06-09-2019

COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
FLOW
MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION

Reference Books
• S. M. Yahya, Fundamentals of Compressible Flow with Aircraft
and Rocket Propulsion, New Age International Publishers.

• P. Balachandran, Fundamentals of Compressible Fluid

Dynamics, PHI Pvt. Ltd.

• M. J. Zucrow & J. D. Hoffman, Gas Dynamics (Volume I),

Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.

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SCIENCE THAT IS CONCERNED WITH

THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS ARISING FROM THE

MOTION OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS,

PARTICULARLY GASES.

REVIEW
• Fluid

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REVIEW
• Fluid
• Substance which is capable of flowing.

• Substance that continuously deforms when shearing forces

are applied.

• Liquids, gases, vapours and their mixtures are all fluids.

• Types:
– Ideal fluids : Non Viscous or Inviscid

– Real fluid : Viscous

REVIEW
• System, Surroundings and Boundary

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REVIEW
• System, Surroundings and Boundary
• System: Arbitrary collection of matter which has a fixed
identity.
– Two Types:

» Closed system: No outflow or inflow of fluid to the system

» Open system: Continuous flow of fluid

• Things outside the system is known as Surroundings.

• An imaginary surface which separates the system from its

surroundings is called Boundary

REVIEW
• State

• Property

• Process

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REVIEW
• State
• Condition of a system defined by its properties.

• Property
• Observable characteristics of a system

• Types
– Intensive: Independent of mass or size of the system
– Extensive: Dependent on mass and size of the system
• Process
• Series of changes in the state of a system.

REVIEW
• Fundamental laws
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• First Law of Thermodynamics

• Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Third Law of Thermodynamics

• Law of Conservation of Mass

• Newton’s Second law of Motion

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REVIEW
• Fundamental Laws: Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
they must also be in thermal equilibrium with each other.

REVIEW
• Fundamental laws
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• First Law of Thermodynamics

• Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Third Law of Thermodynamics

• Law of Conservation of Mass

• Newton’s Second law of Motion

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REVIEW
• Fundamental Laws: First Law of Thermodynamics
• When a system executes a cyclic process, the algebraic sum
of the work transfers is equal to the algebraic sum of the
heat transfers.

• Energy equation:

– Heat transferred = Work done + Change in Energy

 dQ   dW  0
Q  W  ( E2  E1 )

REVIEW
• Internal energy

• Enthalpy

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REVIEW
• Internal energy

– Energy stored in a gas by virtue of its molecular motion

u  cvT
• Enthalpy

– Total heat content of the system

h  c pT

REVIEW
• Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (cp):
– Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
gas by one degree at constant pressure.

 h   q 
cp     
 T  p  T  p

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REVIEW
• Specific heat capacity at constant volume (cv):
– Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
gas by one degree at constant volume.

 u   q 
cv     
 T v  T v

REVIEW
• Ratio of specific heats
c 
γ p 
 cv 
R  c p  cv where R = gas constant

γ 1
cp  R cv  R
γ 1 γ 1

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REVIEW
• Ideal gas equations

REVIEW
• Ideal gas equations
– Ideal gas : Gas that obeys Boyle’s and Charles’ law

– Boyle’s law  pV T  cons tant

– Charles’ law V 
   cons tant
 T p
 p
   cons tant
 T V

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REVIEW
• Equation of State

REVIEW
• Equation of State
pV  mRT
pV  nRT

where R = universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ/k mol K

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REVIEW
• Fundamental laws
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• First Law of Thermodynamics

• Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Third Law of Thermodynamics

• Law of Conservation of Mass

• Newton’s Second law of Motion

REVIEW
• Fundamental Laws: Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Kelvin Planck Statement
– It is impossible to construct an engine which while operating
in a cycle produces no other effect except to extract heat from
a single reservoir and do equivalent amount of work.

• Clausius statement
– It is impossible for the heat energy to flow spontaneously from
a body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature.

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REVIEW
• Reversible process:
– A process is reversible if the system and its surroundings can be
restored to their initial states by reversing the process.

• Irreversible process:
– A process that cannot restore the system and its surroundings to their
initial states by reversing the process

• Adiabatic process:
– A process in which there is no heat transfer between the system and
the surroundings

REVIEW
• Corollaries
2
dQR
– Definition of Entropy S 2  S1  
1
T
dQ
– Clausius Inequality  0
T
2
dQ dQ
For reversible process:   0 For Irreversible process: S 2  S1   R
T 1
T

Reversible adiabatic process: S 2  S1  0 Irreversible adiabatic process: S 2  S1  0

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REVIEW
• Fundamental laws
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• First Law of Thermodynamics

• Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Third Law of Thermodynamics

• Law of Conservation of Mass

• Newton’s Second law of Motion

REVIEW
• Fundamental Laws: Third Law of Thermodynamics
• Entropy of a pure substance in complete thermodynamic
equilibrium becomes zero at the absolute zero of
temperature.

