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Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India

Chapter · August 2016

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-0620-3_6

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 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North
East India 6
Himadri Das and Dipul Kalita

Abstract
India has been considered as a rich biodiversity and havens of wealth for
useful germplasm resources and there is no doubt that the plant kingdom
with treasure house of diverse natural product. The Northeast region of
India comprising of the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,
Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim can be physio-
graphically categorized into the Eastern Himalayas, Northeast hills
(Patkai-Naga Hills and Lushai Hills) and the Brahmaputra and Barak Valley
plains. The region has been identified by the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) as a centre of rice germplasm while the National Bureau
of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), India, has highlighted the region as
being rich in wild relatives of crop plants. Fibers and dyes both are derived
from plants using by human society. Natural dyes are use in the colouring
textile, drugs, cosmetics etc. Because of its non-toxic effects, it is also used
for colouring various food products. Due to lack of availability of precise
technical knowledge on the extraction, dying technique, it has not commer-
cially succeeded like the synthetic dyes. Natural fibers are getting increas-
ing significance as renewable and environmental friendly raw material for
technical applications as well as civil engineering and building, construc-
tion materials. In this chapter, we discussed the fiber and dye yielding plans
in North East India, its extractions, uses, mordants, characterization, advan-
tage and disadvantages in details.

Keywords
North East India • Biodiversity • Mordant • Dye • Fiber

6.1 Introduction
H. Das (*) • D. Kalita
Cellulose Pulp and Paper Division, CSIR-North East
Both the fibers and dyes are derived from the
Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat 785006,
Assam, India plants using by human society from the time
e-mail: dashimadri01@gmail.com; dipulklta@gmail.com immemorial. Fibers are elongated cells having

# Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 77

J. Purkayastha (ed.), Bioprospecting of Indigenous Bioresources of North-East India,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0620-3_6
78
very dense cell walls originated in plant stems,
leaves, bark and seeds. From ancient time, differ-
ent types of plants like cotton, flax and hemp
have been grown to use for fiber, that can used
for making clothes, ropes and paper etc. Plant
fibers are flexible in nature, having very little
elasticity and good resistance to damage by
scratch and can withstand both heat and sunlight.
All plants are fibrous, the bundles of fiber of
plants gives strength and pliability to their stems,
leaves and roots. Cells of fibers are dead when it
became mature and then support plant stems and
roots as a supporting tissue. The xylem and
phloem tissue of monocot and dicot stems and
roots are associated with dead fiber cells whether
it is very small. But generally xylem and
phloem tissue are not found in the wood of
gymnosperms. Fibers may differ in physical
structure but are alike in chemical composition.
All plants in nature form cellulose, but the
amount of cellulose formed and the location of
cellulose in the plants vary from one species to
another. Generally, the cellulose in the plant
body is combined with starch, carbohydrates
and hemicelluloses along with a complex matrix
called lignin. To get cellulose in pure form, these
materials are to be removed from cellulose by
chemical methods.
Natural fibers are derived from plant and ani-
mal origin. Based on their origin, natural fibers
furthermore again classified as lignocellulose
(from plants) and protein (from animals). On
the other hand mineral fibers are occur naturally
however that are not bio-based. Unlike plastics,
vegetable fibers are biodegradable, annually
renewable, non-carcinogenic and therefore
health-friendly and environment friendly. Tradi-
tionally jute like fibers are being used for pack-
aging as sacking, hessians, bags and soil savers
besides being used as carpet backing, jute scrims,
tarpaulins, canvas, tar felts etc. There are other
diversified uses too as technical textiles,
geotextiles, agro-textiles and handicraft. In rural
sector, utilization of plant fibers for creating
employment opportunity is cost effective process
and ecologically sustainable. Natural fiber yield-
ing plants which are abundantly available in var-
ious parts of India i.e. jute, sisal, banana, coir etc.
H. Das and D. Kalita
are major resources. Nowadays, India produces
more than 400 million tonnes natural fibers (Rai
and Jha 2004).
Natural fibers are used in technical
applications, civil engineering and construction
materials as renewable and environmental
friendly raw materials. Flax, hemp, linseed,
jute, sisal, kenaf, yucca, abaca and ramie are
well-known natural fiber yielding plants.
Mechanical properties of natural fibers are
influenced by various factors such as the growth
and weather conditions, date of harvest, the
degree of maturity at the harvest, the retting
process, decortication, processing and cleaning
procedure etc. (Munder and Hempel 2006).
Like dyes are also some chemicals present in
the the roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood.
Maximum natural dyes are obtained from plant
sources as vegetable dyes, for example nettles
(Urtica spp.), saffron (Crocus sativus) and mad-
der (Rubia spp.) that has been used since ancient
times as a vegetable red dye for leather, wool,
cotton and silk.
6.2 History of Natural Fibers
For preparation in our daily essential goods like
cloths, building materials, cordage etc. natural
plant and animal fibers used as a raw material
which are easily available in human settled
region. In ancient Egypt around 3000 years
before composite was made with clay and straw
for making house walls as known as first com-
posite material. But several of the ancient plant
fibers are no longer is use. Jute, sisal, coir and
kapok etc. fibers are first introduced in the nine-
teenth century into European country. Nettle
plants leaves are good sources of fiber and have
a long history. There was an Archaeological evi-
dence of used of fiber for string and cloth in
Neolithic times in Denmark and Britain. Nettle
fiber was used for making fishing drag net in post
medieval times and was used in production of
cloth from ancient times to until nineteenth cen-
tury as known as Scotch cloth in Britain. German
compulsorily used nettles to make fabric during
First World War facing scarcity of cotton fiber.
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India
In ancient England bark fiber of lime tree have
been used for manufacture cordages and halters.
Among the ancient fiber yielding plants hemp
and linen are used for manufacture of fabrics
and in ancient China 2800 BC years ago hemp
was cultivated. Sails were also made by hemp
and linen at that time. India has been produced
cotton from a period of thousand years, but in
1300s, it was discovered in Europe. Some of
plant fiber newly introduced, wherever reflects
their source and distribution e.g. Jute originated
in India and its Bengali meaning is ‘braid of
hair’. Ramie fiber name originated from Malay
and known as diverse name like grass linen,
China linen and grass cloth. Kapok name was
also introduced by Malay and remains silky
fiber, extracted from the East Indian tree which
is occasionally called silk cotton or Java cotton
(Natural fiber, Sen and Reddy 2011).
According to archaeological evidence weav-
ing and spinning can be used at least 5000 years
ago as known as human first discovered extrac-
tion and utilization of fiber. Linen sheets were
used for covering Egyptian mummies and known
to that hemp was cultivated in Neolithic lake
inhabitants of Switzerland. All fiber yielding
plants do not have the good properties of fiber
to make product because of too short, inflexible
nature etc. Most of the plant fibers are used for
making cordage, thread, rope etc. which are
extracted through retting process. Depending on
plant species retting process is varies and require
immersing the stalks in water until the weaker
tissues have disintegrated away. When the fibers
have been detached need to arrange by a comb
and methodically dried before further processed
and spun into yarn.
Subsequently the discovery of oil, artificial
fibers have gradually replaced natural fibers
across the last century. Due to biodegradable
and environmental friendly nature of natural
fiber demand has been increasing in recent
times. Fibers stand as an importance material
for production of healthy cloth, insulation
materials for building and construction and to
decrease energy consumption. Plants are not
only used as a source of food, fibers, fuel, cloths
and shelter during human civilization but also
79
used as a source of natural dyes for dying cloths,
design and painting etc. (Das and Mondal 2012).
Most of the flowering plants generate pigment
that used as dyes. Few of them produce attractive
pigment as used by human and it is source of
commercially suitable dyes. Based on different
kind of application of dyes have been chosen
from various sources like plants, insects,
microbes etc.
6.3 History of Natural Dye
Natural dyes are as early as textile because of
human always attractive to colours. Dyes were
adopted in Europe during the Bronze era and in
ancient China this is found written document in
2600 BC. During Indus Valley Civilization at
Mohenjodaro and Harappa in the period of 3500
BC discovered that dyes were used for coloured
garments of cloth and suggestions of madder dye
in the ruins and was earliest introduces Indus
Valley era in 2500 BC. Natural stuff was used
to dye hides, colouring the shells and paintings of
cave. The colour i.e. black, white, yellow and
reddish pigments extracted from ochre have
been used in cave painting by primitive man
(Siva 2007).
Mummies were covered in dyed cloth have
been establish in Egypt. Chemical analyses of
fabrics have revealed that madder produce aliza-
rin pigment used in vault of King Tutankhamen
in Egypt in red fabrics. Dating of Purple robes to
541 BC in the royal capital was discovered by the
Great Alexander when he occupied Susa, the
Persian capital in recent times (Gulrajani 1992).
Henna was used earlier than 2500 BC whereas
saffron is mentioned in the Bible (Gulrajani
2001). Woad was the source of blue dye first
used by prehistoric Britons and can have
originated in Palestine.
The most famous and highly prized colour
through the ages was Tyrian purple (noted in
the Bible); a dye obtained from the spiny
dyemurex shellfish. The Phoenicians prepared it
until the seventh century, when Arab conquerors
destroyed their dyeing installations in the Levant.
In the prehistoric times man used to crush berries
80
to colour mud for his cave paintings. Primitive
men used plant dyestuff for colouring animal
skin and to their own skin during religious
festivals as well as during wars. They believed
that the colour would give them magical powers,
protect them from evil spirits and help them to
achieve victory in war (Siva 2003).
Dyes might have been discovered acciden-
tally, but their use has become so much a part
of man’s customs that it is difficult to imagine a
modern world without dyes. The art of dyeing
spread widely as civilization advanced
(Krishnamurthy et al. 2002). Primitive dyeing
techniques included sticking plants to fabric or
rubbing crushed pigments into cloth. The
methods became more sophisticated with time
and techniques using natural dyes from crushed
fruits, berries and other plants, which were boiled
into the fabric and which gave light and water
fastness (resistance), were developed. Some of
the well-known ancient dyes include madder, a
red dye made from the roots of the Rubia
tinctorum L., blue indigo from the leaves of
Indigofera tinctoria L., and yellow from the stig-
mas of the saffron plant (Crocus sativus L.) and
from turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) (Siva 2007).
In India the biggest influence has been
achieved on European dying methods. Dying in
India stretches back to at least the Indus Valley
Civilization (~2500 B.C.). Marco Polo describes
the use of indigo as dye in thirteenth century
A.D. sixteenth century A.D. Portuguese intro-
duce Asian dyes to Europe and marks beginning
of large scale European experimentation with
dying methods. By late eighteenth century,
French chemists begin to organize and document
dying methods, to this day France and northern
Italy remains as centres of fashion in whole
world.
6.4 Types of Natural Dye
and Their Uses
Natural dyes are classified into three categories:
natural dyes extracted from plants, animals and
minerals. Although some fabrics like silk and
H. Das and D. Kalita
wool are coloured simply by being dipped in
the dye, others such as cotton require a mordant.
6.4.1 Mordant
Dyes generally do not interact directly with the
materials they are intended to colour. Natural
dyes are substantive and require a mordant to
fix to the fabric, and prevent the colour from
either fading with exposure to light or washing
out. The mordants bind the natural dyes to the
fabrics. A mordant is an element which helps the
chemical reaction that takes place between the
dye and the fiber, so that the dye is absorbed and
fixed. The containers which are used for dying
must be non-reactive (enamel, stainless steel).
Brass, copper or iron pots will do their own
mordanting. All dyes don’t need mordants to
adhere with fabric. When there is no requirement
of mordants, such as lichens and walnut hulls,
they are called substantive dyes. And if dyes
need a mordant, they are called adjective dyes.
Commonly use mordants are alum (usually used
with cream of tartar, which helps evenness and
brightens slightly); iron/copper (which saddens
or darken colours, bringing out green shades); tin
(usually used with cream of tartar, which blooms
or brightens colours, especially reds, oranges and
yellows), and blue vitriol (which saddens colours
and brings out greens shades). There are three
types of mordant: Metallic mordants: Metal salts
of aluminium, chromium, iron, copper and tin are
used. Tannins: Myrobalan and sumach are com-
monly used in the textile industry. Oil mordants:
These are mainly used in dyeing turkey red col-
our from madder. The main function of the oil
mordant is to form a complex with alum used as
the main mordant.
6.4.2 Natural Dyes Obtained from
Plants
Many natural dyestuff and stains were obtained
mainly from plants and dominated as sources of
natural dyes, producing different colours like red,
yellow, blue, black, brown and a combination of
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 81

