component V

of the slope distance.

Horizontal distance D = L cosα= L sin z

Vertical distance = V = L sinα = L cos z

Where α is the vertical angle and z is the is the zenith angle. As far as the user is concerned,
these calculations are seldom done because the total station will either display D and V
automatically or will dislplay L first and then D and V after pressing buttons.

Figure 4: Slope and Horizontal Disances

ACCURACY OF DISTANCE MEASUREMENT FOR TOTAL STATIONS

How accuracy of distance measurement is specified

All total stations have a linear accuracy quoted in the form ±(a mm + b ppm)

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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The constant a is independent of the length being measured and is made up of internal
sources within the instrument that are normally beyond the control of the user. It is an
estimate of the individual errors caused by such phenomena as unwanted phase shifts in
electronic components, errors in phase and transit time measurements.

The systematic error b is proportional to the distance being measured, where 1 ppm (part per
million) is equivalent to an additional error of 1mm for every kilometre measured.

Typical specifications for a total station vary from ±(2mm + 2ppm) to ±(5mm + 5 pmm).

For example: ±(2mm + 2ppm), at 100m the error in distance measurement will be ±2mm but
at 1.5km, the error will be ±(2mm + [2mm/km * 1.5km]) = ±5mm.

ERRORS IN TOTAL STATIONS

Sources of error for total stations

Calibration of total stations

To maintain the high level of accuracy offered by modern total stations, there is now much
more emphasis on monitoring instrumental errors, and with this in mind, some construction
sites require all instruments to be checked on a regular basis using procedures outlined in the
quality manuals.

Some instrumental errors are eliminated by observing on two faces of the total station and
averaging, but because one face measurements are the preferred method on site, it is
important to determine the magnitude of instrumental errors and correct for them.

For total stations, instrumental errors are measured and corrected using electronic calibration
procedures that are carried out at any time and can be applied to the instrument on site. These
are preferred to the mechanical adjustments that used to be done in labs by technicians.

Since calibration parameters can change because of mechanical shock, temperature changes
and rough handling of what is a high-precision instrument, an electronic calibration should be
carried our on a total station as follows:

-Before using the instrument for the first time

-After long storage periods

-After rough or long transportation

-After long periods of work

-Following big changes in temperature

-Regularly for precision surveys

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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Before each calibration, it is essential to allow the total station enough to reach the ambient
temperature.

ERRORS TYPES

1. Horizontal collimation (or line of sight error)

This axial error is caused when the line of sight is not perpendicular to the tilting axis.
It affects all horizontal circle readings and increases with steep sightings, but this is
eliminated by observing on two faces. For single face measurements, an on-board
calibration function is used to determine c, the deviation between the actual line of
sight and a line perpendicular to the tilting axis. A correction is then applied
automatically for this to all horizontal circle readings. If c exceeds a specified limit,
the total station should be returned to the manufacturer.

Figure 5: Horizontal collimation (or line of sight error)

2. Tilting axis error

These axial errors occur when the titling axis of the total station is not perpendicular to its
vertical axis. This has no effect on sightings taken when the telescope is horizontal, but
introduces errors into horizontal circle readings when the telescope is tilted, especially for
steep sightings. As with horizontal collimation error, this error is eliminated by two face
measurements, or the tilting axis error a is measured in a calibration procedure and a
correction applied for this to all horizontal circle readings as before if a is too big, the
instrument should be returned to the manufacturer.

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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Figure 6: Tilting axis error

3. Compensator index error

Errors caused by not levelling a theodolite or total tation carefully cannot be eliminated by
taking face left and face right readings. If the total station is fitted with a compensator it will
measure residual tilts of the instrument and will apply corrections to the horizontal and
vertical angles for these.

However all compensators will have a longitudinal error l and traverse error t known as zero
point errors. These are averaged using face left and face right readings but for single face
readings must be determined by the calibration function of the total station.

Figure 7: Compensator index error

4. Vertical Collimation (of vertical index) Error

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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A vertical collimation error exists on a total station if the 0o to 180o line in the vertical circle
does not coincide with its vertical axis. This zero point error is present in all vertical circle
readings and like the horizontal collimation error, it is eliminated by taking FL and FR
readings or by determining i.

Figure 8: A vertical collimation error

5. Instrumental Distance Errors

The accuracy of the distance measuring components of a total station can also decrease with
constant use on site and with age. For this reason they should be tested and calibrated
regularly. This can be done by carrying out a 3 peg test.
This error is of constant magnitude and does not depend on the length of the line measured.
The method of calibration involves taking distance measurements along a 3 point baseline as
shown above.

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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6. Atmospheric Effects

The distance measurement of the total station can also be affected by changes in temperature,
pressure and relative humidity. The speed at which the transmitted laser travels through air at
standard temperature. Changes in these atmospheric conditions change the density of air
which changes the speed at which the laser travels resulting in an error.

Total stations can be adjusted for atmospheric effects by inputting changes in temperature.

BEARING OF A LINE

Bearing of a given line AB is the clockwise horizontal angle taken at A from a given
direction of reference.

The direction of reference is called the reference meridian to the line AB.

Reference meridian.

Take an arbitrary line.

1. Arbitrary meridian

Definition-Any convenient direction indicated by an arbitrary line which is defined as the line
of reference.

Used in small scale survey to orient the survey.

2. True meridian.

At any point on the surface of the earth, the true meridian is the direction of the tangent at
that point to the curve formed by the intersection of the plane through that point and that
curve joining the north and south geographic poles

-meridians are not parallet to each other but converge at the poles.

-it is permanent and best suited for surveying large portions.

Circles and meridians

y Great Circle-Circles from a sphere with a radius passing through the centre e.g
Equator.
y Small circle-circle formed by the points at the locus to the point in a point from a
great circle.

y Longitude

3. Meridians passing through that point

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT
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¾ Magnetic meridian

At any point of the earth, is the direction of the tangent to the curve formed by the
intersection of points through a point and the North South magnetic pole of the earth.

Method of determining the position of the true meridian

-Use of astronomy
-satellite technology
-GPS

Determination of a true meridian

Imagine parallel lines to divide the earth passing through the poles.

At any station, it can be determined through Astronomical survey.

Horizontal line-Direction of tangent to the curve at the surface of the earth at that point.

Azimuth-defining a bearing of an angle in reference to the north

e.g 070º

Points of Height Reference

Mean sea level-convenient line for taking measurements of points

Earth Centre

Movements of tide is recorded using a tide gauge.

To determine mean sea levels a graduated rod is immersed in water and a set of values
obtained in different periods of each 19 ½ years is used to calculate the mean sea level

BASIC DEFINITIONS MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES

• Plunging the telescope/transiting or reversing-process of rotating the telescope through

180º in the vertical plane hence making the direction of the objective and eyepiece ends
reversed.

• Swinging the telescope-process of turning the telescope clockwise or anticlockwise about

its vertical axis. Clockwise rotation is called swing right and anticlockwise is called swing
left.

• Changing face-operation of changing face left to face right and vice versa

• Double sighting and double centring-operation of measuring an angle twice, once with
telescope in the normal condition and another in the reverse condition.

ECE 2211 LECTURE 1: NOTES AUTHOR DANIEL NYANGWESO, DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY GEGIS DEPARTMENT