appendixJ

Hydraulic Servomotors

The hydraulic servomotor, such as the mechanical integrator described in Appendix A, is a

class of control devices that are used to move large loads with precision and speed. The newer
designs incorporate electromechanical elements to improve the speed and accuracy. These de-
vices have two main mechanical components: a control valve and a piston. The purpose of this
appendix is to write the basic equations that describe the behavior of these two components and
of the servomotor system.

H.l Control Valve Flow Equations

The control valve or spool valve is usually described in terms of the number of spools or
lands and the number of ways the hydraulic fluid can enter or leave the valve. All valves require
at least a supply line, a return line, and a line to the load-a three-way configuration. Many
valves, such as the valve shown in Figure J.l, are four-way valves. All are analyzed in a similar
way. Our analysis follows closely that of Merritt [1], which is recommended for further study.
Consider a three-land, four-way spool valve shown in Figure J.l. This valve is described by
four sets of equations that describe the flow and pressure relationships. The flow past the spool
orifices are given by Bernoulli's equation*

QI =C~IJ;(PS-PI)
Qz = c~zJ ;(PS - Pz)

Q3=C~3J;PZ
Q4 = C~4J ;P 1 (J.l)

where
Q= volumetric flow rate, ft3/S
Cd = dimensionless discharge coefficient
A = orifice area, ft2

*Dimensions of all quantities are given in a consistent set of units, often using the ft-Ibm-s system. Actual devices
might be analyzed using different dimensions for convenience, e.g., using A in square inches or metric units.

640
 Hydraulic Servomotors 641

Suppy Q,
s
i; L1
i;
Rerun

J~ ~ U - Q,

Fig. J.I A three-land, four-way spool valve [I].

and
P = pressure, Ibf/ftz
p = mass density of fluid , lbm/ft? or Ibf-s z/ft4

The flow to the load can be written as

(1.2)

and these relationships are readily verified by examining the Wheatstone bridge equivalent of
the spool valve in Figure 1.1.
The orifice area in each case is a function of the displacement x. Thus, we can write

AI = A )(x)
A z = Az(-x)
A) = A)(x)
A 4 =A 4 (- x) (J.3)

Finally, we note that the pressure drop across the load is given by

(J.4)

These four equations, 1.1-1.4, with appropriate simplifications, must be solved simultane-
ously to give QL as a function of x and Pu i.e., QL = QL(X, PL).
The first simplification is to assume matched symmetrical valve orifices:

Matched: A) = A)
A z = A4 (J.5)

Symmetrical: A )(x) = Az(- x)

Aix) = A 4(-x) (1.6)

We also define the neutral position area

(1.7)
642 Appendix J

Usually, we assume that orifice area varies linearly with valve stroke so that only one
defining equation is required, i.e.,
A =wx (1.8)
where w is the width of the slot in the valve sleeve in ft 2/ft (or in2/in).
Now, for matched symmetrical valves

Ql =Q3
Q2= Q4 (1.9)
From the first equality, and using (J.5), we write

CeYllJ f(ps-p == CeYllJ fp 2

t)

or
PS=P1+P2 (1.10)
Combining (J.I0) with (J.4), we compute
PS+PL
Pl=--2-

(1.11 )

These relationships are shown graphically on a pressure scale in Figure J.2.

From (J.2) we also compute
QL = QI-Q4

= C,p4tJ;(Ps-P C,p42J;P 1) - 1

=C~l
JPrP JPS+PL
L
-C~2 (J.12)
P P

Drop
Across 1

Ps/2
~:----Ir------

f} =0
(Drain)

Fig. 1.2 Graphical illustration of pressure division for matched symmetric orifices.
 Hydraulic Servomotors 643

Also, from Figure J.l,

(J.13)

(J.14)

For a symmetrical valve, we can write

(J.15)

Thus, for any x we can write

(J.16)

Now, our goal is to determine a linear equation for QL' We can use a Taylor's series expan-
sion to write

(1.17)

Thus
(J.18)

where
QL
a- ]
Kq == the flow gain == -
ax 0

QL
K c == the flow-pressure coefficient == - a
-- ] (J.19)
aPL 0
Equation (J.18) is the desired relationship and will be used in evaluating the small-signal
behavior of the system. There are obvious limitations that should be kept in mind, however, as
equation (1.16) is obviously not linear, even though much of the operating range is reasonably
linear.

J.2 Control Valve Force Equations

The equations giving the forces acting on the spool valve are developed for either a steady-
state or a transient condition. Consider the spool valve shown in Figure 1.3, where the spool is
displaced a small amount in the +x direction.
Continuity requires that

QI = Qz = Cc00 J ;(PI - P z) = CcCvAo J ;(P 1 - P z) (J.20)

644 Appendix J

P2
x t
QI
Fluid
Element
Vena
Contracta

PI
F I < .._-_.__ ...