these (Table 6.1). Almost all parts of the plants
like root, bark, leaf, fruit, wood, seed, flower, etc.
produce dyes. It is interesting to note that over
2000 pigments are synthesized by various parts
of plants, of which only about 150 have been
commercially exploited. Nearly 450 taxa are
known to yield dyes in India alone
(Chandramouli 1995), of which 50 are consid-
ered to be the most important; 10 of these are
from roots, 4 from barks, 5 from leaves, 7 from
flowers, 7 from fruits, 3 from seeds, 8 from wood
and 3 from gums and resins (Siva 2003).
6.5 Advantages and Limitations
of Natural Dyes
Natural dyes are less toxic, less polluting, less
health hazardous, non-carcinogenic and
non-poisonous. They are harmonizing colours,
gentle, soft and subtle, and create a restful effect.
Above all, they are environment friendly and can
be recycled after use. Although natural dyes have
several advantages, there are some limitations as
well. Long procedure of extraction of colouring
component from the raw material, low colour

Table 6.1 Sources of different coloured dyes and mordants (Vanker 2000)
Colour Botanical name Parts used Mordants
Red dye
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius L. Flower –
Caesalpinia Caesalpinia sappan L. Wood Alum
Madder Rubia tinctorium L. Wood Alum
Log wood Haematoxylon campechianum L. Wood –
Khat palak Rumex dentatus L. Wood Alum
Indian mulberry Morinda tinctoria L. Wood Alum
Kamala Mallotus philippinensis Muell. Flower Alum
Lac Coccus lacca Kerr. Insect Stannic chloride
Yellow dye
Golden rod Solidago grandis DC Flower Alum
Teak Tectona grandis L.f. Leaf Alum
Marigold Tagetes sp. Flower Chrome
Saffron Crocus sativus L. Flower Alum
Flame of the forest Butea monosperma (Lam) Taubert Flower Alum
Blue dye
Indigo Indigofera tinctoria L. Leaf Alum
Woad Isatis tinctoria L. Leaf –
Sunt berry Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Seed pod –
Pivet Ligustrum vulgare L. Fruit Alum and iron
Water lily Nymphaea alba L. Rhizome Iron and acid
Black dye
Alder Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. Bark Ferrous sulphate
Rofblamala Loranthus pentapetalus Roxb. Leaf Ferrous sulphate
Custard apple Anona reticulata L. Fruit –
Harda Terminalia chebula Retz. Fruit Ferrous sulphate
Orange dye
Annota Bixa orellena L. Seed Alum
Dhalia Dhalia sp. Flower Alum
Lily Convallaria majalis L. Leaf Ferrous sulphate
Nettles Urtica dioica L. Leaf Alum
82
value and cost of dyeing with natural dyes con-
siderably higher than with synthetic dyes. Some
of the natural dyes are fugitive and require a
mordant for enhancement of their fastness
properties. Some of the metallic mordants are
hazardous. Also, there are problems like diffi-
culty in the collection of plants, lack of
standardization, lack of availability of precise
technical knowledge of extracting and dyeing
technique and species availability. In order to
obtain 14 g of the dye about 1200 molluses are
needed (Siva 2007).
6.6 Characterization of Dyes
A dye can be defined as a highly coloured mate-
rial used to impart colour to a number of variety
of materials like textiles, paper, wood, varnishes,
leather, ink, fur, foodstuff, cosmetics, medicine,
toothpaste, etc. As far as the chemistry of dyes is
concerned, a dye molecule has two principal
chemical groups, viz. chromophores and
auxochromes. The chromophore, usually an aro-
matic ring, is associated with the colouring prop-
erty. It has unsaturated bonds such as –C¼C,
¼C¼O, –C–S, ¼C–NH, –CH¼N–, –N¼N– and
–N¼O, whose number decides the intensity of
the colour. The auxochrome helps the dye mole-
cule to combine with the substrate, thus
imparting colour to the latter (Krishnamurthy
1999).
6.7 Chemistry of Natural Dyes
Dyes are classified based on their chemical struc-
ture, sources, method of application, colour, etc.
(Table 6.1). As a model study we explain here the
chemistry as described by Vanker (2000). They
are classified into the following groups based on
chemical structure (Scheme 6.1) (Siva 2007).
Indigo dyes: This is considered to be the most
important dye obtained from the plant
Indigofera tinctoria (Fabaceae) produces a
blue dye.
H. Das and D. Kalita
Anthroquinone dyes: Some of the most important
red dyes are based on the anthroquinone struc-
ture. These are obtained from both plants and
insects. These dyes have good fastness to
light. They form complexes with metal salts
and the resultant metal–complex dyes have
good fastness.
Alpha-hydroxy naphthoquinones: The most
prominent member of this class of dye is
henna or lawsone [Lawsonia inermis
(Lythraceae)] produces orange to reddish-
brown dye.
Flavones: Most of the natural yellow colours are
hydroxyl and methoxy derivatives of flavones
and isoflavones.
Dihydropyrans: Closely related to flavones in
chemical structure are substituted
dihydropyrans.
Anthocyananidins: Carajurin obtained from Big-
nonia chica Bonpl.
Carotenoids: In these the colour is due to the
presence of long conjugated double bonds.
Typical examples for this group are annato
(Bixa orellana) produces yellowish-red dye
derived from seed pulp and saffron (Crocus
sativa) produces yellow dye derive from
stigmas
6.8 Natural Dye Activities
in Different Parts of World
Glover (1998) discussed whether there is a place
in today’s dye industry for natural dyes. It
describes the history of dyeing and then
describes the advantages and disadvantages of
natural dyes under the following headings:
limitations of natural dyes; cost efficiency of
natural dyes; shade range of natural dyes; process
complexity and reproducibility; availability of
natural dyes; effluent; synthetic fibers; and toxi-
cology. It concludes that there is a place for
natural dyes in today’s dye house provided that
the dyes meet the already established selection
criteria and satisfy the profile established for the
dyes already in use. The dyeing industry is and
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 83

