Timber:

Wood suitable for building or other engineering purposes is called timber. When wood
forms part of a living tree it is called standing timber whereas it is called rough timber
when the tree has been felled. The wood is called converted timber when it has been
sawn to various market forms such as beams, battens and planks etc.

Parts of Timber:

 Pith:
The innermost central portion or core of the tree is called pith or medulla.

 Heart Wood:
The inner annual rings surrounding the pith is known as heart wood.

 Sap Wood:
The cuter annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer is known as sap wood.

 Cambium Layer:

Thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark is known as cambium layer.
  Inner Bark:
The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as inner bark.

 Outer Bark:
The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as outer bark.

 Medullary Rays:
The thin radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer are known as medullary
rays.

Defects of timber:
Timbers also have defects. These are grouped into the following categories.

I. Defects due to conversion

II. Defects due to fungi

III. Defects due to natural forces

IV. Defects due to seasoning

 1. Defects Due to Conversion:

Wood defects due to conversion. Conversion is the process of converting raw timber to
forms suitable for woodworking or construction projects. During this process, the
following defects may occur Wane, in the form of bark, is more commonly associated
with rough milled lumber.

 Chip Mark :
This defect is indicated by the marks or signs placed by chips on the finished surface of
timber. They may also be formed by the parts of a planning machine.

 Diagonal Grain:
This defect is formed due to improper sawing of timber. It is indicated by diagonal mark
on straight grained surface of timber.
  Torn Grain:

This defect is caused when a small depression is formed on the finished surface of timber by
falling of a tool or so.

 Wane:

This defect is denoted by the presence of original rounded surface on the manufactured
piece of timber.
 2. Defects Due to Fungi:
Defects in timber due to attack by Fungi. Stain: When fungi feed only on sapwood,
where the food materials are stored, it causes a stain. Decay wood eating or wood
destroying fungus is responsible for this type of defect in wood. This type
of fungi breaks down the cell structure.

 Blue Stain:

Sap of wood is stained to bluish color by the action of certain type of fungi.
  Brown Rot:

The term rot is used to indicate decay or disease of timber. Certain types of fungi
remove cellulose compounds from wood and hence, wood assumes the brown color.
This is known as brown rot.

 Dry Rot:

Certain types of fungi feed on wood and during feeding; they attack on wood and
convert it into dry powder form. This is known as dry rot.
  Heart Rot:

This is formed when a branch has come out of a tree. In such a case, heartwood is
exposed to the attack of atmospheric agents. Ultimately, the tree becomes weak and it
gives out hollow sound when struck with a hammer.

3. Defects Due to Natural Force:

 Rind gall:
Due to imperfect cutting of branches during the growth of tree, the tree may be
wounded. To heal the wounds. Curved swelling takes place. This defective portion is
called rind gall.
  Upsets:
It is injury due to crusting during the growth of the tree. It is also known as rupture.

 Twisted fibre:

Heavy winds cause young trees to get permanently twisted. It can be used as a pole,
since twisted fibres add to the strength of a pole.

 Knots:

Knots are the stumps of broken branches of the tree during the growth of the tree.
Grains are distorted in this portion. These are dark and hard pieces.
  Shakes:
Shakes are cracks in timber due to excessive heat, wind or frost during the growth of
the tree.

4. Defects Due to Seasoning:

Following defects occur in seasoning process of wood.

 Bow:

The defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the direction of length of timber.
  Collapse:

Due to uneven shrinkage, wood sometimes flattens during drying. This is known as
collapse.

 Cup:

This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the transverse direction of timber.
Characteristics of timber:

1. Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining
appearance.

2. Color: A color should preferably be dark

3. Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws,
shakes etc

4. Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of
fungi, insects, chemicals, physical agencies, and mechanical agencies.

5. Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its
deformation is removed

6. Fibres: The timber should have straight fibres

7. Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire

8. Hardness: A good timber should be hard

9. Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical
wear or abrasion

10. Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion
or seasoning

12. Sound : A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck

13. Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural
member such as joist, beam, rafter etc.

14. Structure: The structure should be uniform.

15. Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering resistance to
shocks due to vibration

16. Water permeability: A good timber should have low water permeability, which is
measured by the quantity of water filtered through unit surface area of specimen of
wood.

17. Weathering effects: A good timber should be able to stand reasonably the
weathering effects (dry & wet).