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12.1 Introduction
The generation of hydroelectric power is accomplished by means of hydraulic turbines that
are directly connected to synchronous generators. Four types of turbines or water wheels are in
common use. The three most common are the impulse or Pelton turbine, the reaction or Francis
turbine, and the propeller or Kaplan turbine. A fourth and more recent development is the Deri-
az turbine, which combines some of the best features of the Kaplan and Francis designs. All of
these types make use of the energy stored in water that is elevated above the turbine. Water to
power the turbines is directed to the turbine blading through a large pipe or penstock and is then
discharged into the stream or tailrace below the turbine. The type of turbine used at a given lo-
cation is based on the site characteristics and on the head or elevation of the stored water above
the turbine elevation.
484
Hydraulic Turbine Prime Movers 485
Buckets Generator
/-
Nozzle Body
Nozzle and
Needle
Stripper Base Frame and
Wheel Pit Liner
shown in Figure 12.2(b). Thus, the governor of an impulse wheel will control the nozzle for
normal changes, but must recognize a load rejection by quickly moving the jet deflector.
In an impulse turbine, the total drop in pressure of the water occurs at the stationary nozzle
and there is no change in pressure as the water strikes the bucket. All of the energy input to the
shaft is in the form of kinetic energy of the water, and this energy is transformed into the me-
chanical work of driving the shaft or is dissipated in fluid friction . Ideally then, the water veloc-
ity is reduced to zero after it strikes the turbine buckets. Actually, a small kinetic energy re-
mains and is lost as the deflected water is directed downward to the exit passageway.
The power available at the nozzle is given by the formula
p == WHQ hp (12.1 )
n 550
where
P; == power availble at the nozzle, hp
W == weight of one cubic foot of water == 62.4 lbm/ft'
Q == quantity of water, ft 3/s
H == static or total head, ft
Recall that 550 lbm/s is equal to one horsepower.
If 1Jt is the turbine efficiency, the shaft power may be written as
p == HQ1Jt h (12.2)
s 8.8 P
where the maximum efficiency is usually 80 to 90% [1]. The quantity of water depends on the
water velocity, the head, and a nozzle coefficient. It is also restricted by the mean river or
stream flow, which is dictated by nature. For a given design, we can compute
Q ==AVft3/s (12.3)
where
A == jet area, ft2
V == jet velocity, ft/s
Then
V == C V2iii ft/s (12.4)
where
g == 32.2 ft/s?
h == net head at nozzle entrance, ft
C == nozzle coefficient, usually = 0.98
If we assume that
h =kH
for a given situation, where k is a constant, then we may write
Ps == k1H 3/2 (12.5)
ing pressure against these movable vanes and causing the runner to tum. The generator is usual-
ly directly connected to the runner shaft as shown in Figure 12.3.
Reaction turbines are classed as radial flow, axial flow, or mixed flow according to the di-
rection of water flow. In radial flow, the water flows perpendicular to the shaft. In axial flow the
stationary vanes direct the water to flow parallel to the shaft . Mixed flow is a combination of ra-
dial and axial flow.
Reaction turbines are installed either in a horizontal or vertical shaft arrangement, with the
vertical turbines being the most common. It is a versatile design, being applicable to installa-
tions with heads as high as 800 feet (244 m) and as low as about 20 feet (= 6 m).
The control for a reaction turbine is in the form of movable guide vanes called wicket gates
through which the water flows before reaching the runner . Positioning these vanes can cause the
water to have a tangential velocity component as it enters the runner. For one such position,
usually at 80 to 90% of wide open, the runner will operate at maximum efficiency. At any other
wicket gate setting, a portion of the energy is lost due to less efficient angling of the water
streamline. Although the wicket gates are close-fitting, they usually leak when fully closed and
subject to full penstock pressure . Thus, a large butterfly valve is often installed just ahead ofthe
turbine case for use as a shut-down valve .
The draft tube is an integral and important part of the reaction turbine design. It serves two
purposes. It allows the turbine runner to be set above the tailwater level and it reduces the dis-
charge velocity, thereby reducing the kinetic energy losses at discharge. The large tube with the
90° bend just below the runner in Figure 12.3 is the draft tube.
The importance of the draft tube is evident when the energy of water leaving the runner is
considered. In some designs, this energy may be as high as 50% of the total available energy .