O
O OH
O H
N

N
O O
H O
Anthroquinone
Indigo Alpha-hydroxynaphthoquinone

CH3

Beta-carotene OH
OH O
OH
O O
O
OH

O OCH3 Anthocyananidin OH O
Flavone Dihydropyrans

Scheme 6.1 Different groups of dyes with their chemical structure

will remain an equal opportunity customer. The
market place is open to dye from all sources. The
constraints are on the suppliers, manufacturers or
cultivators of the vegetable dyes.
Ali (1993), from Karachi University Pakistan
reported that increasing environmental aware-
ness has persuaded some of the major Asian
countries to reassess the feasibility of natural
colorants. As one of the most agriculturally rich
regions of the world, the emphasis has been on
finding new colour sources, which have the
potential to yield high-quality dyes. A detailed
programme of research and development into the
capabilities of natural dyes is of vital importance.
A case study of work carried out at Karachi
University, Pakistan, is quoted as an example.
D.J. Hill, Department for Continuing Educa-
tion, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1HH, UK
(1997) following a review of the natural dye
industry, the range of dyes available, their agri-
cultural production and use in textile dyeing are
discussed. The subjects covered include the dye-
ing process and techniques, safety aspects, the
pharmacological benefits of natural dyes, recent
developments in production and application,
quality control, marketing, future research and
development and a comparison of natural dyes
with synthetics. It is concluded that a greater
emphasis on using natural dyes could make a
valuable contribution to environmental
sustainability.
Bhattacharya et al. (1998) described bleached
jute fibers were dyed with natural dyes of different
color and shade. The dyes used were Acacia cate-
chu, Ornosmas echioides, Indigoferra tinctoria,
Artocarphs integrifolia, Adenanthera pavonina,
Rubia cardiofolia, Terminalia chebula, etc. The
dyeing procedure was standardized without using
any mordant except in the case of Rubia
cardiofolia, where aluminium sulphate was used,
and in the case of Artocarphs integrifolia where
the copper sulphate and potassium dischromate
were used in small amount, (<0.1 %). Studies
were also carried out to investigate the efficacy
of dyeing from used dyebaths. All the samples
showed good dye uptake. The fastness properties
viz., light, wash and perspiration (both acidic and
alkaline) were found to be good. Slight tonal
variations were observed where mordants
were used.
Luciana et al. (1997) found that common
madder (Rubia tinctorum L.) produces
84
anthraquinone pigments in its roots, one of them
being alizarin (1, 2 dihydroxy anthraquinone),
which has been used for dyeing textiles since
2000 B.C. Four madder genotypes were
evaluated for their agronomic characteristics as
well as for their industrial value in order to test
this species domestication potential for the Med-
iterranean area and to assess its value as a new
industrial dye crop. Pigments were separated
from methanolic and ethereal extracts and
quantified by HPLC. Good agronomic perfor-
mance was observed in the different accessions
of R. tinctorum, which were tested. Root yield
increased from young (5 months old) to mature
plants (30 months old) reaching a mean value of
120 g plant1, which corresponds to a yield of 8 t
ha1. Variation in yield capacity was observed
among the different accessions. Young roots
showed higher alizarin content than 15 and
30 month old plants. However, the total amount
of alizarin present in a plant increased from
181.8 mg plant1 to 917.8 mg plant1 in
5–30 month old plants. A range of variation in
alizarin content was established for genetic
differences within madder. Industrial assays
demonstrated good performance when using a
weight of dry powder, which is 30 % of the
weight of material to be dyed for dyeing cotton,
wool and silk yarns. Resistance to fading appears
to be fairly good for dyed wool.
An All-India coordinated research project on
prospecting for food grade natural dyes from
bioresources has been initiated, with six
participating institutions. Temperate ranges of
north west Himalayas and tropical areas of north-
ern portion of Western Ghats were surveyed for
collection of plant species having dye-yielding
properties. As many as 106 plant species belong-
ing to 88 genera distributed among 46 families
from north west Himalaya and 46 plant species
from northern Western Ghats were collected and
screened for colouring materials by chemical
spot tests, chromatographic and spectroscopic
methods. Using standard color index developed
by the Royal Horticulture Society of Kew
(London) as many as 46 colour shades were
H. Das and D. Kalita
observed. Different shades of yellow, orange
and green were the dominating colours. The
root was found to be the major source of yellow
and orange colours and green colour was mainly
obtained from leaves and stems. Colouring mat-
ter was reported for the first time from 92 plants
species. Twenty five Himalayan plant species
have been identified as potential sources for
colouring materials that are in high demand in
food processing. These include members of
Lamiaceae, Rubiaceae, Polygonaceae,
Ranunculaceae and Pinaceae. The colouring
matters isolated from Thalictrum javanicum,
Meriandra strobilifera and Rumex hastatus are
suspected to be new and novel ones. Thirteen
colour extracts with high tinctorial value
obtained from six selected plant species from
Kerala, were also evaluated using cotton, nylon,
silk, curd, cheese and butter as substrate. Some of
these have potential application in textile and
food processing industries. Thelepaepala
ixiocephala (Karva), a unique species of Western
Ghats that flower once in 7 years, was also exam-
ined for the colouring materal. A novel yellow
coloured compound was identified and purified.
A number of optical isomers have been isolated
from air-dried roots of Arnebia nobilis, and these
may also be of therapeutic value. Culture
protocols for large-scale production of
Dunaliella salina and D. bardawil have been
developed. Methods have been standardized for
isolation of stable and high quality β-carotene.
Information on distribution, habit and natural
colouring matter present in 600 dye-yielding
plant species from India has also been
documented.
A team of experts at the Department of Sci-
ence and Technology’s Philippine Textile
Research Institute successfully identified
26 new dye-yielding plants, holding a potentially
colorful niche in natural dyes export market. The
team sewed a list of the newly discovered sources
of natural colorants and the proper technique to
extract quality dyes following months of rigorous
identification process. The list includes Samanea
saman (Jacq.) Merr, Arcangelisia flava, Morinda
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India
brachata Roxb., Alnus spp., Basella lucida Linn,
Senna spectabilis (D.C) Irvin, Rhizopbora
mucronata, Rhizopbora apiculata, Psidium
guajava, Calophyllum inophyllum, Adonidia
merrilli (Becc.), Anacardium occidentale Linn,
Ricinus communis L., Delonix regia Bojer,
Gmelina arborea Roxb, Cassia fistula Linn,
Carthamus tinctorius L., Dillenia philippinensis,
Lansium domesticum Corr., Azadirachta indica
A. Juss., Sonneratia sp., Canarium luzonicum
Blume, Allium haematochiton, Tradescanthia
spathacea, Capsicum spp., and Spondias
perrpurea L.
These plant species are widely grown and
distributed in the Philippines and in other tropical
regions including Southeast Asia and South
America. These can be easily cultivated in areas
with high humidity, researcher team leader
Zenaida de Guzman said. Information about the
plants’ morphological features and textile
applications are now being compiled in Gampol
Vol. 2, which is expected to be sold in commer-
cial bookstores in January. Ayala Foundation Inc
will shoulder the printing of the book. Natural
dyes are high-priced coloring materials that give
distinct colour to food, cosmetics, and textile
materials such as yarn, paper, natural fibers, and
cloth. Dyes are commonly extracted from plant’s
roots, bark, and flowers.
In Bhutan, flower and fruit dyes are the most
important category of natural dyes. Most of the
dye species are raised from seeds by rural people,
and then sold. Their fruit can be used as
mordants. Particularly important are
Choenomeles lagenaria, Rhus similata,
Pyllanthus emblica, Cedrala toona, Michelia
champaka and Mallotus phillipenensis. The
dyes are normally used for colouring or dyeing
silk clothes. Mallotus phillipenensis, for exam-
ple, produces a red dye called “sinduri,” which is
commonly used in colouring cloth.
Boldizsar et al. (2004) carried out an
experiments to identify the anthraquinone
derivatives in the underground organs (root-
stock and root) of the madder root live plant
sortiment Rubia tinctorium L, furthermore to
isolate populations the anthraquinone
compostitions of which are optimal from
85
therapeutical point of view. They studied the
anthraquinone composition in root-stock and
root samples of plants originating from 11 differ-
ent habitats. The identification of the anthraqui-
none derivatives carried out after the hydrolysis
of these samples with HCl solution, by HPLC
method and by use of UV-VIS spectrophotomet-
ric and mass spectrometric detection. In the
samples they identified six anthraquinone-
aglicones. The main components were alizarin
(9.6–21.8 mg/g), purpurin (3.7–12.3 mg/g), and
lucidin (1.8–5.7 mg/g). The total anthraquinone-
derivative content varied between 15.6 and