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REVIEW
• Isentropic process

– Process in which there is no change in entropy

– Such a process has no heat exchange with surroundings

pν γ  cons tant
 γ 1
γ
T1  p1 
 
T2  p2 
1
γ
ν1 ρ2  p2 
  
ν2 ρ1  p1 

REVIEW
• Fundamental Laws: Law of Conservation of Mass
• Mass may neither be created nor be destroyed

• (Mass)system = Constant
d( mass )
0
dt

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REVIEW
• Fundamental Laws: Newton’s Second law of motion
• Algebraic sum of all forces exerted at a certain instant on a
body is equal to the rate of change in the momentum of the
body at that instant.
d
F x   mcx 
dt

SCIENCE THAT IS CONCERNED WITH

THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS ARISING FROM THE

MOTION OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS,

PARTICULARLY GASES.

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Compressible and Incompressible

flow
• Compressible flow

Compressible and Incompressible

flow
• Compressible flow
• Flows in which relative changes in density cannot be
neglected.

• Fluid velocities in such flows are appreciable compared to

local velocity of sound

• Mach number > 0.3

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Compressible and Incompressible

flow
• Incompressible flow

Compressible and Incompressible

flow
• Incompressible flow
• Flows in which relative changes in density are negligibly
small.

• Fluid velocities in such flows are too small compared to

local velocity of sound.

• Mach number < 0.3

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Bulk modulus of Elasticity (K)

• Bulk modulus of Elasticity

Increase in pressure 1
K v
relative change in volume ρ
vΔp dp dρ
 lim   v dv  
Δp 0 Δv dv ρ2

dp dp
 K  v ρ
dv dρ

dp dp
Value of or for gases and vapours depends on process.
dv dρ

Bulk modulus of Elasticity (K)

• Isothermal Bulk modulus (KT) (for ideal gas)
 dp p
• Isothermal process  pv = constant  
dv v

 KT  p

• Adiabatic Bulk modulus (Ks)

γ dp γp
• Adiabatic process  pv  cons tant  
dv v
 K S  γp

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Coefficient of Compressibility (β)

• Coefficient of compressibility
relative change in volume
β
Increase in pressure
Δv 1 dv 1 dρ
 lim   
Δp 0 vΔp v dp ρ dp

Relation between β and K

KT  p K S  γp

1
K
β

1 1 1 1
βT   βS  
KT p K S γp

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COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
FLOW
MODULE 1
CONTINUITY EQUATION

Reference Books
• S. M. Yahya, Fundamentals of Compressible Flow with Aircraft
and Rocket Propulsion, New Age International Publishers.

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GAS DYNAMICS

Science that is concerned with the causes and effects

arising from the motion of compressible fluids,

particularly gases.

Concept of Continuum
• For studying the processes involving fluid, two different
approaches can be followed:

• Microscopic approach or Molecular approach

• Macroscopic approach or Continuum approach

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Concept of Continuum
• Microscopic approach
• Also known as Molecular approach

• Processes involving fluid are described from the molecular stand point

• The fluid is considered as a collection of discrete particles (atoms or

molecules) which are in random motion and undergo elastic collisions

• The final description of the flow can be arrived by averaging the

microscopic solutions for each particle

Concept of Continuum
• Macroscopic approach
• Also known as Continuum approach

• The detailed molecular structure as in molecular approach is replaced

by an infinitely divisible substance called continuum.

• It is assumed that every differential element of a body contains a large

number of molecules

• The average statistical properties of the molecules contained in an

elementary volume represent the macroscopic properties of the fluid at
a point in the region of that elementary volume.

• All fluid properties are continuous functions of position and time.

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Concept of Continuum
• Macroscopic approach : Concept of Knudsen number
• Continuum approach is valid as long as the characteristic dimension
pertinent to the flow field (L) is large as compared to the mean free
path (lm) (average molecular distance between the molecules).

• Knudsen number, Kn = lm / L

• If Kn < 0.01  Continuum approach is valid

• If Kn > 3  free molecular flow

• Regime between continuum and free molecular flow  Transition flow

regime

System and Control Volume

• In classical thermodynamics, the analysis of a problem is carried out
by concentrating the study to a quantity of matter enclosed by a fixed
or moving surface.

• This approach is called system approach.

• No mass transfer across the boundary

• The system can interact with its surroundings through heat and work

• Also called closed system of fixed mass

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System and Control Volume

• In the study of fluid flow, since the changes undergone by the fluid in
the region of space is more important, the system considered for the
analysis will be an open system.

• This is called control volume.

• Since there is continuous flow of fluid through the control volume, the
identity of the fluid occupying the control volume changes from time
to time.