Without the draft tube, this kinetic energy would be lost. With the draft tube constructed air-tight,
however, a partial vacuum is formed due to the fast-moving water. This low pressure tends to in-
crease the pressure drop across the turbine blading and increase the overall efficiency.
One of the important empirical formulas used in waterwheel design is the specific speed
formula.
Ns =
NYPs
IF/ rpm (12.6)
4
Tail
Water
where
N = speed in rpm
H = head in feet
p s = shaft power in hp
This quantity is the speed at which a model turbine would operate with a runner designed
for one horsepower and at a head of one foot. It serves to classify turbines as to the type appli-
cable for a certain location. As a general guide, then, we say that the specific speeds given in
Table 12.1 are applicable.
Under this classification, an impulse turbine is a low-speed , low-capacity (in water vol-
ume) turbine and the reaction turbine is a high-speed, high-capacity turbine. The same formulas
(12.1) to (12.5) used in conjunction with the impulse turbine also apply for the reaction turbine.
For (12.4), the value of C is about 0.6 to 0.8 and this value usually decreases for turbines with
higher values of Ns.
The control of a reaction turbine is through the movable wicket gates. These are deflected
simultaneously by rotating a large "shifting ring" to which each gate is attached. The force re-
quired to move this assembly is very large and two servomotors are often used to rotate the ring,
as shown in Figure 12.4.
Fig. 12.4 Wicket gate operating levers and position servomotors. Figure courtesy F. R. Schleif, Electric Power
Branch, Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Department of the Interior. USBR photo by C. W. Avey.
Hydraulic Turbine Prime Movers 489
The machine shown in Figure 12.4 is one of the generators at the Grand Coulee Dam Pow-
erhouse in Washington State. It shows the wheel pit of a 165,000 horsepower turbine generator.
The two rods are connected to power servomotors and operate to rotate the shifting ring, there-
by changing the wicket gate position of all gates.
A second control device used in reaction turbines is a large bypass valve, which is actuated
by the shifting ring. If load is rejected and the wicket gates are dri yen closed very quickly by the
governor servomotor, the pressure regulator is caused to open and does so very rapidly. This
prevents the large momentum of penstock water from hammering against the closed wicket
gates. The pressure regulator then closes slowly to bring the water gradually to rest.
Pit
Liner
Blade
Scromotor
Pit
Liner
Wicket
Gate s
of pipe, called the conduit, is necessary to move the water to a point where it begins a steep de-
scent through the penstock to the turbine. As the water flows through this conduit and penstock
at a steady rate, a head loss develops , similar to the voltage drop in a nonlinear resistor. The hy-
draulic gradient in Figure 12.8 represents the approximate profile of the head, measured in feet,
as a function of distance from forebay to turbine. Under steady-flow conditions, this head loss at
the turbine is
he = H - h = kQ" (12.7)
where
hL = head loss, feet
H = static head, feet
h = effective head at the turbine , feet
k = a constant corresponding to pipe resistance
Hydraulic Turbine Prime Movers 491
w w
w w
Thus, when the flow is steady, the head loss will be directly proportional to the length of
pipe, as indicated in the figure.
One of the serious problems associated with penstock design and operation is that of water
hammer. Water hammer is defined as the change in pressure, above or below normal pressure,
caused by sudden changes in the rate of water flow [6]. Thus, following a sudden change in
load, the governor will react by opening or closing the wicket gates. This causes a pressure
wave to travel along the penstock , possibly subjecting the pipe walls to great stresses. Creager
[6] gives a graphic example of this phenomena as shown in Figure 12.9. Suppose the load on
the turbine is dropped suddenly. The turbine-governor reacts to this change by quickly moving
the wicket gates toward the closed position and, because of the momentum built up by the pen-
stock water, the hydraulic gradient to changes from the normal full load gradient A-C, to the
positive water-hammer gradient, A- D. This supernormal pressure is not stable, and once the
wicket gate movement stops, gradient A-D swings to A-E and oscillates back and forth until
damped by friction to a new steady-state position.
492 Chapter 12
100
Deriaz -------
~-
.. ._%
-.....;..: - . / -~:-~
~
//
-----~:.:: ~
'. 7'''-;-: •
.
..
80 Impulse /'
/
/"
...
.•. •.