39.4 mg/g.
Koshi and Miyakawa (1994) from Japan
reported that powdered florets from dyer’s saf-
fron (Carthamus tinctorius L.) were suspended in
a buffered solution containing KMnO4 or H2O2
and the mixtures oscillated with a supersound
sonicator for 10 min at 25  1  C. Carthamin
yield in the floral pastes was determined and the
data were compared with those of the floret
pastes with no supersonic oscillation treatment.
With short time sonication, carthamin yield could
be increased by about 8 % higher on average.
Bechtold et al. (2003) studied that plant
materials which are available from farming
regions in the moderate Austrian climate were
investigated to serve as sources for natural dyes
in textile dyeing operations. The extraction of the
dye components from the plant materials was
performed with boiling water without addition
of chemicals or solvents. Based upon a rigorous
selection of possible plant sources, a selection of
natural dyestuffs applicable in a one-bath dyeing
step was established. A broad variation in shade
and color depth can be achieved by applying
mixtures of natural dyestuffs in various
combinations of iron- and alum-mordants. More
than 60 % of tested dyeings achieved acceptable
fastness properties.
On the basis of the developed natural
dyestuff-based dyeing procedures, a comparison
was made between the effluents from processes
based upon them and those based upon the cur-
rent ‘state-of-the-art’ techniques utilizing syn-
thetic dyes. The comparison revealed that a
lowering of the chemical load released with
86
waste water can be expected by shifting to the
plant-based dyes.
6.9 Fiber and Dye Yielding Plants
in Different States of N.
E. India
The North Eastern region of India covering
nearly 262,379 km2 area has been divided into
two biogeographic zones – Eastern Himalaya
and North East India, based on floristic compo-
sition, the naturalness of the flora and the local
climate (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). The North-
east region of India comprising of the states of
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,
Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Nagaland and
Sikkim can be physiographically categorized
into the Eastern Himalayas, Northeast hills
(Patkai-Naga Hills and Lushai Hills) and the
Brahmaputra and Barak Valley plains. At the
confluence of the Indo-Malayan, Indo-Chinese
and Indian biogeographical realms, the NE
region is unique in providing a profusion of
habitats, which features diverse biota with a
high level of endemism. The region is also the
abode of approximately 225 tribes in India, out
of 450 in the country, the culture and customs of
which have an important role in understanding
biodiversity conservation and management
issues.
The north eastern region has been in focus for
its high biodiversity and this region has been a
priority for leading conservation agencies of the
world. While WWF has identified the entire
Eastern Himalayas as a priority Global
200 Ecoregion while Conservation International
has upscale the Eastern Himalaya Hotspot which
initially covered the states of Arunachal Pradesh,
Sikkim, Darjeeling Hills, Bhutan, and Southern
China to the Indo Burma Hotspot (Myers
et al. 2000) which now includes all the eight
states of North-East India, along with the
neighbouring countries of Bhutan, southern
China and Myanmar. The richness of the region’s
avifauna largely reflects the diversity of habitats
associated with a wide altitudinal range. North
East India supports some of the highest bird
H. Das and D. Kalita
diversities in the orient with about 850 bird spe-
cies. The Eastern Himalaya and the Assam plains
have been identified as an Endemic Bird Area by
the Royal Society for Protection of Birds, (Collar
1992). The global distribution of 24 Restricted-
range species is limited to the region. The
region’s lowland and montane moist to wet trop-
ical evergreen forests are considered to be the
northernmost limit of true tropical rainforests in
the world (Procter et al. 1998).
North eastern region has been identified by the
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
(NBPGR), India, as rich wild relatives of differ-
ent crop plants. It is the centre of origin of citrus
fruits. Jhum cultivation, a traditional system of
agriculture, is often cited as a reason for the loss
of forest cover of the region. This primary agri-
cultural activity practiced by local tribes reflects
the usage of 35 varieties of different crops. The
region is rich in medicinal and aromatic plants,
fiber and dye yielding plant and many other rare
and endangered species. The North Eastern states
have more than 60 % of their geographical area
under forest cover, a minimum suggested cover-
age for the hill states in the country (Chatterjee
et al. 2006).
The aim of the chapter is to investigate the
availability of fiber and natural dye-yielding
plant species in NE India and gather information
on traditional knowledge system associated with
extraction and use of natural dyes. Organic dye-
ing not only helps to preserve the traditional art
of weaving and design, but also provides
employment and economic and ecological
benefits.
6.9.1 Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh is the largest among the
northeastern states, located between 26.28 N
and 29.30 N latitude and 91.20 E and 97.30
E longitude and covering 83,743 km2 area. Most
of Arunachal Pradesh is covered by the
Himalayas. Arunachal Pradesh has 25 major
tribes and 125 sub-tribes broadly belonging to
the Indo-Mongoloid racial stock, with varied
composition of cultural diversity (Choudhury
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India
1996). The ethnic groups inhabiting different
areas of the state have indigenous knowledge
systems and have evolved methods for utilizing
the vast plant resources available (Sarmah
et al. 2000). Their knowledge in utilizing these
resources is characteristic and differs from tribe
to tribe.
Arunachal Pradesh, considered as a hotspot of
biodiversity, is home to a range of economically
important plant species. Some of these plant spe-
cies have found use in the preparation of natural
dyes, colorants with several applications in
textiles, inks, cosmetics, and other products,
from more than 500 dye yielding plant species
(Table 6.2).
6.9.2 Manipur
Manipur is one of the seven states of Northeast
India. The state is bound by Nagaland in the
north, Mizoram in the south, Assam in the west,
and by the borders of the country Burma in the
east as well as in the south. The state lies at a
latitude of 23 830 N–25 680 N and a longitude of
93 030 E–94 780 E. The total area covered by the
state is 22,347 km2. The natural vegetation
occupies an area of about 14,365 km2 which is
nearly 64 % of the total geographical area of the
state. The vegetation consists of a large variety of
plants ranging from short and tall grasses, reeds
and bamboos to trees of various species.
Different ethnic groups of valley and hilly
regions of Manipur state have practiced the art
of dying clothes and other items. The natural
dyes were obtained from plants and have been
used by weaver for importing different shades of
colour to different clothes, bamboo baskets,
flowerpots, fishing nets etc. Vegetable dyes
have been reported to be used by confectioners
and weavers (Ghosh 2003; Kumar and Rao
2003). Dying is done in the yarn stage in order
to get the desired colour. Documentation
(by Sharma et al. 2003) is available for 34 plant
species, belonging to 30 families, used in the
extraction of dyes by the Meitei community of
Manipur. The plant parts used in the extraction of
dyes along with the method of extraction and
87
their uses have also been documented. Another
19 plant species belonging to 14 families, used as
dye mordants, have also been reported. The peo-
ple of the state use these dyes for dyeing of their
world-famous handloom products.
Plants used by the people of Manipur for
dyeing (Potsangbam et al. 2008)
1. Acacia catechu Willd. (Mimosaceae)
Local name-Kabokhajee
Mode of preparation and uses: A fast reddish
black dye is obtained from the heartwood by
boiling in water for about 1 h. The dye is
used in the preparation of local ink and dye-
ing cotton fabrics.
2. Amoora spectabilis Miq. (Meliaceae);
Local name- U-ngang
Mode of preparation and uses: A pale scarlet
colour is obtained from the heartwood by
boiling with water and used for dyeing cot-
ton fabrics.
3. Basella alba Linn. (Basellaceae);
Local name- Urok sumbal
Mode of preparation and uses: A deep purple
dye is obtained from the ripe fruits. Different
colours obtained from the leaves, and stems
are used for dyeing fabrics and in painting.
4. Bauhinia purpurea Linn. (Caesalpiniaceae)
Local name- Chingthrao angangba
Mode of preparation and uses: A rose purple
dye is obtained from the fresh flowers. Fresh
petals are directly applied on the cloth or
surface to be dyed and are also used in
painting.
5. Berberis manipurana Ahr. (Berberidaceae)
Local name- U-napu
Mode of preparation and uses: A beautiful
yellow dye is obtained from the stem and
roots by boiling in water and mainly used
for dyeing mulberry silk fabrics.
6. Bixa orellana Linn. (Bixaceae)
Local name- Ureirom
Mode of preparation and uses: A pale red
dye obtained from the seeds soaked in cold
water, the dye is used for dyeing clothes or
yarn threads.
7. Carthamus tinctorius Linn. (Asteraceae)
Local name- Kusumlei
Table 6.2 Plant species used and having potential for natural dyes in Arunachal Pradesh (Mahanta and Tiwari 2005)
88