• The imaginary surface which bounds the control volume is called a

control surface.

• Matter as well as energy can cross the control surface.

Continuity equation for Control

Volume
• Continuity equation for steady or unsteady problems is derived on the
basis of conservation of mass.

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Applying law of conservation of mass to the above system:

 m1 t   m3 t   m1 t dt    m2 t dt  (1)

Rearranging the terms:

 m1 t dt    m1 t   m3 t   m2 t dt  (2)

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 m1 t dt    m1 t   m3 t   m2 t dt  (2)

Divide (2) with dt:

 m1 t dt    m1 t  m3 t  m2 t dt 

  (3)
dt dt dt

 m1 t dt    m1 t  m3 t  m2 t dt 

  (3)
dt dt dt

Taking limit as dt  0

 m1 t  dt    m1 t  m3 t  m2 t  dt 
lim  lim  lim
dt 0 dt dt 0 dt dt 0 dt

(4)

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 m1 t dt    m1 t  m3 t  m2 t dt 

lim  lim  lim (4)
dt 0 dt dt 0 dt dt 0 dt
– The LHS of (4) represents the time rate of change of mass in region 1

– In the limit, the region coincides with the control volume

– Therefore LHS of (4) becomes

 mCV t dt    mCV t 

lim   mCV  (5)
dt 0 dt t
• where mCV represents the
instantaneous mass of fluid within the
control volume

 mCV  is the rate of change of mass
t
with time within the control volume

 m1 t dt    m1 t  m3 t  m2 t dt 

lim  lim  lim (4)
dt 0 dt dt 0 dt dt 0 dt
– The second term in RHS of (4) can be represented in elementary masses in
region 2

 m2 t dt    dm 
2 t  dt 
lim = (6)
dt 0 dt dt
• where (dm2)(t+dt) represents the
amount of mass crossing the
elementary surface area (dA)out of the
control surface during the time dt

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 m1 t dt    m1 t  m3 t  m2 t dt 

lim  lim  lim (4)
dt 0 dt dt 0 dt dt 0 dt
– Summing over the elemental surface, the rate of mass outflow from the
control volume through the control surface can be calculated.

 m2 t dt    dm  2 t  dt 
lim
dt 0 dt
=
dt
=  dm
CS
out (7)

– Similarly, first term in RHS can be written as

 m3 t    dm  3 t
lim
dt 0 dt
=
dt
=  dm
CS
in (8)

 m1 t dt    m1 t  m3 t  m2 t dt 

lim  lim  lim (4)
dt 0 dt dt 0 dt dt 0 dt
– Substituting values for LHS and RHS of (4) from equations (5), (7) & (8)


 mCV  =  dm in   dm out (9)
t CS CS

Thus the law of conservation of mass

when applied to the control volume
states that the rate of accumulation of
mass within the control volume is equal
to the excess of the incoming rate of
flow over the outgoing rate of flow.

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
 mCV  =  dm in   dm out (9)
t CS CS

– Mass of the fluid in the control volume at any instant mCV can be rewritten
in terms of elemental volume dV as

mCV   dm   ρdV (10)

CV CV

where dv is the infinitesimal element of the control volume and ρ is the local mass
density of the fluid contained in the element

– Hence LHS of (9) can be written as

  ρ
 mCV  =  ρdV =  t dV (11)
t t CV CV


 mCV  =  dm in   dm out (9)
t CS CS

– The mass outflow rate through the control surface can be written by
summing the mass outflow through the elemental area of the control
surface

 dm
CS
out =  ρc dA
CS
n out (12)

where ρ = local instantaneous density

of the fluid in the neighbourhood of
elemental area of the control surface
dAout, cn is the instantaneous velocity
component normal to dAout

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
 mCV  =  dm in   dm out (9)
t CS CS

– Similarly, mass inflow rate to the control volume can be written as

 dm
CS
in =  ρc dA
CS
n in (13)


 mCV  =  dm in   dm out (9)
t CS CS

– Substituting (11), (12) and (13) in (9) yields

ρ
 dV =  ρcn dAin   ρc dA
n out (14)
CV
t CS CS

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ρ
 dV =  ρcn dAin   ρc dA n out (14)
CV
t CS CS

– For a steady state flow

ρ
0
t
  ρc dA
CS
n in   ρc dA
CS
n out =
CS
 ρc dA
n (15)

– In one dimensional steady flow

 ρc dA
CS
n  ρc  dA = ρcA
cs
(16)

Continuity equation for Control

Volume
– If the entry and exit conditions are designated as 1 and 2 respectively, then
mass flow rate can be written as

m  ρ1c1 A1 = ρ2c2 A2 = constant (17)

– This is the continuity equation for one dimensional steady flow for control
volume

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