'
-:
,,/
/
Kaplan
..... .'
-: /
Francis .:- // /
N, =50 /' /
60
Francis / / /
N, = lOO /
Fixed / '
Propeller
40
o
o 20 40 60 80 100
% of Full Load
A sudden increase in load, accompanied by wicket gate opening has just the opposite ef-
fect. Thus, not only must the penstock be well reinforced near the turbine , but it must be able to
withstand these shock waves all along its length.
Examining this phenomenon more closely, reveals that it is much like the distributed para-
meter transmission line. The (closing) wicket gate can be thought of as a series of small step
changes in gate position. Each step change causes a positive pressure wave to travel up the pen-
stock to the forebay and, upon reaching this "open circuit," it is reflected back as a negative
Conduit
I h
_ I
D
G{\\die~
r_ _ - - ...,I
I
\\\\~e
~ \\te{ --
\,os~:'- - -
A - - - --
Static Hydraulic Gradient
-----I-~~-~--~-~~~~~-Sffi~ LOadG~~-1
Forebay -_
I B
- - __ la dleut
---- S W' -----II c
F=::~\==:::::=-----=-=~·- -!.nR.....0[-A-n- -
,----:\----=::::::::::=
Conduit - -l E
I
pressure wave of almost the same magnitude. The time of one "round trip" of this wave is called
the critical time, p" which is defined as
2L
p, = - seconds (12 .8)
a
where
L = length of penstock, feet
a = pressure wave velocity, ftls
For steep pipes, the wave velocity is approximately
4675
a = 1 + (d/IOOe) ft/s (12 .9)
where
d = pipe diameter, inches
e = pipe wall thickness, inches
Pressure wave velocities of 2000 to 4000 feet per second are not uncommon.
The change in head due to water hammer produced by a step change in velocity has been
shown to be [6]
(12.10)
where
h6, = change in head, feet
V6, = change in velocity, ftls
g = acceleration of grav ity, ft/s?
and a is the pressure wave velocity as previously defined. Equation 12.10 is the fundamental
equation for water hammer studies. Note that to keep water hammer to a low value, V6, must be
494 Chapter 12
kept small either by using a pressure regulator or by introducing intentional time lag in the gov-
ernor. The introduction of time lags are particularly troublesome for interconnected operation as
this contributes to tie-line oscillation [7].
Usually, the time for closure ofthe wicket gates of a hydraulic turbine is much greater than
JL of equation (12.8). Suppose, however, that the gate is opened by only a small amount, such
that it can be closed in a time JL. In such a case, the pressure rise can be greater than that due to
closure from full gate to zero. For this reason, JL is usually considered the critical governor time.
From the above, we see that water hammer, both positive and negative, can be a serious
problem in penstock design. It may require that penstocks be built with much greater strength
than would ordinarily be necessary. It may also cause violent pressure oscillations, which can
interfere with turbine operation. The pressure regulator is helpful in controlling positive water
hammer as it provides relief for the pressure buildup due to closing of the gates. However, it is
of no help in combating negative water hammer.
A device often used to relieve the problems of both positive and'negative water hammer is
the surge tank, a large tank usually located between the conduit and penstock, as shown in Fig-
ure 12.10. To be most effective, the surge tank should be as close to the turbine as possible but,
since it must also be high enough to withstand positive water hammer gradients without over-
flowing, it is often placed at the top of the steep-descent portion of the penstock, as shown in the
figure. Sometimes an "equalizing reservoir" is constructed to serve as a surge tank for large in-
stallations and may actually be cheaper and more beneficial. This is due to the general rule that
the larger the tank area, the smaller the pressure variation [6].
Surge tank dimensions are important. The tank must be high enough so that in no case is air
drawn into the penstock. Letting y denote the maximum surge up or down in feet (measured
from the reservoir level for starting, from a distance below this equal to the friction head for
stopping) we have [5]
aLvi )1/2
y= ( - - +P (12.11)
gA
where
a = conduit area, ft2
L = conduit length, ft
Surge
Tank
A
--:::..---- - - - -
Forcbay - ---
.... ===-- --- --
Conduit
Turbine
Tailrace
The factor F in (12.10) is important since it represents the friction that eventually damps
out oscillations following a sudden change . Since damping is desirable, it is sometimes advanta-
geous to add hydraulic resistance at the surge tank opening to produce a choking effect. This is
done in two ways: by placing a restricted orifice between the tank and the penstock, or by con-
structing a "differential surge tank ." The differential surge tank, shown in Figure 12.11, consists
of two concentric tanks : an inside riser tank of about the same diameter as the penstock and an
outer or surge tank of larger diameter with a restricted passage connecting it to the penstock.