Parts Color
Species Local name Family Habitat Distribution and habitat used produced Regeneration
Aporusa diocia (Roxb.) Not known Euphorbiaceae Tree Changlang, Lohit and Subansiri districts below 800 m. Leaves Black Through
Muell s.l. in moist deciduous forests seeds
Baccaurea sapida Leteku (A) Euphorbiaceae Tree Endemic to northeast India. Wild, cultivated at lower Bark, Black Through
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg elevations leaves seeds
and fruits
Bischofia javanica Bl Urium (A) Euphorbiaceae Tree Common in eastern Arunachal Pradesh. Changlang Bark and Black Stem
and Lohit districts in tropical and mixed evergreen leaves cuttings and
forests seeds
Bixa orellana Linn Hatranga (A) Bixaceae Tree Throughout India. Between 300 and 500 m in tropical Seeds Annatto Seeds
zones. Lohit and Papumpare districts (yellow-
orange)
Cudrania Pulikaint (A) Moraceae Spinous Lohit district in lower elevation in tropical evergreen Leaves Orange, Seeds
cochinchinensis Shrub forests and seeds yellow
(Lour.) Kudo and
Masam
Clitoria mariana Linn Aparajita (A) Fabaceae Climber Changlang and Subansiri districts. Common in sub- Flowers Blue/violet Seeds
tropical forests. Wild and cultivated
Colquhounia coccinea Hom (K) Lamiaceae Shrub Wild. Changlang and Lohit districts Gregarious in Whole Black Stem cutting
Wall shady places in tropical and sub-tropical forests plant
200–800 m
Daphne papyracea Shugu-Sheng Thymelaeaceae Shrub Common in sub-troical and temperate forests above Bark and Dark red Stem
Wall (M) 1,000 m. Cultivated in West Kameng district fruit cuttings and
seeds
Desmodium Not known Fabaceae Shrub Kameng, Subansiri and Siang districts in sub-tropical Flower Purple Seeds
multiflorum DC temperate forests up to 2,000 m along the slopes
Engelhardtia spicata Corcorshing Juglandaceae Tree Confined to northeast India in sub-tropical forests. Bark Dark Seeds
Lesch. ex. Bl (M) Common in West Kameng district brown
Entada purseatha D.C Ghilla (A) Mimosaceae Climber Lohit, Siang and Subansiri districts in tropical Young Dark blue Seeds
evergreen, deciduous forests. Endangered species pods
Ficus altissima Bl Gadgubar (A) Moraceae Tree Common in lower elevations in northeast India in Stem and Yellow Stem
mixed bamboo forests, Kharsang area of Changlang roots cuttings
district
Ficus gasperriniana Ru-kha (T) Moraceae Shrub Changlang and Lohit districts. Undergrowth in wet Fruits Red (fruits) Stem
Miq swampy localities, often mixed with bamboo forests and roots Yellow cuttings and
seeds
H. Das and D. Kalita

(roots)
 6

Flemingia macrophylla Not known Fabaceae Shrub Changlang, Lohit, Siang Subansiri and Tirap districts Leaves Black Seeds
(Willd.) Prain between 200 and 1200 m in sunny places along and bark
primary and secondary forests
Garuga gamblei King Sibon asing Burseraceae Tree Changlang, Lohit, Siang Subansiri and Tirap districts. Bark Brownish Seeds, stem
(Adi) Pani- Common in Arunachal Pradesh in primary forests black and cuttings
amora (A) between 100 and 1000 m
Ilex embelioides HK.f Not known Aquifoliaceae Tree Changlang district above 500–800 m in tropical Bark Black Seeds
evergreen forests. Endemic to Arunachal Pradesh and
Meghalaya
Illicium griffithii Hook Lissi (M) Illiciaceae Shrub, West Kameng and Tawang districts between 1200 and Seed, Yellow Seeds
tree 1800 m in sub-tropical and temperate forests bark and (traditional
leaves dye)
Indigofera tinctoria Zia-shing (M) Fabaceae Shrubs Well distributed throughout Arunachal Pradesh. Wild Leaves Indigo Seeds
Linn and often cultivated and pods
Juglans regia Linn Kay (M) Juglandaceae Tree West Kameng district. Wild and cultivated in Eastern Unripe Black Seeds
Himalayas under temperate climate between 1500 and fruits
3000 m
Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India

Melastoma Ke-Seng (Adi) Melastomataceae Shrub Changlang district and throughout Arunachal Pradesh Fruits Purple Seeds
Malabathricum Linn Phutkala (A) in between 400 and 1500 m black
Michelia montana Pansopa (A) Magnoliaceae Tree Siang, Changlang and Subansiri districts between Bark and Yellow Seeds
Blume 300 and 1000 m in tropical forests flower
Miliusa roxburghiana Bong-kha (T) Annonaceae Shrub, Changlang and Kameng districts between 500 and Bark and Red Seeds
small 800 m in tropical dense forests ripe fruits
tree
Nerium indicum Miller Not known Apocynaceae Shrub Changlang district. Common in tropical and Roots Black Seeds and
sub-tropical forests between 600 and 1500 m and bark stem cuttings
Phaius tankervilliae Not known Orchidaceae Orchid Widely distributed in Arunachal Pradesh in humus Leaves Indigo Rhizomes
(Ait.) Bl laden forest floor in sub-tropical zone. Chongkham and
area of Lohit district flowers
Pinus wallichiana Tongschi, Pinaceae Tree Widely distributed in sub-tropical, temperate zones in Bark Black Cones
A. B. Jackson Lamshing (M) West Kameng and Tawang districts in between 2000
and 3500 m forming extensive pine forests
Polygonum hydropiper Chhum-gon Polygonaceae Herb Common, predominant in agricultural fields in tropical Whole Blue black Seeds
Linn (M) and sub-tropical regions up to 600 m plant
Punica granatum Linn Dalim (A) Punicaceae Shrub Common and cultivated in tropical and subtropical Flower Deep blue Seeds and
regions between 500 and 700 m. West Kameng district and fruits and black stem cuttings
(continued)
89
Table 6.2 (continued)
90