F2 ---'-F,
Face a Face b
-, -
1< L
- - -- - ----

Fig. J.3 Flow forces on a spool valve due to flow leaving the valve chamber . From Hydraulic Control Systems. by
Herbert E. Merritt, © 1967 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

where we have defined the discharge coefficient as the product

Cd = CeCv (J.2l)
where we have defined
C; = contraction coefficient (0.6 < C; < 1.0)
C, = velocity coefficient == 0.98
Also, we have devined Ao to be the orifice area. The effective area, due to flow contraction
is given by [lJ
(J.22)
Thus, we write

QI = Q2 = CvA2J ~(PI - P2) (1.23)

The steady-state force acting on the spool valve is given by

Fr=Ma
.
= prj Q~ ) = PQ~
Y\A 2 V A
(J.24)
2

which is a force normal to the plane of the vena contracta. The force normal to the spool is giv-
en by
Fs = Flcos () = 2CeC~O(P2 - PI) cos () (1.25)
Using (J.l5) to express Ao as a linear function of x, we write, for small x

~=~~ ~~
This is a steady-state (Bernoulli) force that always acts in a direction to close the orifice, or
in the -x direction in Figure 1.3.
The transient flow force is derived by considering the forces produced by accelerating the
element of fluid shown in Figure J.3 in reacting with the face area of the spool. If the fluid ele-
ment is accelerated in the direction of flow, the pressure on the left must exceed that on the
right, or the pressure at face a exceeds that at face b. The direction of this force tends to close
the valve. The magnitude is given by
 Hydraulic Servomotors 645

F =Ma = LA d(Q/A) = L dQI (1.27)

t P dt P dt

Using QI from (1.20) with the area expressed as a linear function of x, we compute

(1.28)

where P A = PI - P2 • Merritt [1] observes that the first term on the right side of (1.28) is the more
significant as it represents a damping term. The second term is usually neglected. The quantity
L is called the damping length and is the axial length of fluid between incoming and outgoing
flows.
In power system control analysis, it is customary to ignore the transient force (J.28). This is
simply in recognition of the fact that the valve transient period is very short compared to the
load transient period.

J.3 The Hydraulic Valve Controlled Piston

A hydraulic valve controlled piston or linear servomotor is shown in Figure J.4. This is
similar to the mechanical-hydraulic integrator described in Appendix F and reference 2. In our
analysis, we assume that the valve orifices are matched and symmetrical, that equal pressure

~~
Supply Return

Fig. J.4 A hydraulic-valve-controlled piston [1].

646 Appendix J

drops exist across the valves, that the valves have equal coefficients, and that the supply pres-
sure, P s, is constant. Then, from (J.18), for small deviations,
(J.29)
where P L == PI - P2 is the pressure drop across the load or across the piston.
We can also write a continuity equation for the weight flow rate in and out of the contained
volume. If we consider a contained volume V of mass m and density p, we can write the conti-
nuity equation
dm
I Win - I Wout = Wstored = g"dt (J.30)

where
W = weight flow rate, lbf/s?
g = acceleration of gravity, ft/s?
p == density, lbm/ft" (or lbf-svft")
v = volume, ft3
From (J.30) we can write
dV dp
IWin-IWout=gpdi +gVdi (1.31)

But we can also write the weight flow rate as

W=gpQ (1.32)
Then (J.31) can be written as
dV V dp
IQin - IQout= dt + p di (1.33)

Now, at constant temperature

Po
P = Po + - p (J.34)
f3e
where Po is the density at zero pressure, f3e is the effective bulk modulus (lbf/ft") and P is the
pressure. Thus, (J.33) may be written as
dV V dP
IQin - IQout= dt + f3e dt (J.35)

which is a convenient form of continuity equation for this problem [1].

For the piston chambers, we write the continuity relations
dVI V J dP J
QI-C;P(P1-P2)-Ce,J'1 = dt + f3e dt
dV V2 dP2
C;p(P, - P2)- Ce,J'2 - Q2 = dt2 + f3e dt (J.36)

where
VJ == total volume of forward chamber including valve, connecting line, and piston volume, ft3
V2 = total volume of return chamber, ft3
C ip == internal cross port leakage coefficient of piston, ft5ls-1bf
Cep = extemalleakage coefficient of piston, ft 5ls-lbf
 Hydraulic Servomotors 647