Because of this restriction, the water level in the outer tank is independent of the accelerating
head and the head acting on the turbine. These heads are determined by water in the riser tank,
which acts like a simpler surge tank with small diameter. The diameter of the differential surge
tank is about one-half that of a simple surge tank . The riser diameter is usually the same as that
of the penstock.
The damping effect due to the added friction of the differential surge tank is shown in Fig-
ure 12.12, where the surge is compared for two types of tank design [6]. Note the relatively long
period (about 300 seconds , or five minutes) of the surge. This surge would be due to a sudden
increase in load, where the turbine wicket gates are opened at time t = O. Note that an accelerat-
ing head is created , which increases steadily for about 80 to 85 seconds , at which time the flow
Riser
Tank I
A I
Differential :
5
10 Final Le vel
20
25
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time in seco nds
of water from that tank ceases. In the differential tank, the accelerating head is established very
fast, but not so fast as to prevent the governor from keeping up with the change .
In the discussion of a technical paper [8], deMello suggests a lumped parameter electric
analog of the hydraulic system, including conduit, surge tank, penstock, and turbine [9]. Figure
12.13 shows this analog, where head is analogous to voltage, volumetric flow is analogous to
current, and the turbine is represented by the variable conductance, G.
With water being considered incompressible, the inertia of water in the penstock and con-
duit are represented by inductances L) and L 2 , respectively (series resistance could be added to
represent hydraulic resistance) . If the effect of water wheel speed on flow is neglected, the tur-
bine can be simulated by G or Gt:., where a change in gate setting is under consideration. The
surge tank behaves much like a capacitor as it tends to store water (charge) and release it when
the head (voltage) at the turbine falls. (How could a differential surge tank be represented?)
Conduit Penstock
i; L1
v Sur ge
Tank
If linearized equations about a quiescent operating point are written we have, for the head
at the reservoir described in the s domain,
_ . (S(L 1 + L 2)(1 + LCs2) )
Vd - -lid 1+L S (12.13)
2C2
where
Also
. _ i 10 ( Vl~ ) G~.
'lA- - - + -110 (12.14)
2 VIO Go
From the square root relationship between flow and head
Q = aVii (12.15)
we write
(12.16)
Combining, we get
(12.18)
When the surge tank is very large, C is large and (12.18) reduces to the so-called water-
hammer formula
(12.19)
where
VIO
Ro = -.- (12.20)
10
Ga
Po-(l- TwS)
Go
(12.21)
498 Chapter 12
where [9]
Tw == water starting time == 1 second (12.22)
Furthermore, as pointed out by deMello [9], when the tunnel inertia is great, or L2 is large,
then (12.19) becomes
a = a constant = P~~ +; )
p = density of fluid
g = accelerationof gravity
K == bulk modulus of elasticityof fluid
r ~ internal pipe radius
f == pipe wall thickness
E.= Young's modulus for the pipe
Equation (12.24) should be compared to the equations of the transmission line, which can
be written as follows:
av ai
- - =L- +Ri
ax at
ai av
--=c-
ax at +Gv (12.25)
-
au ==-asH
ax
on ==--su
-
1
(12.27)
ax g
(12.31)
or
sx sx
U == C 1 cosh - - C2 sinh -
a a
C1 sx C2 • sx
H == - ~r - cosh - - - - SInh - (12.32)
vag a ~ a
Note we may apply (12.31) or (12.32) to any cross section of pipe such as I or II of Figure
12.14, or any arbitrary cross section i. Thus, in (12.31) and (12.32) we may subscript all x's
with a numeral (I, II, or i) to indicate the particular section under study. This helps in evaluating
the constants C t , Cb K 1, and K 2 as they depend on boundary conditions. For example, we may
write
s S
C 1 == U/cosh -X/+ ~sinh -XI
a a
(12.33)
500 Chapter 12
s s s s
- vagHI sinh -Xu cosh -Xl - U, sinh -Xl sinh -Xu (12.34)
a a a a
Now, let
XI=O
Xu = L = length of pipe (12.35)
and
Ul/ = U, cosh T~ - agll, sinh T~
Ul .