Parts Color
Species Local name Family Habitat Distribution and habitat used produced Regeneration
Pyrus pashia D. Don Semo (Apa) Rosaceae Tree Open forests and in village outskirts in Subansiri Fruits Black Seeds
Naspati (A) district between 1600 and 1800 m
Rubia cordifolia Linn Lining-Ru Rubiaceae Hispid West Kameng, Tawang and Lower Subansiri districts Whole Red Seeds and
(M) Tamen climber between 1500 and 3500 m in primary, secondary plant branch lets
(Adi) forests and along forest margins
Rubia sikkimensis Kurz Not known Rubiaceae Herb Changlang, Kameng, Lohit and Siang districts Whole Red Seeds and
between 500 and 1500 m on moist soil plant branch lets
Sapium baccatum Roxb Seleng (A) Euphorbiaceae Tree Namdapha National Park, Changlang district. Leaves Blackish Seeds
Confined to North East India in tropical evergreen green
forests below 1000 m
Solanum indicum Linn Bhekuri (A) Solanaceae Shrub Chongkham and Lohit districts wild and gregarious in Half ripe Black Seeds
shady wastelands fruits
Symplocos paniculata Parehangne Symplocaceae Shrub, Eastern Himalayas in primary and secondary forests Bark Yellow Seeds and
(Thumb.) Miq (N) tree stem cuttings
Syzygium cumini Linn Barjamuk (A) Myrtaceae Tree Changlang, Lohit and Tirap districts. Well distributed Bark and Black Seeds and
Jankeng-asing in tropical primary forests all over India fruits stem cuttings
(Adi)
Tephrosia candida Bilokhoni (A) Fabaceae Shrub Changlang, Subansiri and Tirap districts in tropical Leaves Dark blue Seeds and
(Roxb.) D.C evergreen forests between 300 and 1100 m stem cuttings
Terminalia chebula Hilikha (A) Combrataceae Tree Endemic to North East India at lower elevation in Root and Dark blue Seeds
(Gaertn.) Retz Likkkha deciduous and tropical evergreen forests bark
(Nocte)
Woodfordia fruticosa Chot-tingba Lythraceace Shrub Wild in Tenga Valley, West Kameng district at Flowers Reddish Seeds
Kurz (M) 300–1400 m in subtropical forests yellowish
H. Das and D. Kalita
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India
Mode of preparation and uses: A golden
yellow dye is extracted from the flowers
using different extraction techniques. The
flowers especially the petals are collected
and kept until they become decayed or
fermented. The decayed or fermented petals
are mixed with water and filtered and used
for dyeing of cotton and silk clothes, and also
in painting.
8. Celosia argentea Linn. (Amaranthaceae)
Local name-Haorei angangba
Mode of preparation and uses: A pink red is
obtained from the flowers and is used for
painting.
9. Clerodendrum odoratum D. Don
(Verbenaceae);
Local name- Kuthap
Mode of preparation and uses: A pale green
dye is obtained from the leaves. The fresh
leaves are crushed and boiled in water until
the dye is fairly concentrated. After cooling,
acidic dye mordants are added before use.
Then, the cloth or thread to be dyed is soaked
overnight.
10. Clitoria ternatea Linn. (Papilionaceae)
Local name- Aprajita
Mode of preparation and uses: A blue dye is
obtained from the dried flowers by extracting
with water and the dye is used for painting.
11. Curcuma domestica Valeton syn. C. longa
Linn. (Zingiberaceae)
Local name- Yaingang
Mode of preparation and uses: A yellow dye
is obtained from the rhizomes which are
crushed into pieces and allowed to soak in
water. By adding lime water or alkali, a red
dye could also be obtained.
12. Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (Euphorbiaceae)
Local name- Heikru
Mode of preparation and uses: A black dye is
obtained from the barks or fruits which are
soaked in water for 4–5 days or boiled. The
dye is used for dyeing fishing net.
13. Iris bakeri Wall. (Iridaceae)
Local name- Komberei
Mode of preparation and uses: A blue colour
is obtained from the flowers. The flowers are
91
also offered to God on Manipuri New
Year’s Day.
14. Melanorrhoea usitata Wall.
(Anacardiaceae);
Local name- Khe-U
Mode of preparation and uses: An oily black-
ish dye is obtained from the woods and roots.
The tree is used for furniture as it gives
natural colour.
15. Melastoma malabathricum Linn.
(Melastomataceae);
Local name- Yachubi
Mode of preparation and uses: The dark
blackish red fruits of the plant were basically
used for staining teeth in olden days by the
Meitei and the Maring tribes of Manipur. It
strengthened the teeth and protect from gum
diseases and cavities. However, the method
that can be successfully employed for the
extraction of dye from the fruit in a similar
way as that employed for other dye plants is
documented, where the ripe fruit is boiled in
water and filtered.
16. Pasania pachyphylla (Kurz.) Schottky
(Fagaceae)
Local name- Kuhi
Mode of preparation and uses: The Bark has
been used as a source of reddish-brown to
brown dye. Though its main use is as fire-
wood, the brown dyes from its bark extract
have been used in potteries and in
fishing nets.
17. Solanum incidum Linn. (Solanaceae)
Local name- Khamu
Mode of preparation and uses: Purple dye
was prepared from the plant was used for
making the artistic design of Khamenchappa
(a specific cloth which was reserved for the
use of kings and noblemen). The ripen fruits
of Khamu are made into pieces or powdered
to which water is added (about 1 L of water
into half kilogram of the sample). The solu-
tion is stirred with the help of a wooden
spoon or stick. The solution is kept for
about 6 h and is then filtered using a coarse
cloth. The filtrate could be used as such or it
is concentrated. To make the dye fast in
92
colour, a mordant usually an alkaline mor-
dant derived from the plant, Achyranthus
aspera (Khuchumpere) could be added. The
alkaline mordant is obtained as ash by burn-
ing the plant. The ash solution of the mor-
dant and the solution of Khamu are mixed in
equal amounts and the mixture is boiled till
the desired colour is obtained. Khamu-dye is
usually used for dyeing turban, dhoti and
chadar which are used by noblemen. It is
also used as dance costume of Lai-Haraoba
(festival of worshipping Gods), martial arts
and sports like wrestling (Mukna), Polo
(Sagol Kangjei), and hunting games
(Bahadur 1997).
18. Strobilanthes flaccidifolius Nees. syn.
S. cusia (Nees) Imlay (Acanthaceae)
Local name-Kum
Mode of preparation and uses: Mature leaves
are collected and soaked in a pitcher (Andro
chaphu) containing water and covered with
clothes. The pitcher is then kept at the corner
of the open room where proper air and light
(not direct sun light) are available, kept
undisturbed until the leaves get completely
decayed. The pitcher is uncovered and
stirred with a multi-pronged stick known as
“Yakabi or Kumsu-chei”. Solid things are
removed while stirring. Then Kum-sunu
(ashes taken from burning Oysters) is added
and stirred continuously. At this stage,
bubbles are formed, which are removed
with soft things like feather, etc. Now the
kum liquid is ready for dyeing clothes or
threads and mainly used to dye black colour
(Akimpou et al. 2005).
19. Tectona grandis Linn.f. (Verbenaceae)
Local name: Chingsu
Mode of preparation and uses: Leaves or barks
are cut into pieces and soaked for about
2–3 days in water. Clothes or yarn threads
which are dipped into this dye gives somewhat
reddish colour (Akimpou et al. 2005).
H. Das and D. Kalita
20. Averrhoea carambela Linn. (Oxalidaceae)
Local name: Heinoujom
Mode of preparation and uses: Mature fruits
are taken and its juice is squeezed into the
water containing tub. It is used as a good
adhesive to the Ureirom (Bixa orellana) dye
(Akimpou et al. 2005).
6.9.3 Assam
Assam is one of the biodiversity hotspots that
occupies a special place in Northeastern India is
located between 24 440 N to 27 450 N latitude and
89 410 E to 96 020 E longitude covering 2.4 %
(i.e. 78,438 km2) of the geographical area. The
fiber yielding plant (Table 6.3) is used in the
manufacture of strong ropes, twines and cordage,
cheap and rough textiles such as blankets,
carpets, hessian-like cloth, galicha, mats,
mattresses and, manufacture of fine textiles, the
fiber is also used in the manufacture of straw
boards, writing paper parchment paper, cigarette
paper, toys etc. (Dr. Balakrishna Gowda). Indig-
enous handloom textile is intrinsically associated
with social and cultural life of ethnic groups of
Assam. Every community of the state has their
own dresses dyed with indigenous herbal dyes
(Table 6.4). Although, use of herbal dye is no
longer commonly practiced but preparation of
dye from locally available plants to dye their
silk, cotton and woollen yarns and garments
was the only option in the absence of chemical
dyes a few decades back. However, in many
remote areas, vegetable dyes are still in use in
many parts of Assam (Kar and Borthakur 2008).
6.9.4 Mizoram
In north-east India particularly in the state of
Mizoram, there is conspicuous lack of statistics
on the non-timber forest products even though
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 93