Now, let
VI = VOl +ApY
V2 = V02 + ApY (J.37)
where
Ap = piston area, ft2
VOl, V02 = initial volumes, ft3
and assume that [1]
VOl = V02 == Vo (J.38)
Also note that the total volume, Vt, is constant, i.e.,
Vt = VI + V2 = 2Vo (J.39)
Taking derivatives of (J.37) and substituting into (J.36) we get
dy VI ar,
QI - Cip(P t - P2) - Ce,JJt = Apdi + f3e dt
dy V2 dP2
CiP(P 1- P2) - Ce,JJ2- Q2 = -A pdi + f3e dt (J.40)

Now, we subtract these equations and divide by two to write

QI + Q2
2
_ (c. + C2
Ip
ep ) P _ P = A dy + Vo (dP l
(I 2) p dt 2f3e dt
_ dP2 ) + ApY (dP l + dP2
dt 2f3e dt dt
)
(J.41)

Using (J.ll), we can show that the last term on the right side of (J.40) is zero. Also, using
PL = PI - P2 , (J.4l) can be written as
Q +Q dv V. dP
2 = C p + A _'.I' + _ 0 _ L
QL = I
2 tp" L p dt 2f3e dt
(J.42)

where we define
_ Cep
Ctp-CiP + 2 (J.43)

We now apply Newton's law to the forces acting on the piston to write
Mty = -Ky - BpY -FL + A,JJL (1.44)
where
M( = total mass of piston and load, lbf-svft
Bp = viscous damping coefficient of piston and load, lbf-s/ft
K = spring constant, lbf/ft
F L = load force, lbf
In summary, then, we have three equations that describe the servomotor behavior. In the s-
domain, these equations are
QL = Kqx - KePL

QL = ApSY + Ctp(1 + ~S)PL

f3e Ctp
MtS 2y + BpSY + Ky + FL = A,JJL (J.45)
648 Appendix J

These equations are easily combined to write

x, Kce( Vt )
A/ - A; 1 + 4(3)(ces FL
y=
VIMt
4f3"Al
3 + (KceA1t + Bp~ ) 2 +
A; 4f3"A; s
(1 + B;<'ce
A~
+ KK + Kc)(
t

4f3"A; s A~
)
(J.46)

where we define the new coefficient

(J.47)

Equation (J.45) can be arranged in the block diagram form shown in Figure J.5.
In most applications, the spring force is missing and K = O. This changes the form of (J.46)
to

(J.48)

where we have incorporatedthe assumption that [1]

B;<'ce ~A; (J.49)
We also have defined the following parameters:
~
T = 2Y
f3eL")..ce
= lag time constant

w~
4f3eA 2
= --p = hydraulic natural frequency
~Mt

(h = A
x;
p
J----v;
f3eA1/
+ 4A
p
t-:
s, Vfiji; (1.50)

Note that (J.48) has a pure integration, which is not present in the system (J.46) where the
spring was included. The block diagram for this system is the same as Figure J.6, but with K = O.
In some systems, the mass M, of the piston and load is negligible, i.e., the time constant is
small, or

1 Y
M,s 2 + BpS +K

Fig. J.5 Block diagram of servomotor position y as a function of control valve position x and load force FL.
 Hydraulic Servomotors 649

Fig. J.6 Servomotor with negligible load mass and small lag time constant.

When this assumption holds, the output transfer function in Figure 1.5 becomes simply an
integration. If we also assume that time constant 'T is small , the system reduces to that of Figure
J.6. Many practical systems, such as the speed governor servomotor for a steam turbine can be
modeled as a system similar to Figure J.6.
Another assumption that is commonly made is that the load force FL is small compared to
the piston force F p , i.e.,
FL -s A~L (1.52)
In this case, the load force can be neglected entirely and the transfer function for the servo-
motor becomes
Kqx
y = - (1.53)
ApS
or the entire system becomes an integrator with integrating time A,JKq • This is the form often
assumed for the power servomotor.
It should be noted that (J.53) may not be an adequate mathematical model if the piston load
is massive. For example, the intercept valve for a large steam turbine may weight three or four
tons. In such a case, it may not be a good assumption to write (J.53) unless the piston area Ap
and pressure drop PL are both very large such that the acceleration can be very fast compared to
the turbine response .
In summary, the following assumptions have been used in deriving (1.52):
K=O
VI ~ 4(3)(ce
FE. «r,
MI~Bp

B~ce ~ AJ (1.54)
and when these assumptions hold , the valve-controlled piston is approximated as an integrator.

References
1. Men-itt, Herbert E., Hydraulic Control Systems , Wiley, New York, 1967.
2. Eggenberger, M. A., Introduction to the Basic Elements ofControl Systems, General ElectricCompany
Publication GET-3096 B, 1970.
 Addendum

Page 61, general formula for the A's in Eq. 3.32:

where n is the number of machines and a machine n is the reference.

650