Hu = - - sinh T~ + HI cosh T~ (12.37)
ag
where
L
Te = - = elastic time (12.38)
a
Now, since
q=AU (12.39)
where
q = volumemetric flow rate, tt31s
A = pipe cross sectional area, t12 (12.40)
1
QIl == Q/ cosh T.,s - Zo sinh T.,s
for T, >
write
° °
andf(t) = when t < T, and where we use the notationp == dldt. Similarly, we also
°
for f(/) = when t < Teo
From these relations, we conclude that the second item in (12.43) is the Laplace transform
for f(/) when t < T;
We can see that (12.43) is the Laplace transform of the equations
1
qll = (cosh TeP)q/- Zo (sinh TeP)h/
(12.51 )
502 Chapter 12
(12.52)
We also note that equations (12.51) are linear in both q and h such that, if we define
q[=qO+qd
h/=ho+h d (12.55)
and write new equations in terms of the d-quantities, the new equations will be identically the
same as (12.51).
The head loss due to friction has been shown to be proportional to q2. Thus, the head equa-
tion is, from (12.51) and including a friction-loss term
where
We may also write (12.51) and (12.57) in per-unit terms by dividing through by a base
quantity. Let
Base q =: qo
Base h = ho
where we define
hI
per unit hI == h
o
. h/I
per unit hll == h;;
. qI
per unit qI = -
qo
. q/I
per unit qII == -
qo
. Zoqo
per unit Zj v Z;> ~ (12.60)
We need not use any special symbol to indicate whether these are per-unit or system quan-
tities as the equations are identical (except for Zo and Zn)' In what follows, we will assume:
1. All flows and heads are deviations from the steady state, but we will avoid using the t1
subscript for brevity.
2. All values are per unit.
where
h, == surge tank head, per unit
h, = riser tank head, per unit
Experimental runs verify this assumption [8].
From (12.57) applied to the conduit (from forebay to surge tank) we have
h, == (sech Teep)h w - Ze(tanh Teep)qe - cPeqe (12.62)
where
Tee == elastic time for the conduit
h w == forebay head, per unit
504 Chapter 12
hw=O (12.63)
qe = qt + qr + qp (12.64)
We can further describe the flow into the two tanks by the differential equation
T/lt=qt+qr (12.65)
(12.66)
where
cPe + Z, tanh TecS
F 1(s) = ---'-''------''----=.:...-- (12.67)
1 + cPeTrs + ZeTtS tanh TecS
This equation is especially interesting since it indicates that the relationship between surge
tank head, ht, and penstock flow rate, qp, depends only on the conduit and surge-riser tank char-
acteristics and not on the characteristics of any component following the surge tank. In other
words , the hydraulic system up to the penstock is completely described by (12.66) .
A
-- - - -
Forebay
>=====111
I II H
Turbine
Tailrace
Fig. )2.15 Notation for changes in flow and head (all values are considered deviations from the quiescent values).
Hydraulic Turbine Prime Movers 505
(12.71)
where
J m = per-unit mechanical inertia
Tm = turbine starting time
Here we assume no electrical torque as we are interested only in the relationship between
the variables, not in the way the turbine accelerationis restrained by shaft load.
Combining equations (12.63) and (12.65) we can write
Q(s)
- ==-F3(s) (12.72)
H(s)
where
F1
1 +ztanh TeS
F 3(s) == P (12.73)
cPp + F) + Zp tanh TeS
which gives a relation between the per-unit turbine flow rate and the turbine head. We note that
it depends only on the characteristicsof the penstock, surge-riser tanks, and conduit, and not on
the turbine characteristics as determined by partial derivatives in (12.63) and (12.64), nor on the
turbine inertia as given by (12.71).
506 Chapter 12
z
z~~
Hydraulic Water Hydraulic
Supply Turbine System
(a) Hydraulic Components (b) Hydraulic System
where
al3 + a l 2F4
Fs = - - - - (12.76)
all + F3
and
(12.77)
where
(12.78)
Finally, between (12.76) and (12.78) we deduce that
Tm(s) F6
- - = - = F7 (12.79)
H(s) s,
In block diagram notation, we can express the hydraulic system as shown in Figure 12.16.