Table 6.3 Some of fiber yielding plants of Assam

Vernacular
Plant/family name Uses
Gossypium Kapah Fiber is used in textile industry
sp. (Malvaceae)
Boehmeria nivea Rhea Fiber is used for products requiring exceptional strength and is used to make
(Urticaceae) such products as industrial sewing thread, packing materials, fishing nets
etc.
Agave sisalana Perr. Sisal Fibers used for floor mats, rope, tea bags etc.
(Amaryllidaceae)
Hibiscus sabdariffa Chukiar Fiber is employed for sacking, cordage, rope, fishing nets and generally for
(Malvaceae) all purposes for which jute is used. Bags made of this fiber are extensively
employed in Java for packing sugar. The stalks left over after extractions are
used as a fuel
Bauhinia vahlii Nak kati Fiber is obtained from stem bark. Fiber is used for making ropes, threads etc.
(Caesalpiniaceae) lewa Leaves used as a fodder for cattle and making leaf plates. Seeds edible and
bark used for dyeing and tanning (Sahu et al. 2013)
Cocos nucifera Naricool Only fruit from which fiber is extracted; used in ropes, doormats mattresses,
(Arecaceae) twins etc.
Musa sp. (Musaceae) Kol Fibers extracted from pseudo stem, used for clothing, cigarette filters,
teabags, rope etc.
Corchorus Pata Fiber extracted from stems, fiber used for burlap, rope, carpet backing etc.
sp. (Malvaceae)
Ananas comosus Matikothal Fibers extracted from leaf and used mainly textile, mats etc.
(Bromeliaceae)

these form an important area of research owing
to the fact that the state is located in one of the
12 Mega biodiversity Hotspots of the world
(Myers et al. 2000) with high degree of ende-
mism but under severe anthropogenic threats.
were also known as Comilla cotton. The variety
D. 46-2-1 belonging to the Gossypium arboreum
has a good market as short staple cotton, which is
also used sometimes for mixing with wool.

6.9.5 Meghalaya
The state of Meghalaya is mountainous, with
stretches of valley and highland plateaus, and it
is geologically rich. Cotton (Gossypium
hirsutum, G. barbadense, G. arboreum and
G. harbaceum), Jute (Corchorus capsularis and
C.olitorious) and Mesta (Hisbiscus Sabdariffa
and Hibiscus Cannabinus) are the important
fiber crops grown in the State. These crops have
been the traditional cash crops of Garo Hills.
Among these, Cotton has the highest area under
cultivation and is grown exclusively in the Garo
Hills districts. It is also widely known in the
country and was marketed during the
pre-independence period through the Comilla
market. As such, the Garo hills varieties of cotton
6.9.6 Nagaland
In Northeast India, the areas occupied by the
Nagaland considered as one of the most biodi-
verse in this biodiversity hotspot region. Follow-
ing species are used as dye by the ethnic group of
Nagaland. This includes three species of
Acanthaceae family i.e. Acanthus leucostachys
Wall., Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Imlay,
Strobilanthes decurrens T. Anders, two species
of Ericaceae, Fagaceae, Papilionaceae and
verbenaceae family, one species of Apo-
cynaceae, Asteraceae, Averrhoeaceae, Bixaceae,
Buddlejaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Clusiaceae,
Combretaceae, Cuscutaceae, Ebenaceae, Jug-
landaceae, Loganiaceae, Magnoliaceae, Melia-
ceae, Mimosaceae, Moraceae, Myrsinaceae,
Myrtaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Polygonaceae,
94 H. Das and D. Kalita

Table 6.4 Some of dye yielding plant of Assam (Kar and Borthakur 2008)
Parts yielding dye and
Plant name (family) Local name method of preparation Colour
Acacia catechu Willd. (Mimosaceae) Khoyar Dry stem bark mixed with Blackish
(Assamese) slakes lime boiled in water brown
Adina cordifolia Kelikadam Chips of heart wood boiled Yellow
Benth. and Hook.f. (Rubiaceae) (Assamese) in water
Aegle marmelos Correa ex Roxb. (Rutaceae) Bel Crushed fruit shell boiled in Yellow
(Assamese) water
Albizia odoratissima Benth. (Mimosaceae) Jatikoroi Fresh stem bark boiled in Brick red
(Assamese) water
Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. (Moraceae) Ingtat arong Chips heart wood boiled in Yellow
(Karbi) water
Baphicacanthus cusia (Nees) Brem. (Acanthaceae) Sibu (Karbi) Dry leaves and stem powder Dark
mixed with hot water indigo
Basella alba L. (Basellaceae) Rongapuroi Fresh ripe fruit mixed with Maroon
(Assamese) alum
Bauhinia purpurea L. (Caesalpiniaceae) Kurial (Deori) Stem bark boiled with slake Yellow
lime
Berberis aristata DC. (Berberidaceae) Kath halodi Stem boiled in water Yellow
(Assamese)
Bixa orellana L. (Bixaceae) Jorot Dry seed powder mixed with Orange
(Assamese) slake lime
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze (Papilionaceae) Polash Dry flower powder mixed Yellow
(Assamese) with slake lime
Caesalpinia sappan L. (Caesalpiniaceae) Bakam Stem bark and heart wood Red
(Assamese) decoction in water with iron black
Croton joufra Roxb. (Euphorbiaceae) Gosmahudi Fresh leaf paste Blue
(Mishing)
Curcuma domestica Valeton (Zingiberaceae) Haludi Rhizome boiled in water Yellow
(Assamese) with slakes lime
Delonix regia Raf. (Caesalpiniaceae) Radha sura Gum mixed with alum Yellow
(Assamese)
Eclipta prostrate Linn. (Asteraceae) Keheraj Fresh plant paste Black
(Assamese)
Emblica officinalis Geartn. (Euphorbiaceae) Rong goch Leaf paste mixed with alum Black
(Assamese)
Emblica officinalis (Euphorbiaceae) Amla Dry fruits of both the plants Black
(Assamese) boiled in water
Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae) Silikha
(Assamese)
Ervatamia divaricata (Linn.) Alston (Apocynaceae) Togor Fruit pulp around the seeds Yellow
(Assamese) boiled in water
Garcinia morella Desr. (Clusiaceae) Kuji thkera Gum from ripe fruit mixed Yellow
(Assamese) with alum
Garcinia xanthochymus Hk. f. (Clusiaceae) Teportenga Stem bark and fruit gum Yellow
(Assamese) grinded and boiled in water
Gossypium herbaceum L. (Malvaceae) Kopah Fresh flowers paste Yellow
(Assamese)
Impatiens balsamina L. (Balsaminaceae) Ushahul Stem and leaves crushed into Orange
(Bodo) paste. Flower paste used Red
Indigofera tinctoria L. (Papilionaceae) Sibu (Karbi) Leaves and twigs paste Blue
mixed with slake lime
Lawsonia inermis L. (Lythraceae) Jetuka Leaves crushed with leaves Bluish-
(Assamese) of Indigofera tinctoria for black
paste
(continued)
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 95

Table 6.4 (continued)