Using equations (12.75) and (12.79), we have the representation of Figure 12.16 (a). We may,
however, lump these characteristics and use only (12.78) and Figure 12.16(b).
enburger and Donelson, as presented in [8]. These approximations are not only those devised by
experienced engineers, but tested extensively to prove their validity.
The first approximation noted is that concerning the hydraulic resistance. It is noted that,
although present in F., F 3, and all other factors (note cPc and cPp ) , the error in neglecting
the hydraulic resistance term is negligible. Thus, the resistance head-loss term we so careful-
ly added in equation (12.56) is not needed in the small-disturbance case. We will not bother
to remove the cP term in all expressions, but note that little error would result from doing
so.
One possible simplification is that of neglecting the conduit portion of the hydraulic system
and assume that the surge tank isolates the conduit from the penstock. Thus, in equation (12.62)
we set the conduit flow to zero, i.e., cPc == O. This says that the water flow in the conduit does not
change and the conduit is essentially closed. Under this condition, from (12.64) and (12.65) we
have
qc == 0 == (qt + qr) + qp
Ttht = qt + qr = -qp
u, 1
- == -F)(s) = - - (12.80)
o, TtS
or
(12.81)
F1
l+ztanhTeS 1
F3(s) == P == _ (12.82)
cPp + F 1 + Zp tanh TeS Zp tanh TeS
Both this assumption and the assumption on the isolation of the conduit (12.79) have been
validated by experiment.
We now examine certain approximations suggested by Oldenburger and Donelson [8],
which provide several degrees of simplification.
1. In the simplified expression for F 3(s) from (12.82) we can set, as an approximation,
(12.83)
with the result
(12.84)
a2)(dzsZ + d.s + dO)(C2SZ + CIS + co)- a22(b ls + bO)(e3s3 + e2s2 + els + eo)
+a23(e3s3 +e2s2+e.s + eo)(czs2 + Ct s + co)
F6 = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(e3s3 +e2s2 + els+ eO)(c2s2 + CIS+ co)
5th Order Polynomial
(12.87)
5th Order Polynomial
2. Simplify F 1 by letting
(12.88)
andF3 by
F1
1 +-tanh reS
-
F 3-
zP
(12.89)
cPp + Zp tanh TeS
and, finally, with
(12.90)
This results in a more complex model that is undoubtedly more accurate. In this case, the func-
tion F 4 is
5th degree polynomial
F4 = - - - - - - - -
6th degree polynomial
and is much more detailed than the previous case. Experiments have indicated that, for all ex-
cept the most careful experiments, such detail is not necessary.
3. If the water in the conduit is assumed to be rigid, then equation (12.62) becomes [8]
h w - h, = Tc4c+ cPcqc (12.91)
In this case, F} becomes a second order function:
reS + cPc
F 1 = - - Z- - - - (12.92)
TcTtS + cPcTtS + 1
and the other transfer functions also become higher order.
4. All of the above should be compared to the classical water-hammer formula based on a
lumped system:
(12.93)
Hydraulic Turbine Prime Movers 509
Penstock LoadTorque
Error Servo Gate Turbine
t, Shaft
Ref
Signals Stroke Position Head Speed
Hydraulic y Z Hydraulic H
..--- ...
Turbine- N
Control Wicket System Generator
Amplifier Gates Function Rotor
Speed
Governor
where Tw is the so-called "water starting time" (about one second). This gives a second-order
representation for F 4 .
*It is common to represent the torque by the symbols Tor M. We use the T here, but recognize that this symbol is also
used for time constants.
510 Chapter 12
Fig. 12.18 The two operating modes of a pumped storage power plant.
Hydraulic Turbine Prime Movers 511
Problems
12.1. Select a hydroelectric site of interest to you and record the physical features of the plant
including the type of turbine, the head, the installed capacity, etc. Document the sources
of your research and prepare a brief report on your findings.
12.2. Prepare a list of at least 10 hydroelectric sites, including a wide range of heads and phys-
ical features.
12.3. The system under study in [8] has the following constants:
(TS)3 2( TS)5
(c) tanh(Ts) == TS- -3- + -15-
References
1. Knowlton, A. E., Standard Handbook/or Electrical Engineers, Section 10, Prime Movers, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1941.
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