Parts yielding dye and
Plant name (family) Local name method of preparation Colour
Mallotus philippensis Gongai Ripe fruits crushed and Orange
(Lamk. Muell.- Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) (Deori) boiled in water
Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) Psidium guajava Aam Madhuri Dried stem bark of all the Black
L. (Myrtaceae) Terminalia chebula Retz. four plants powdered and
(Combretaceae) boiled
Syzygium cuminii (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae) Hilikha Jamun
(Assamese)
Mirabilis jalapa L (Nyctaginaceae) Godhuli gopal Flower paste boiled in water Red
(Assamese)
Morinda angustifolia Roxb. (Rubiaceae) Achu Stem chips treated with Red,
(Assamese) lime. Root and slake lime yellow
boiled in water
Mussaenda frondosa L. (Rubiaceae) Chubaiata Leaves boiled in water Yellow
(Assamese)
Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. (Myricaceae) Noga tenga Stem bark boiled with slake Yellow
(Assamese) lime
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Nyctanthaceae) Sewali Fresh flower paste boiled in Orange
(Assamese) water to which alum is
added
Piper betle L. (Piperaceae) Pan Leaves and root paste mixed Blue
(Assamese) with slake lime
Poinsettia pulcherrima Graham (Euphorbiaceae) Rongapotia Flower boiled in water with Red
gos alum
(Assamese)
Pterospermum lanceaefolium Roxb. (Sterculiaceae) Bonbogori Stem bark, leaves, gum Orange
(Assamese) grinded and boiled in water
Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. (Apocynaceae) Arsontita Fruit juice mixed with alum Black
(Bodo)
Rubia cordifolia L. (Rubiaceae) Majathi Root crushed by adding Red
(Assamese) water
Sarcochlamys pulcherrima Gaud. (Urticaceae) Mesaki Jati Leaves and stem bark boiled Dark
koroi in water brown
(Assamese)
Symplocos cochnichinensis Moore (Symplocaceae) Noga Leaves and stem bark boiled Yellow
bhomloti in water
(Assamese)
Symplocos oxyphylla Wall. (Symplocaceae) Tam tingali Stem bark boiled in water Yellow
(Assamese)
Syzygium cuminii (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae) Jamun Stem bark boiled in water Black
(Assamese) and slake lime
Tectona grandis L.f. (Verbenaceae) Sagoon Stem bark boiled in water to Yellow
(Assamese) produce dye
Terminalia catappa L. (Combretaceae) Silikha Fruit with alum boiled in Black
(Assamese) water
Trema orientalis Blume. (Ulmaceae) Machmai Stem bark boiled in water Brown
(Assamese)
Trifolium pratense L. (Papilioinaceae) Rongalong Flowers boiled with alum Yellow
(Assamese)
Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz (Lythraceae) Dhaiphool Flowers paste in little water Reddish
(Assamese) yellow
96 H. Das and D. Kalita

Table 6.5 Some of fiber yielding plant of Sikkim

Plant
part
Plant Family Vernacular name used Uses
Eulaliopsis binata Poaceae Sabai grass Leaf Broom, ropes, threads and matting
Grewia optiva Tiliaceae Bhimal Stem Used as orange cordage and in manufacturing
bark paper
Laportea Urticaceae Morungay; Stem Making ropes
crenulata Ongyalop bark
Pandanus Pandanaceae Keura, Ketki, Leaf Basket, decorative box, mat, sandal, eyeglass
odoratissimus Ketaki case, etc.
Pueraria tuberosa Fabaceae Bidarikand, Stem Rope-making
Saral, Siralu bark
Saccharum Poaceae Bagdya, Munj, Leaf Making Pullas (traditional carpet), thatching
spontaneum Kansh, Kasa roofs and religious purposes
Sterculia villosa Sterculiaceae Odal, Stem Making ropes
Kanhlyemkung bark
Wikstroemia Thymelaeaceae Dhawe, Stem Strong cordage material; manufacturing of
canescens Meissn Chamliya bark rice paper
Agave sisalana Agavaceae Sotabdi goch, Leaf Rope, cap, bag, carpet, etc.
Sisal
Bauhinia vahlii Caesalpiniaceae Kariyala, Malu, Stem For making ropes, threads, etc.
Maljan bark
Betula utilis Betulaceae Bhojpatra, Birch Stem Stem bark used as paper for writing
bark

Punicaceae, Rubiaceae, Solanaceae, Theaceae, 6.9.8 Tripura

Zingiberaceae (Neli et al. 2014).
6.9.7 Sikkim
Sikkim is a small multi-ethnic State, located on
the Eastern Himalaya covering a geographical
area of 7096 km2. The temperate eco-region
extends from 3000 to 4000 m with mixed conif-
erous forests of Hemlock, spruce, pine, fir and
junipers with shrubby undergrowth of Rhododen-
dron and Arundinaria. Wild edible cum dye plant
Seabuckthorn (Hippophae sp.) and fiber yielding
plants (Table 6.5) are also found.
Dye yielding plants are also available in
Sikkim which is used by different tribes. Some
of dyed yielding presented in Table 6.6.
Tripura, a small state (10,169 km2) located in the
North East, is surrounded in the three sides by the
international border with Bangladesh. This small
hilly land locked state shares the fate of hilly
terrain, difficult topography, and remote inacces-
sible places like the other seven sisters of North
East India. But similarly the State also shares a
very rich biodiversity and is a treasure of natural
resources especially, plant species. Although, the
state occupies 0.32 % area of India but accounts
for 12.78 % of the plant resources species found in
the country. Scientific studies have revealed that it
possesses 1545 plant species. The State also has
24 species of orchids and 266 species of medicinal
plants. Scientific study has also shown that the
Maximum Plant Diversity Index lies at 5.23; one
of the highest in India (Bhattacharjee 2012).
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 97

Table 6.6 Some plant based dyes used in Sikkim Himalaya (Sundriya et al. 1998)
Plant species Local name Family
Abies webbiana Gobray salla Pinaceae
Ailanthus grandis Gokool Simarubaceae
Alnus nepalensis Utish Betulaceae
Bauhinia purpurea Tanki Caesalpiniaceae
Betula utilis Bhojpatra Betulaceae
Castanopsis hystrix Jat katus Fagaceae
C. indica Dhalne katus Fagaceae
C. tribuloides Masure katus Fagaceae
Celtis tetrandra Khari Ulmaceae
Duabanga drandiflora Lampate Sonneratiaceae
Engelhardtia spicata Mahuwa Juglandaceae
Ficus cunia Khaniu Moraceae
F. hirta Khasrey Moraceae
F. hookerii Nebara Moraceae
F. nemoralis Dudhilo Moraceae
F. roxburghii Nebara Moraceae
Juglans regia Okhar Juglandaceae
Litsaea polyantha Kutmero Lauraceae
Macranga pustulata Malata Euphorbiaceae
Magnolia campbellii Ghogechanp Magnoliaceae
Michelia excels Ranichanp Magnoliaceae
M. lanuginose Phusrechanp Magnoliaceae
Quercus lamellose Book Fagaceae
Q. fenestrate Arkhaulo Fagaceae
Q. spicata Arkhaulo Fagaceae
Rhododendron grande Patleykurlingo Ericaceae
R. campanulatum Kurlingo Ericaceae
Saurauia napaulensis Gugun Sarauiaceae
Schima wallichii Chilaune Theaceae
Shorea robusta Sal Dipterocarpaceae
Symingtonia populnea Pipli Hamamelidaceae
Symplocos theifolia Kharane Theaceae
Terminalia myriocarpa Panisaj Combretaceae
T. tomentosa Pakhasaj Combretaceae
Toona ciliate Tuni Meliaceae

considered for sustainability, conservation and

6.10 Conclusions
In the modern phases of development, dyes have
become the most important resources, owing to
their diverse utilization. Natural fibers replace
synthetic fiber due its comfort, availability, bio-
degradable, environmental friendly in nature.
Indigenous traditional knowledge on various
resources including dye and fiber yielding plants
is very essential for rural based development and
provided proper precautionary measures are
value based selection of use pattern. As a whole
systematic approaches with scientific attitude
would help the conservation of economically
important plant as well as indigenous knowledge
base available in North East India.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the
Director, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Tech-
nology, Jorhat for his kind permission to publish this book
chapter. HD thankfully acknowledge UGC for RGNF to
carry out the research work at CSIR-NEIST, Jorhat.
98 H. Das and D. Kalita

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